Failed colossus: Strategic error at the Pope Manufacturing Company, 1878-1900

Technology and Culture

Volumn 41, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 300-320

  Epperson, Bruce ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034403828     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/tech.2000.0060     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. Wiebe E. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 20-100. For examples of how this model has been applied see Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Societies (Baltimore, 1983), and Matthias Heymann, "Signs of Hubris: The Shaping of Wind Technology Styles in Germany, Denmark, and the United States, 1940-1990," Technology and Culture 39 (1998): 641-70.
2. Wiebe E. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 20-100. For examples of how this model has been applied see Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Societies (Baltimore, 1983), and Matthias Heymann, "Signs of Hubris: The Shaping of Wind Technology Styles in Germany, Denmark, and the United States, 1940-1990," Technology and Culture 39 (1998): 641-70.
3. Wiebe E. Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelites, and Bulbs: Toward a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), 20-100. For examples of how this model has been applied see Thomas P. Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Societies (Baltimore, 1983), and Matthias Heymann, "Signs of Hubris: The Shaping of Wind Technology Styles in Germany, Denmark, and the United States, 1940-1990," Technology and Culture 39 (1998): 641-70.
4. Brandon and Morgan-Brown (a civil engineering firm with offices in Paris and London) to C. E. Pratt, 15 August 1878, Pratt Scrapbook, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution; A. G. Batchelder, "The Story of the Bicycle," Harpers Weekly, 11 April 1896, 359. Some historians believe that the bicycle was invented by the Parisian father-and-son team of Pierre and Ernest Michaux in 1861. However, recent work by David Herlihy has established that the Michaux's efforts began under the direction of the brothers Réné and Aimé Olivier in 1864. Aimé Olivier later stated that they originally got the idea from a workingman, presumably Lallement. See David Herlihy, "Who Invented the Bicycle?" in Proceedings of the Fourth International Cycle History Conference, ed. Rob van der Plas (San Francisco, 1994), 11-25; correspondence (electronic mail) with the author, 28 April, 8 May, and 13 May 1997.
5. Brandon and Morgan-Brown (a civil engineering firm with offices in Paris and London) to C. E. Pratt, 15 August 1878, Pratt Scrapbook, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution; A. G. Batchelder, "The Story of the Bicycle," Harpers Weekly, 11 April 1896, 359. Some historians believe that the bicycle was invented by the Parisian father-and-son team of Pierre and Ernest Michaux in 1861. However, recent work by David Herlihy has established that the Michaux's efforts began under the direction of the brothers Réné and Aimé Olivier in 1864. Aimé Olivier later stated that they originally got the idea from a workingman, presumably Lallement. See David Herlihy, "Who Invented the Bicycle?" in Proceedings of the Fourth International Cycle History Conference, ed. Rob van der Plas (San Francisco, 1994), 11-25; correspondence (electronic mail) with the author, 28 April, 8 May, and 13 May 1997.
6. Geoffrey Williamson, Wheels within Wheels: The Story of the Starleys of Coventry (London, 1966), 49-50. The Franco-Prussian war also debilitated the French velocipede industry.
7. In 1903, Charles Gross, Pope's Hartford lawyer, recalled preparing incorporation papers for Pope in 1877 ("Horseshoe for Col. Pope," Bicycling World, 17 October 1903, 61), but the Boston City Directory of 1876 contains a listing for the firm, although at the same address as Albert A. Pope and Co., the shoe findings company. Early bicycle sales: Albert A. Pope, "The Bicycle Industry," in One Hundred Years of American Commerce, ed. Chauncey M. DePew (New York, 1895), 550; "Col. Pope's Response to the Toast, 'The Wheel' at the L.O.W. Banquet," Wheelman, October 1882, 70; Karl Kron [Lyman H. Bagg], Ten Thousand Miles on a Bicycle (1887; facsimile ed., Croton-on-Hudson, N.Y., 1982), 32; "Col. Pope Interviewed," Bicycle World, 18 June 1897, 20-21, Pope Scrapbook Microfilms, Connecticut Historical Society (hereafter "Pope Scrapbooks, CHS"). The clipped articles in the Pope Scrapbooks do not give page or volume numbers.
8. In 1903, Charles Gross, Pope's Hartford lawyer, recalled preparing incorporation papers for Pope in 1877 ("Horseshoe for Col. Pope," Bicycling World, 17 October 1903, 61), but the Boston City Directory of 1876 contains a listing for the firm, although at the same address as Albert A. Pope and Co., the shoe findings company. Early bicycle sales: Albert A. Pope, "The Bicycle Industry," in One Hundred Years of American Commerce, ed. Chauncey M. DePew (New York, 1895), 550; "Col. Pope's Response to the Toast, 'The Wheel' at the L.O.W. Banquet," Wheelman, October 1882, 70; Karl Kron [Lyman H. Bagg], Ten Thousand Miles on a Bicycle (1887; facsimile ed., Croton-on-Hudson, N.Y., 1982), 32; "Col. Pope Interviewed," Bicycle World, 18 June 1897, 20-21, Pope Scrapbook Microfilms, Connecticut Historical Society (hereafter "Pope Scrapbooks, CHS"). The clipped articles in the Pope Scrapbooks do not give page or volume numbers.
9. In 1903, Charles Gross, Pope's Hartford lawyer, recalled preparing incorporation papers for Pope in 1877 ("Horseshoe for Col. Pope," Bicycling World, 17 October 1903, 61), but the Boston City Directory of 1876 contains a listing for the firm, although at the same address as Albert A. Pope and Co., the shoe findings company. Early bicycle sales: Albert A. Pope, "The Bicycle Industry," in One Hundred Years of American Commerce, ed. Chauncey M. DePew (New York, 1895), 550; "Col. Pope's Response to the Toast, 'The Wheel' at the L.O.W. Banquet," Wheelman, October 1882, 70; Karl Kron [Lyman H. Bagg], Ten Thousand Miles on a Bicycle (1887; facsimile ed., Croton-on-Hudson, N.Y., 1982), 32; "Col. Pope Interviewed," Bicycle World, 18 June 1897, 20-21, Pope Scrapbook Microfilms, Connecticut Historical Society (hereafter "Pope Scrapbooks, CHS"). The clipped articles in the Pope Scrapbooks do not give page or volume numbers.
10. In 1903, Charles Gross, Pope's Hartford lawyer, recalled preparing incorporation papers for Pope in 1877 ("Horseshoe for Col. Pope," Bicycling World, 17 October 1903, 61), but the Boston City Directory of 1876 contains a listing for the firm, although at the same address as Albert A. Pope and Co., the shoe findings company. Early bicycle sales: Albert A. Pope, "The Bicycle Industry," in One Hundred Years of American Commerce, ed. Chauncey M. DePew (New York, 1895), 550; "Col. Pope's Response to the Toast, 'The Wheel' at the L.O.W. Banquet," Wheelman, October 1882, 70; Karl Kron [Lyman H. Bagg], Ten Thousand Miles on a Bicycle (1887; facsimile ed., Croton-on-Hudson, N.Y., 1982), 32; "Col. Pope Interviewed," Bicycle World, 18 June 1897, 20-21, Pope Scrapbook Microfilms, Connecticut Historical Society (hereafter "Pope Scrapbooks, CHS"). The clipped articles in the Pope Scrapbooks do not give page or volume numbers.
11. In 1903, Charles Gross, Pope's Hartford lawyer, recalled preparing incorporation papers for Pope in 1877 ("Horseshoe for Col. Pope," Bicycling World, 17 October 1903, 61), but the Boston City Directory of 1876 contains a listing for the firm, although at the same address as Albert A. Pope and Co., the shoe findings company. Early bicycle sales: Albert A. Pope, "The Bicycle Industry," in One Hundred Years of American Commerce, ed. Chauncey M. DePew (New York, 1895), 550; "Col. Pope's Response to the Toast, 'The Wheel' at the L.O.W. Banquet," Wheelman, October 1882, 70; Karl Kron [Lyman H. Bagg], Ten Thousand Miles on a Bicycle (1887; facsimile ed., Croton-on-Hudson, N.Y., 1982), 32; "Col. Pope Interviewed," Bicycle World, 18 June 1897, 20-21, Pope Scrapbook Microfilms, Connecticut Historical Society (hereafter "Pope Scrapbooks, CHS"). The clipped articles in the Pope Scrapbooks do not give page or volume numbers.
12. Henry P. Woodward, "Manufacturers in Hartford," in Hartford in History (Hartford, 1899), 112-15; "The Manufacture of Sewing Machines," Scientific American, 20 March 1880, 181; David A. Hounshell, "The Bicycle and Technology in Late Nineteenth Century America," Tekniska Museet Symposia: "Transport Technology and Social Change," ed. Per Sörbom (Stockholm, 1979), 181; Ellsworth S. Grant, Yankee Dreamers and Doers: The Story of Connecticut Manufacturing (Hartford, n.d. [1996?] ), 249-50.
13. Henry P. Woodward, "Manufacturers in Hartford," in Hartford in History (Hartford, 1899), 112-15; "The Manufacture of Sewing Machines," Scientific American, 20 March 1880, 181; David A. Hounshell, "The Bicycle and Technology in Late Nineteenth Century America," Tekniska Museet Symposia: "Transport Technology and Social Change," ed. Per Sörbom (Stockholm, 1979), 181; Ellsworth S. Grant, Yankee Dreamers and Doers: The Story of Connecticut Manufacturing (Hartford, n.d. [1996?] ), 249-50.
14. Henry P. Woodward, "Manufacturers in Hartford," in Hartford in History (Hartford, 1899), 112-15; "The Manufacture of Sewing Machines," Scientific American, 20 March 1880, 181; David A. Hounshell, "The Bicycle and Technology in Late Nineteenth Century America," Tekniska Museet Symposia: "Transport Technology and Social Change," ed. Per Sörbom (Stockholm, 1979), 181; Ellsworth S. Grant, Yankee Dreamers and Doers: The Story of Connecticut Manufacturing (Hartford, n.d. [1996?] ), 249-50.
15. Henry P. Woodward, "Manufacturers in Hartford," in Hartford in History (Hartford, 1899), 112-15; "The Manufacture of Sewing Machines," Scientific American, 20 March 1880, 181; David A. Hounshell, "The Bicycle and Technology in Late Nineteenth Century America," Tekniska Museet Symposia: "Transport Technology and Social Change," ed. Per Sörbom (Stockholm, 1979), 181; Ellsworth S. Grant, Yankee Dreamers and Doers: The Story of Connecticut Manufacturing (Hartford, n.d. [1996?] ), 249-50.
16. "The Manufacture of Sewing Machines," 42; "The Bicycle Industry," Hartford Courant, 2 April 1899, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; "Bicycle Making," Frank Leslie's Illustrated Monthly, November 1882, 641-42; "Bicycle Manufacture," Iron Age, 23 June 1881, 1.
17. "The Manufacture of Sewing Machines," 42; "The Bicycle Industry," Hartford Courant, 2 April 1899, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; "Bicycle Making," Frank Leslie's Illustrated Monthly, November 1882, 641-42; "Bicycle Manufacture," Iron Age, 23 June 1881, 1.
18. "The Manufacture of Sewing Machines," 42; "The Bicycle Industry," Hartford Courant, 2 April 1899, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; "Bicycle Making," Frank Leslie's Illustrated Monthly, November 1882, 641-42; "Bicycle Manufacture," Iron Age, 23 June 1881, 1.
19. "The Manufacture of Sewing Machines," 42; "The Bicycle Industry," Hartford Courant, 2 April 1899, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; "Bicycle Making," Frank Leslie's Illustrated Monthly, November 1882, 641-42; "Bicycle Manufacture," Iron Age, 23 June 1881, 1.
20. "Bicycle Making," 643; An Industrial Achievement (Hartford, 1907), 14; Kron, 34; "A Plea for Fair Trade: Speech of Colonel Pope Before the Tariff Commission," Wheelman, October 1882, 61. The Duplex Excelsior clones are identifiable because of their odd, off-center head adjustment nut; G. Donald Adams, Collecting and Restoring Antique Bicycles (Orchard Park, N.Y., 2nd ed., 1996), 61-70. The figure of twenty-three hundred bicycles produced is my estimate; different sources give conflicting estimates, ranging from two thousand to three thousand.
21. "Bicycle Making," 643; An Industrial Achievement (Hartford, 1907), 14; Kron, 34; "A Plea for Fair Trade: Speech of Colonel Pope Before the Tariff Commission," Wheelman, October 1882, 61. The Duplex Excelsior clones are identifiable because of their odd, off-center head adjustment nut; G. Donald Adams, Collecting and Restoring Antique Bicycles (Orchard Park, N.Y., 2nd ed., 1996), 61-70. The figure of twenty-three hundred bicycles produced is my estimate; different sources give conflicting estimates, ranging from two thousand to three thousand.
22. "Bicycle Making," 643; An Industrial Achievement (Hartford, 1907), 14; Kron, 34; "A Plea for Fair Trade: Speech of Colonel Pope Before the Tariff Commission," Wheelman, October 1882, 61. The Duplex Excelsior clones are identifiable because of their odd, off-center head adjustment nut; G. Donald Adams, Collecting and Restoring Antique Bicycles (Orchard Park, N.Y., 2nd ed., 1996), 61-70. The figure of twenty-three hundred bicycles produced is my estimate; different sources give conflicting estimates, ranging from two thousand to three thousand.
23. "Bicycle Making," 643; An Industrial Achievement (Hartford, 1907), 14; Kron, 34; "A Plea for Fair Trade: Speech of Colonel Pope Before the Tariff Commission," Wheelman, October 1882, 61. The Duplex Excelsior clones are identifiable because of their odd, off-center head adjustment nut; G. Donald Adams, Collecting and Restoring Antique Bicycles (Orchard Park, N.Y., 2nd ed., 1996), 61-70. The figure of twenty-three hundred bicycles produced is my estimate; different sources give conflicting estimates, ranging from two thousand to three thousand.
24. Pope Manufacturing Company advertising leaflet, dated January 1881, "Bicycles," box 1, file 23, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution; " Col. Pope's Response to the Toast, " 70; Pope Manufacturing Company, Columbia Bicycle Catalog, October 1881, 2-3; "Letter From Pope Manufacturing Company," Bicycling World, 20 May 1881, 18.
25. Pope Manufacturing Company advertising leaflet, dated January 1881, "Bicycles," box 1, file 23, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution; " Col. Pope's Response to the Toast, " 70; Pope Manufacturing Company, Columbia Bicycle Catalog, October 1881, 2-3; "Letter From Pope Manufacturing Company," Bicycling World, 20 May 1881, 18.
26. Pope Manufacturing Company advertising leaflet, dated January 1881, "Bicycles," box 1, file 23, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution; " Col. Pope's Response to the Toast, " 70; Pope Manufacturing Company, Columbia Bicycle Catalog, October 1881, 2-3; "Letter From Pope Manufacturing Company," Bicycling World, 20 May 1881, 18.
27. Hermann F. Cuntz, "Story of the Selden Case and Hartford," manuscript, dated August 1940, Henry Cave Collection, National Automotive History Collection, Detroit Public Library.
28. "Gormully and Jeffery Mfg. Co.," Bearings, 22 December 1893, 16; "Thomas B. Jeffery Dead," Horseless Age, 16 April 1910, 521; "Bicycle Engineering," American Machinist, 4 September 1886, 8-9; J. F. Cox, bicycle department manager, Pope Manufacturing Company, to F. S. Cate, 12 June 1890, reproduced in James Zordich,"The A.B.C.'s of the Pope Manufacturing Company," Horseless Carriage Gazette, July-August 1984, 38.
29. "Gormully and Jeffery Mfg. Co.," Bearings, 22 December 1893, 16; "Thomas B. Jeffery Dead," Horseless Age, 16 April 1910, 521; "Bicycle Engineering," American Machinist, 4 September 1886, 8-9; J. F. Cox, bicycle department manager, Pope Manufacturing Company, to F. S. Cate, 12 June 1890, reproduced in James Zordich,"The A.B.C.'s of the Pope Manufacturing Company," Horseless Carriage Gazette, July-August 1984, 38.
30. "Gormully and Jeffery Mfg. Co.," Bearings, 22 December 1893, 16; "Thomas B. Jeffery Dead," Horseless Age, 16 April 1910, 521; "Bicycle Engineering," American Machinist, 4 September 1886, 8-9; J. F. Cox, bicycle department manager, Pope Manufacturing Company, to F. S. Cate, 12 June 1890, reproduced in James Zordich,"The A.B.C.'s of the Pope Manufacturing Company," Horseless Carriage Gazette, July-August 1984, 38.
31. "Gormully and Jeffery Mfg. Co.," Bearings, 22 December 1893, 16; "Thomas B. Jeffery Dead," Horseless Age, 16 April 1910, 521; "Bicycle Engineering," American Machinist, 4 September 1886, 8-9; J. F. Cox, bicycle department manager, Pope Manufacturing Company, to F. S. Cate, 12 June 1890, reproduced in James Zordich,"The A.B.C.'s of the Pope Manufacturing Company," Horseless Carriage Gazette, July-August 1984, 38.
32. Hermann F. Cuntz to Charles B. King, 11 August 1936, King Collection, National Automotive History Collection, Detroit Public Library; Hermann F. Cuntz, "Hartford the Birthplace of the Automobile Industry," Hartford Times, 16-18 September 1947.
33. When the Boston Bicycle Club, the nation's oldest, formed in February 1878, the twenty-five charter members broke down by occupation as follows: 6 merchants, 4 salesman, 4 students, 3 lawyers, 3 clerks, 3 corporate officers, 1 architect, 1 litterateur, and 1 physician. All were male, the oldest was fifty years old, the youngest seventeen, and the average age was thirty. Charles Pratt, "Our First Bicycle Club," Wheelman, March 1883, 401-12.
34. "The Bicycle Industry" (n. 6 above); "Bicycle Making" (n. 6 above): 642.
35. "The Bicycle Industry" (n. 6 above); "Bicycle Making" (n. 6 above): 642.
36. Hugh Dolnar [Horace L. Arnold], "Bicycle Brazing," American Machinist, 19 November 1896, 1077-81.
37. Albert A. Pope to David J. Post, 24 July 1890, papers of the Pope Manufacturing Company and Hartford Cycle Company, Connecticut State Library, Hartford (hereafter Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL); George Pope to David J. Post, 9 January 1892 and 18 January 1892, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL.
38. "Testing the Parts of the Modern Bicycle," Scientific American, 11 July 1896, 23; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," part 2, Iron Age, 14 January 1897, 1-5; "Death Comes to Henry Souther," Hartford Courant, 17 August 1917; Hermann F. Cuntz to Charles B. King, 11 August 1936 (n. 11 above).
39. "Testing the Parts of the Modern Bicycle," Scientific American, 11 July 1896, 23; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," part 2, Iron Age, 14 January 1897, 1-5; "Death Comes to Henry Souther," Hartford Courant, 17 August 1917; Hermann F. Cuntz to Charles B. King, 11 August 1936 (n. 11 above).
40. "Testing the Parts of the Modern Bicycle," Scientific American, 11 July 1896, 23; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," part 2, Iron Age, 14 January 1897, 1-5; "Death Comes to Henry Souther," Hartford Courant, 17 August 1917; Hermann F. Cuntz to Charles B. King, 11 August 1936 (n. 11 above).
41. Philip Scranton, Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997), 1-24, 193-219. The author is indebted to Philip Scranton for reviewing an earlier draft of this paper and pointing this out. See also John K. Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915 (Baltimore, 1997), for an analysis of the strategic applications of batch building.
42. Philip Scranton, Endless Novelty: Specialty Production and American Industrialization 1865-1925 (Princeton, N.J., 1997), 1-24, 193-219. The author is indebted to Philip Scranton for reviewing an earlier draft of this paper and pointing this out. See also John K. Brown, The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915 (Baltimore, 1997), for an analysis of the strategic applications of batch building.
43. George Pope to David J. Post, 12 May 1891, 20 January 1892, 5 January 1895, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL. The application of mass-production techniques in the bicycle industry was very limited as late as the 1930s; Norman A. Clarke, interview by author, 5 April 1998, transcript. Clarke is a former president of the Westfield Manufacturing Company, the descendant of the Pope Manufacturing Company's bicycle operations.
44. Glen Norcliffe, "Popeism and Fordism: Examining the Roots of Mass Production," Regional Studies 31 (1997): 267-80.
45. Ibid., 276. Norcliffe's article contains an excellent table summarizing the Pope company's bicycle models by year of production.
46. S. S. McClure, My Autobiography (New York, 1914), 145; "Harold Hayden Eames," a sketch of Eames's life prepared by Hermann F. Cuntz for Henry Cave, typescript, 12 October 1940, in the Henry Cave Collection, National Automotive History Collection, Detroit Public Library.
47. "A Great American Manufacture," Bicycling World, 1 April 1881, 326-27.
48. "Instruction in Road Making," New York Times, 16 September 1890; Engineering, 11 October 1890, 311; Philip P. Mason, "The League of American Wheelmen and the Good Roads Movement" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1957), 125, 143, 183-85.
49. "Instruction in Road Making," New York Times, 16 September 1890; Engineering, 11 October 1890, 311; Philip P. Mason, "The League of American Wheelmen and the Good Roads Movement" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1957), 125, 143, 183-85.
50. "Instruction in Road Making," New York Times, 16 September 1890; Engineering, 11 October 1890, 311; Philip P. Mason, "The League of American Wheelmen and the Good Roads Movement" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1957), 125, 143, 183-85.
51. "Albert A. Pope: His Place in History," Bicycling World, 18 December 1902, 313; McClure, 145-47; Kron (n. 4 above): 656-59.
52. "Albert A. Pope: His Place in History," 319; Cuntz,"Story of the Seiden Case and Hartford" (n. 9 above); "Pope on the Trade Association," Bearings, 26 January 1894, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS.
53. "Albert A. Pope: His Place in History," 319; Cuntz,"Story of the Seiden Case and Hartford" (n. 9 above); "Pope on the Trade Association," Bearings, 26 January 1894, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS.
54. "Albert A. Pope: His Place in History," 319; Cuntz,"Story of the Seiden Case and Hartford" (n. 9 above); "Pope on the Trade Association," Bearings, 26 January 1894, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS.
55. "Colonel Pope on the Bicycle Trade," Iron Age, 29 April 1897, 34; George Pope to David J. Post, 26 January 1891, 23 January 1892, 4 February 1892, 24 January 1893, Pope/Hartford papers, CSL.
56. George Pope to David J. Post, 24 January 1892, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL; Columbia (magazine of the Pope sales department), 15 December 1900, 4-5.
57. Judith Crown and Glenn Coleman, No Hands: The Rise and Fall of the Schwinn Bicycle Company (New York, 1996), 54-80.
58. "A Plea for Fair Trade" (n. 7 above), 60-63; Woodward, (n. 5 above), 115; Greer's Hartford Directory, 1889-1890, 227. The Weed company continued to make sewing machines until the mid-1880s.
59. "A Plea for Fair Trade" (n. 7 above), 60-63; Woodward, (n. 5 above), 115; Greer's Hartford Directory, 1889-1890, 227. The Weed company continued to make sewing machines until the mid-1880s.
60. "A Plea for Fair Trade" (n. 7 above), 60-63; Woodward, (n. 5 above), 115; Greer's Hartford Directory, 1889-1890, 227. The Weed company continued to make sewing machines until the mid-1880s.
61. Adams (n. 7 above), 109-21; Williamson (n. 3 above), 107-8. The traditional view of the diamond-frame safety bicycle as the "modern" bicycle is, of course, an overgeneralization. Viable alternatives have existed continuously since 1895.
62. Carl F. Burgwardt, "A Landscape of Early Bicycle History," in Cycle History 7: Proceedings of the Seventh International Cycle History Conference, ed. Rob van der Plas (San Francisco, 1997), 87-93.
63. Axel Josephsson, "Bicycles and Tricycles," in U.S. Census Bureau, Eleventh Census of the United States [1900], vol. 10, pt. 3 (Washington, D.C., 1903), 335.
64. The Weed Sewing Machine Company continued as a wholly owned subsidiary of the Pope Company until about 1895. Hartford Times, 9 November 1889, Buffalo Courier, 13 November 1889, Hartford Times, 20 June 1890, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames" (n. 21 above); "The Senator," Automobile Magazine, January 1903, 107. Henry Cave, The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry in Hartford, Connecticut (Hartford, 1947), 13.
65. The Weed Sewing Machine Company continued as a wholly owned subsidiary of the Pope Company until about 1895. Hartford Times, 9 November 1889, Buffalo Courier, 13 November 1889, Hartford Times, 20 June 1890, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames" (n. 21 above); "The Senator," Automobile Magazine, January 1903, 107. Henry Cave, The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry in Hartford, Connecticut (Hartford, 1947), 13.
66. The Weed Sewing Machine Company continued as a wholly owned subsidiary of the Pope Company until about 1895. Hartford Times, 9 November 1889, Buffalo Courier, 13 November 1889, Hartford Times, 20 June 1890, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames" (n. 21 above); "The Senator," Automobile Magazine, January 1903, 107. Henry Cave, The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry in Hartford, Connecticut (Hartford, 1947), 13.
67. The Weed Sewing Machine Company continued as a wholly owned subsidiary of the Pope Company until about 1895. Hartford Times, 9 November 1889, Buffalo Courier, 13 November 1889, Hartford Times, 20 June 1890, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames" (n. 21 above); "The Senator," Automobile Magazine, January 1903, 107. Henry Cave, The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry in Hartford, Connecticut (Hartford, 1947), 13.
68. The Weed Sewing Machine Company continued as a wholly owned subsidiary of the Pope Company until about 1895. Hartford Times, 9 November 1889, Buffalo Courier, 13 November 1889, Hartford Times, 20 June 1890, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames" (n. 21 above); "The Senator," Automobile Magazine, January 1903, 107. Henry Cave, The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry in Hartford, Connecticut (Hartford, 1947), 13.
69. The Weed Sewing Machine Company continued as a wholly owned subsidiary of the Pope Company until about 1895. Hartford Times, 9 November 1889, Buffalo Courier, 13 November 1889, Hartford Times, 20 June 1890, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames" (n. 21 above); "The Senator," Automobile Magazine, January 1903, 107. Henry Cave, The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry in Hartford, Connecticut (Hartford, 1947), 13.
70. George Pope to David J. Post, 26 January and 2 February 1891, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL; P. J. Boore, The Seamless Story (Los Angeles, 1951), 43; Victor Clark, History of Manufacturers in the United States, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C., 1929), 347.
71. George Pope to David J. Post, 26 January and 2 February 1891, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL; P. J. Boore, The Seamless Story (Los Angeles, 1951), 43; Victor Clark, History of Manufacturers in the United States, vol. 2 (Washington, D.C., 1929), 347.
72. Memorandum, "Suggestions for Shelby Tube Company Management," 28 May 1893, Pope Letterbook 1, 22, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames"; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," parts 1-3, Iron Age, 7 January 1897, 1-6, 14 January 1897, 1-5, 4 March 1897, 1-3; "An American Bicycle Manufactory," Engineering, 16 July 1897, 65-66; "Testing the Parts of A Modern Bicycle," Scientific American, 11 July 1896, 1-23; Cleveland Moffett, Marvels of Bicycle Making," "Bicycles," box 1, file 23, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
73. Memorandum, "Suggestions for Shelby Tube Company Management," 28 May 1893, Pope Letterbook 1, 22, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames"; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," parts 1-3, Iron Age, 7 January 1897, 1-6, 14 January 1897, 1-5, 4 March 1897, 1-3; "An American Bicycle Manufactory," Engineering, 16 July 1897, 65-66; "Testing the Parts of A Modern Bicycle," Scientific American, 11 July 1896, 1-23; Cleveland Moffett, Marvels of Bicycle Making," "Bicycles," box 1, file 23, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
74. Memorandum, "Suggestions for Shelby Tube Company Management," 28 May 1893, Pope Letterbook 1, 22, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames"; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," parts 1-3, Iron Age, 7 January 1897, 1-6, 14 January 1897, 1-5, 4 March 1897, 1-3; "An American Bicycle Manufactory," Engineering, 16 July 1897, 65-66; "Testing the Parts of A Modern Bicycle," Scientific American, 11 July 1896, 1-23; Cleveland Moffett, Marvels of Bicycle Making," "Bicycles," box 1, file 23, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
75. Memorandum, "Suggestions for Shelby Tube Company Management," 28 May 1893, Pope Letterbook 1, 22, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames"; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," parts 1-3, Iron Age, 7 January 1897, 1-6, 14 January 1897, 1-5, 4 March 1897, 1-3; "An American Bicycle Manufactory," Engineering, 16 July 1897, 65-66; "Testing the Parts of A Modern Bicycle," Scientific American, 11 July 1896, 1-23; Cleveland Moffett, Marvels of Bicycle Making," "Bicycles," box 1, file 23, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
76. Memorandum, "Suggestions for Shelby Tube Company Management," 28 May 1893, Pope Letterbook 1, 22, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames"; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," parts 1-3, Iron Age, 7 January 1897, 1-6, 14 January 1897, 1-5, 4 March 1897, 1-3; "An American Bicycle Manufactory," Engineering, 16 July 1897, 65-66; "Testing the Parts of A Modern Bicycle," Scientific American, 11 July 1896, 1-23; Cleveland Moffett, Marvels of Bicycle Making," "Bicycles," box 1, file 23, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
77. Memorandum, "Suggestions for Shelby Tube Company Management," 28 May 1893, Pope Letterbook 1, 22, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Cuntz, "Harold Hayden Eames"; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," parts 1-3, Iron Age, 7 January 1897, 1-6, 14 January 1897, 1-5, 4 March 1897, 1-3; "An American Bicycle Manufactory," Engineering, 16 July 1897, 65-66; "Testing the Parts of A Modern Bicycle," Scientific American, 11 July 1896, 1-23; Cleveland Moffett, Marvels of Bicycle Making," "Bicycles," box 1, file 23, Warshaw Collection of Business Americana, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
78. Greer's Hartford Directory, 1889-1890, 388; Moffett (n.p.); George Pope to David J. Post, 4 March 1891 and 4 February 1892, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL; " Colonel Pope Controls," Hartford Courant, 29 August 1892, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Greer's Hartford City Directory, 1892-1893, 62; George Pope to David J. Post, 9 January 1892, 12 January 1892, 13 January 1892, 27 January 1892, 21 January 1893, 24 January 1893, 25 January 1893. Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL.
79. Greer's Hartford Directory, 1889-1890, 388; Moffett (n.p.); George Pope to David J. Post, 4 March 1891 and 4 February 1892, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL; " Colonel Pope Controls," Hartford Courant, 29 August 1892, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Greer's Hartford City Directory, 1892-1893, 62; George Pope to David J. Post, 9 January 1892, 12 January 1892, 13 January 1892, 27 January 1892, 21 January 1893, 24 January 1893, 25 January 1893. Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL.
80. Greer's Hartford Directory, 1889-1890, 388; Moffett (n.p.); George Pope to David J. Post, 4 March 1891 and 4 February 1892, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL; " Colonel Pope Controls," Hartford Courant, 29 August 1892, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Greer's Hartford City Directory, 1892-1893, 62; George Pope to David J. Post, 9 January 1892, 12 January 1892, 13 January 1892, 27 January 1892, 21 January 1893, 24 January 1893, 25 January 1893. Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL.
81. Greer's Hartford Directory, 1889-1890, 388; Moffett (n.p.); George Pope to David J. Post, 4 March 1891 and 4 February 1892, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL; " Colonel Pope Controls," Hartford Courant, 29 August 1892, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Greer's Hartford City Directory, 1892-1893, 62; George Pope to David J. Post, 9 January 1892, 12 January 1892, 13 January 1892, 27 January 1892, 21 January 1893, 24 January 1893, 25 January 1893. Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL.
82. Greer's Hartford Directory, 1889-1890, 388; Moffett (n.p.); George Pope to David J. Post, 4 March 1891 and 4 February 1892, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL; " Colonel Pope Controls," Hartford Courant, 29 August 1892, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Greer's Hartford City Directory, 1892-1893, 62; George Pope to David J. Post, 9 January 1892, 12 January 1892, 13 January 1892, 27 January 1892, 21 January 1893, 24 January 1893, 25 January 1893. Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL.
83. Pope Manufacturing Company, Columbia and Hartford Bicycles Catalog for 1895, 31, and Columbia Bicycle Catalog for 1900, 15-16; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," 1-6; "An American Bicycle Manufactory", 65; Moffett (n.p.); Boore, 75.
84. Pope Manufacturing Company, Columbia and Hartford Bicycles Catalog for 1895, 31, and Columbia Bicycle Catalog for 1900, 15-16; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," 1-6; "An American Bicycle Manufactory", 65; Moffett (n.p.); Boore, 75.
85. Pope Manufacturing Company, Columbia and Hartford Bicycles Catalog for 1895, 31, and Columbia Bicycle Catalog for 1900, 15-16; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," 1-6; "An American Bicycle Manufactory", 65; Moffett (n.p.); Boore, 75.
86. Pope Manufacturing Company, Columbia and Hartford Bicycles Catalog for 1895, 31, and Columbia Bicycle Catalog for 1900, 15-16; "The Manufacture of Bicycle Tubing," 1-6; "An American Bicycle Manufactory", 65; Moffett (n.p.); Boore, 75.
87. Hiram Percy Maxim, Horseless Carriage Days (New York, 1936), 6-36.
88. Cuntz, "Hartford the Birthplace of the Automobile Industry" (n. 11 above).
89. Norman A. Clarke interview (n. 18 above). By the 1920s the seasonal production cycle had shifted to one based almost completely around Christmas gift purchases. Only "the odd kook" bought an adult bicycle.
90. Norcliffe (n. 19 above), 272. Quote from "Pope's Leadership," American Wheelman, 30 January 1896, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Boore (n. 34 above), 43; A. E. Harrison, "Competitiveness of the British Cycle Industry, 1890-1914," Economic History Review 22 (August 1969): 290-305; Josephsson (n. 32 above), 328; Hugh Dolnar, "Bicycle Tools," American Machinist, 3 October 1895, 781-82.
91. Norcliffe (n. 19 above), 272. Quote from "Pope's Leadership," American Wheelman, 30 January 1896, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Boore (n. 34 above), 43; A. E. Harrison, "Competitiveness of the British Cycle Industry, 1890-1914," Economic History Review 22 (August 1969): 290-305; Josephsson (n. 32 above), 328; Hugh Dolnar, "Bicycle Tools," American Machinist, 3 October 1895, 781-82.
92. Norcliffe (n. 19 above), 272. Quote from "Pope's Leadership," American Wheelman, 30 January 1896, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Boore (n. 34 above), 43; A. E. Harrison, "Competitiveness of the British Cycle Industry, 1890-1914," Economic History Review 22 (August 1969): 290-305; Josephsson (n. 32 above), 328; Hugh Dolnar, "Bicycle Tools," American Machinist, 3 October 1895, 781-82.
93. Norcliffe (n. 19 above), 272. Quote from "Pope's Leadership," American Wheelman, 30 January 1896, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; Boore (n. 34 above), 43; A. E. Harrison, "Competitiveness of the British Cycle Industry, 1890-1914," Economic History Review 22 (August 1969): 290-305; Josephsson (n. 32 above), 328; Hugh Dolnar, "Bicycle Tools," American Machinist, 3 October 1895, 781-82.
94. Alfred Chandler Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 334-37.
95. David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, 1800-1932 (Baltimore, 1984), 189-212.
96. Ibid., 210; Hugh Dolnar, "Cycle Stampings," American Machinist, 17 December 1896, 1163-67. The Italian custom-frame builder Cino Cinelli encountered similar cold-setting problems when he introduced an investment-cast bottom bracket in the 1960s.
97. Ibid., 210; Hugh Dolnar, "Cycle Stampings," American Machinist, 17 December 1896, 1163-67. The Italian custom-frame builder Cino Cinelli encountered similar cold-setting problems when he introduced an investment-cast bottom bracket in the 1960s.
98. Dolnar, "Bicycle Tools," 52, and "Cycle Stampings," 1165.
99. Dolnar, "Bicycle Tools," 52, and "Cycle Stampings," 1165.
100. "Affidavit of Mr. George Pope," Report of the Industrial Commission on Trusts and Combinations, 1900 (Washington, D.C., 1900), 13:689-90.
101. "The Combine Story," Bearings, 4 November 1897; "The Chainless Wheel," Dayton Times, 27 October 1897; "Cycle Men Going Abroad," New York Journal, 19 July 1897; and "Won Prizes in Germany," Hartford Courant, 30 August 1897, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. On adjustment difficulties of the shaft drive, see Norman A. Clarke (n. 18 above).
102. "The Combine Story," Bearings, 4 November 1897; "The Chainless Wheel," Dayton Times, 27 October 1897; "Cycle Men Going Abroad," New York Journal, 19 July 1897; and "Won Prizes in Germany," Hartford Courant, 30 August 1897, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. On adjustment difficulties of the shaft drive, see Norman A. Clarke (n. 18 above).
103. "The Combine Story," Bearings, 4 November 1897; "The Chainless Wheel," Dayton Times, 27 October 1897; "Cycle Men Going Abroad," New York Journal, 19 July 1897; and "Won Prizes in Germany," Hartford Courant, 30 August 1897, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. On adjustment difficulties of the shaft drive, see Norman A. Clarke (n. 18 above).
104. "The Combine Story," Bearings, 4 November 1897; "The Chainless Wheel," Dayton Times, 27 October 1897; "Cycle Men Going Abroad," New York Journal, 19 July 1897; and "Won Prizes in Germany," Hartford Courant, 30 August 1897, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. On adjustment difficulties of the shaft drive, see Norman A. Clarke (n. 18 above).
105. "Wild-Cat Agencies for Bicycles," Iron Age, 25 March 1897, 37.
106. George Pope to David J. Post, 24 January 1893, Pope/Hartford Papers, CSL.
107. Chandler, The Visible Hand (n.42 above), 205-10; Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production (n. 43 above), 89, 186.
108. Chandler, The Visible Hand (n.42 above), 205-10; Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production (n. 43 above), 89, 186.
109. Peter A. Levine, A. G. Spalding and the Rise of Baseball (New York, 1985), 71-95; Vera Shlakman, Economic History of a Small Town (New York, 1969), 199-202; "Overman-Spalding War," Bearings, 16 March 1894, 23-24.
110. Peter A. Levine, A. G. Spalding and the Rise of Baseball (New York, 1985), 71-95; Vera Shlakman, Economic History of a Small Town (New York, 1969), 199-202; "Overman-Spalding War," Bearings, 16 March 1894, 23-24.
111. Peter A. Levine, A. G. Spalding and the Rise of Baseball (New York, 1985), 71-95; Vera Shlakman, Economic History of a Small Town (New York, 1969), 199-202; "Overman-Spalding War," Bearings, 16 March 1894, 23-24.
112. See, for example, John B. Rae, American Automobile Manufacturers (Philadelphia, 1959), 10-13.
113. Maxim (n. 38 above), 74.
114. Ibid., 76. In fact, much of Maxim's book recounts his adventures and misadventures field testing the Mark VII. Surprisingly little of the book is concerned with the electric, which he dismisses as largely an exercise in body styling.
115. Ibid., 60, 62. The Electric Vehicle Company purchased its supplies of bodies and motors until after it was split off from Pope. Harrison (n. 41 above); James Foreman-Peck, "Diversification and the Growth of the Firm: The Rover Company to 1914," Business History 25 (July 1983): 188-94. The Hartford Cycle Company closed in late 1899 or 1900.
116. Ibid., 60, 62. The Electric Vehicle Company purchased its supplies of bodies and motors until after it was split off from Pope. Harrison (n. 41 above); James Foreman-Peck, "Diversification and the Growth of the Firm: The Rover Company to 1914," Business History 25 (July 1983): 188-94. The Hartford Cycle Company closed in late 1899 or 1900.
117. Maxim, 103; Cuntz, "Hartford the Birthplace of the Automobile Industry" (n. 11 above).
118. "Goes Permanently to Hartford," Bicycling World, 27 August 1897, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; "Horseshoe for Colonel Pope" (n. 4 above); Henry Souther to Charles B. King, 10 December 1915, Charles King Collection, National Automotive History Collection, Detroit Public Library; Henry Cave, "Hartford, the Incubator of the Automobile Industry," Old Timers News, April 1944, 24-33, and The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry (n. 33 above).
119. "Goes Permanently to Hartford," Bicycling World, 27 August 1897, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; "Horseshoe for Colonel Pope" (n. 4 above); Henry Souther to Charles B. King, 10 December 1915, Charles King Collection, National Automotive History Collection, Detroit Public Library; Henry Cave, "Hartford, the Incubator of the Automobile Industry," Old Timers News, April 1944, 24-33, and The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry (n. 33 above).
120. "Goes Permanently to Hartford," Bicycling World, 27 August 1897, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; "Horseshoe for Colonel Pope" (n. 4 above); Henry Souther to Charles B. King, 10 December 1915, Charles King Collection, National Automotive History Collection, Detroit Public Library; Henry Cave, "Hartford, the Incubator of the Automobile Industry," Old Timers News, April 1944, 24-33, and The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry (n. 33 above).
121. "Goes Permanently to Hartford," Bicycling World, 27 August 1897, Pope Scrapbooks, CHS; "Horseshoe for Colonel Pope" (n. 4 above); Henry Souther to Charles B. King, 10 December 1915, Charles King Collection, National Automotive History Collection, Detroit Public Library; Henry Cave, "Hartford, the Incubator of the Automobile Industry," Old Timers News, April 1944, 24-33, and The Start of the U.S. Automobile Industry (n. 33 above).
122. Mark D. Hirsh, William C. Whitney: Modern Warwick (New York, 1948), 439-40; Cuntz, "Story of the Selden Case and Hartford" (n. 9 above), and "Hartford the Birthplace of the Automobile Industry" (n. 11 above); "Electric Vehicle Co. Spreads Out," Horseless Age, 12 April 1899, 11. The EVC is most famous for its ownership of the Selden patent, which it claimed to be a basic patent covering all gasoline automobiles. Although Albert Pope authorized the purchase of the patent in late 1899, the decision to enforce it by suing the Ford Motor Company for royalties was made after he sold his interest. Ford prevailed in 1911 after a massive eleven-year court fight: William Greenleaf, Monopoly on Wheels: Henry Ford and the Selden Patent Suit (Detroit, 1961 ), 59-60, 87.
123. Mark D. Hirsh, William C. Whitney: Modern Warwick (New York, 1948), 439-40; Cuntz, "Story of the Selden Case and Hartford" (n. 9 above), and "Hartford the Birthplace of the Automobile Industry" (n. 11 above); "Electric Vehicle Co. Spreads Out," Horseless Age, 12 April 1899, 11. The EVC is most famous for its ownership of the Selden patent, which it claimed to be a basic patent covering all gasoline automobiles. Although Albert Pope authorized the purchase of the patent in late 1899, the decision to enforce it by suing the Ford Motor Company for royalties was made after he sold his interest. Ford prevailed in 1911 after a massive eleven-year court fight: William Greenleaf, Monopoly on Wheels: Henry Ford and the Selden Patent Suit (Detroit, 1961 ), 59-60, 87.
124. Mark D. Hirsh, William C. Whitney: Modern Warwick (New York, 1948), 439-40; Cuntz, "Story of the Selden Case and Hartford" (n. 9 above), and "Hartford the Birthplace of the Automobile Industry" (n. 11 above); "Electric Vehicle Co. Spreads Out," Horseless Age, 12 April 1899, 11. The EVC is most famous for its ownership of the Selden patent, which it claimed to be a basic patent covering all gasoline automobiles. Although Albert Pope authorized the purchase of the patent in late 1899, the decision to enforce it by suing the Ford Motor Company for royalties was made after he sold his interest. Ford prevailed in 1911 after a massive eleven-year court fight: William Greenleaf, Monopoly on Wheels: Henry Ford and the Selden Patent Suit (Detroit, 1961 ), 59-60, 87.
125. Mark D. Hirsh, William C. Whitney: Modern Warwick (New York, 1948), 439-40; Cuntz, "Story of the Selden Case and Hartford" (n. 9 above), and "Hartford the Birthplace of the Automobile Industry" (n. 11 above); "Electric Vehicle Co. Spreads Out," Horseless Age, 12 April 1899, 11. The EVC is most famous for its ownership of the Selden patent, which it claimed to be a basic patent covering all gasoline automobiles. Although Albert Pope authorized the purchase of the patent in late 1899, the decision to enforce it by suing the Ford Motor Company for royalties was made after he sold his interest. Ford prevailed in 1911 after a massive eleven-year court fight: William Greenleaf, Monopoly on Wheels: Henry Ford and the Selden Patent Suit (Detroit, 1961 ), 59-60, 87.
126. Mark D. Hirsh, William C. Whitney: Modern Warwick (New York, 1948), 439-40; Cuntz, "Story of the Selden Case and Hartford" (n. 9 above), and "Hartford the Birthplace of the Automobile Industry" (n. 11 above); "Electric Vehicle Co. Spreads Out," Horseless Age, 12 April 1899, 11. The EVC is most famous for its ownership of the Selden patent, which it claimed to be a basic patent covering all gasoline automobiles. Although Albert Pope authorized the purchase of the patent in late 1899, the decision to enforce it by suing the Ford Motor Company for royalties was made after he sold his interest. Ford prevailed in 1911 after a massive eleven-year court fight: William Greenleaf, Monopoly on Wheels: Henry Ford and the Selden Patent Suit (Detroit, 1961 ), 59-60, 87.
127. Arthur Dewing, "The American Bicycle Company," chap. 10 of Corporate Promotions and Reorganizations (Cambridge, Mass., 1914), 254-61. Hartford Post, 9 June 1899; New York Morning Sun, 11 June 1899; "The New Bicycle Trust Acquires the Hartford Company's Plant," New York Times, 11 June 1899; "Pope in the Deal," Boston Post, 11 June 1899, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. Bicycling World, 10 July 1899, 1; "Bicycle Trust Formed," New York Times, 19 July 1899; "The Plan in Detail," Cycle Age, 20 July 1899, 1;
128. Arthur Dewing, "The American Bicycle Company," chap. 10 of Corporate Promotions and Reorganizations (Cambridge, Mass., 1914), 254-61. Hartford Post, 9 June 1899; New York Morning Sun, 11 June 1899; "The New Bicycle Trust Acquires the Hartford Company's Plant," New York Times, 11 June 1899; "Pope in the Deal," Boston Post, 11 June 1899, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. Bicycling World, 10 July 1899, 1; "Bicycle Trust Formed," New York Times, 19 July 1899; "The Plan in Detail," Cycle Age, 20 July 1899, 1;
129. Arthur Dewing, "The American Bicycle Company," chap. 10 of Corporate Promotions and Reorganizations (Cambridge, Mass., 1914), 254-61. Hartford Post, 9 June 1899; New York Morning Sun, 11 June 1899; "The New Bicycle Trust Acquires the Hartford Company's Plant," New York Times, 11 June 1899; "Pope in the Deal," Boston Post, 11 June 1899, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. Bicycling World, 10 July 1899, 1; "Bicycle Trust Formed," New York Times, 19 July 1899; "The Plan in Detail," Cycle Age, 20 July 1899, 1;
130. Arthur Dewing, "The American Bicycle Company," chap. 10 of Corporate Promotions and Reorganizations (Cambridge, Mass., 1914), 254-61. Hartford Post, 9 June 1899; New York Morning Sun, 11 June 1899; "The New Bicycle Trust Acquires the Hartford Company's Plant," New York Times, 11 June 1899; "Pope in the Deal," Boston Post, 11 June 1899, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. Bicycling World, 10 July 1899, 1; "Bicycle Trust Formed," New York Times, 19 July 1899; "The Plan in Detail," Cycle Age, 20 July 1899, 1;
131. Arthur Dewing, "The American Bicycle Company," chap. 10 of Corporate Promotions and Reorganizations (Cambridge, Mass., 1914), 254-61. Hartford Post, 9 June 1899; New York Morning Sun, 11 June 1899; "The New Bicycle Trust Acquires the Hartford Company's Plant," New York Times, 11 June 1899; "Pope in the Deal," Boston Post, 11 June 1899, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. Bicycling World, 10 July 1899, 1; "Bicycle Trust Formed," New York Times, 19 July 1899; "The Plan in Detail," Cycle Age, 20 July 1899, 1;
132. Arthur Dewing, "The American Bicycle Company," chap. 10 of Corporate Promotions and Reorganizations (Cambridge, Mass., 1914), 254-61. Hartford Post, 9 June 1899; New York Morning Sun, 11 June 1899; "The New Bicycle Trust Acquires the Hartford Company's Plant," New York Times, 11 June 1899; "Pope in the Deal," Boston Post, 11 June 1899, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. Bicycling World, 10 July 1899, 1; "Bicycle Trust Formed," New York Times, 19 July 1899; "The Plan in Detail," Cycle Age, 20 July 1899, 1;
133. Arthur Dewing, "The American Bicycle Company," chap. 10 of Corporate Promotions and Reorganizations (Cambridge, Mass., 1914), 254-61. Hartford Post, 9 June 1899; New York Morning Sun, 11 June 1899; "The New Bicycle Trust Acquires the Hartford Company's Plant," New York Times, 11 June 1899; "Pope in the Deal," Boston Post, 11 June 1899, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. Bicycling World, 10 July 1899, 1; "Bicycle Trust Formed," New York Times, 19 July 1899; "The Plan in Detail," Cycle Age, 20 July 1899, 1;
134. Arthur Dewing, "The American Bicycle Company," chap. 10 of Corporate Promotions and Reorganizations (Cambridge, Mass., 1914), 254-61. Hartford Post, 9 June 1899; New York Morning Sun, 11 June 1899; "The New Bicycle Trust Acquires the Hartford Company's Plant," New York Times, 11 June 1899; "Pope in the Deal," Boston Post, 11 June 1899, all from Pope Scrapbooks, CHS. Bicycling World, 10 July 1899, 1; "Bicycle Trust Formed," New York Times, 19 July 1899; "The Plan in Detail," Cycle Age, 20 July 1899, 1;
135. "Affidavit of Mr. George Pope" (n. 46 above), 690;
136. "Bicycle Trust in Organized," New York Times, 1 September 1899.
137. Harrison (n. 41 above), 303; Foreman-Peck, 184.
138. Donald Davis, Conspicuous Production: Automobiles and Elites in Détroit, 18991933 (Philadelphia, 1988), 5-10. Davis notes of the early Detroit automotive entrepreneurs that "As prosperity came their way [they] thought that the whole world grew more prosperous with them. . . . They built cars for themselves instead of for the public." Many thanks to John Staudenmaier for pointing out parallels with this earlier work.