Toxicity in the details: The history of the women's office worker movement and occupational health in the late-capitalist office

Labor History

Volumn 41, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 189-213

  Murphy, Michelle ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECONOMICS; EMPLOYMENT; ETHICS; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; LEGAL ASPECT; MANAGEMENT; METHODOLOGY; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; SOCIAL CHANGE; STATISTICS; UNITED STATES; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

EMPLOYMENT; FEMALE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; OFFICE MANAGEMENT; SOCIAL CHANGE; UNITED STATES; WOMEN; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

EID: 0034384949     PISSN: 0023656X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00236560050009932     Document Type: Review

References (171)

1. Ellen Cassidy to Karen Nussbaum, 9 to 5 Papers, Oct. 9, 1979, Box 18, Folder 1199.
2. Robert Botsch, Organizing the Breathless: Cotton Dust, Southern Politics & the Brown Lung Association (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993); Claudia Clark, Radium Girls, Women, and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-35 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bennett Judkins, We Offer Ourselves as Evidence: Toward Workers' Control of Occupational Health (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986); David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Barbara Ellen Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
3. Robert Botsch, Organizing the Breathless: Cotton Dust, Southern Politics & the Brown Lung Association (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993); Claudia Clark, Radium Girls, Women, and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-35 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bennett Judkins, We Offer Ourselves as Evidence: Toward Workers' Control of Occupational Health (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986); David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Barbara Ellen Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
4. Robert Botsch, Organizing the Breathless: Cotton Dust, Southern Politics & the Brown Lung Association (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993); Claudia Clark, Radium Girls, Women, and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-35 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bennett Judkins, We Offer Ourselves as Evidence: Toward Workers' Control of Occupational Health (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986); David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Barbara Ellen Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
5. Robert Botsch, Organizing the Breathless: Cotton Dust, Southern Politics & the Brown Lung Association (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993); Claudia Clark, Radium Girls, Women, and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-35 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bennett Judkins, We Offer Ourselves as Evidence: Toward Workers' Control of Occupational Health (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986); David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Barbara Ellen Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
6. Robert Botsch, Organizing the Breathless: Cotton Dust, Southern Politics & the Brown Lung Association (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993); Claudia Clark, Radium Girls, Women, and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-35 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); Bennett Judkins, We Offer Ourselves as Evidence: Toward Workers' Control of Occupational Health (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986); David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Barbara Ellen Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
7. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work m Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
8. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work m Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
9. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work in Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
10. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work m Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
11. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work m Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
12. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work m Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
13. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work m Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
14. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work m Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
15. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work m Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
16. On the history of gender and office work, see Cindy Sondik Aron, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Civil Service: Middle Class Workers in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); Margery Davies, Women's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Ileen Devault, Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work m Turn-of-the-Century Pittsburgh (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Lisa Fine, Souls of the Skyscraper: Female Clerical Workers in Chicago, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Kenneth Lipartito, "When Women Were Switches: Technology, Work, and Gender in the Telephone Industry, 1890-1920, " American Historical Review, 99 (1994), 1075-1111; Ellen Lupton, Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from Home to Office (Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 1993); Massachusetts History Workshop, They Can't Run the Office Without Us: Sixty Years of Clerical Work (Cambridge: Massachusetts History Workshop, 1985); Stephen Norwood, Labor's Flaming Youth: Telephone Operators and Worker Militancy, 1878-1923 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990); Elyce Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870-1930 (1981); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond The Typewriter: Gender Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
17. R. Rudy Higgens-Evenson, "From Industrial Police to Workmen's Compensation: Public Policy and Industrial Accidents in New York, 1880-1910, " Labor History, 39 (1998), 365-380.
18. At its inception workers' compensation rules concentrated on industrial accidents, which occurred at a specific time and place. Financial compensation for a particular injury was inscribed by each state in a schedule: lose an arm, your employer pays you x amount. In the 1930s and 40s, specific diseases, such as silicosis, whose presence was a predictable result of a certain type of exposure, were incrementally added to schedules. What diseases to include on these schedules became a source of contention between workers and state compensation systems, as expressed in the Black and Brown Lung Movements of the 1960s and 70s. In the 1970s a Federal report critiqued such systems as out of date. [National Commission on State Workmen's Compensation Laws, The Report of the National Commission on State Workmen's Compensation Laws (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1972).] State after state amended its laws to include any occupational disease that could be demonstrated to be caused, aggravated, or hastened by the workplace. Yet, a worker must still document that he or she is suffering from a particular disease, and that this disease is considered by occupational health professionals to be caused by conditions found at their workplace. Though it is technically possible to get compensation for a chronic injury, such as a back injury, the burden of proof is on the worker. Allard E. Dembe, Occupation and Disease: How Social Factors Affect the Conception of Work-Related Disorders (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996).
19. At its inception workers' compensation rules concentrated on industrial accidents, which occurred at a specific time and place. Financial compensation for a particular injury was inscribed by each state in a schedule: lose an arm, your employer pays you x amount. In the 1930s and 40s, specific diseases, such as silicosis, whose presence was a predictable result of a certain type of exposure, were incrementally added to schedules. What diseases to include on these schedules became a source of contention between workers and state compensation systems, as expressed in the Black and Brown Lung Movements of the 1960s and 70s. In the 1970s a Federal report critiqued such systems as out of date. [National Commission on State Workmen's Compensation Laws, The Report of the National Commission on State Workmen's Compensation Laws (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1972).] State after state amended its laws to include any occupational disease that could be demonstrated to be caused, aggravated, or hastened by the workplace. Yet, a worker must still document that he or she is suffering from a particular disease, and that this disease is considered by occupational health professionals to be caused by conditions found at their workplace. Though it is technically possible to get compensation for a chronic injury, such as a back injury, the burden of proof is on the worker. Allard E. Dembe, Occupation and Disease: How Social Factors Affect the Conception of Work-Related Disorders (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996).
20. Christopher Sellers, Hazards of the Job: From Industrial Disease to Environmental Health Science (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
21. Phil Brown and Ewin Mikkelsen, No Safe Space: Toxic Waste, Leukemia, and Community Action (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
22. Marjorie Albert, "Something New in the Women's Movement, " The New York Times, Oct. 28, 1973.
23. On the relationship between feminism and labor movements, see Deborah Bell, "Unionized Women in State and Local Government, " in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work and Protest (Boston: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1985) 280-299; Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993); Roslyn Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing Among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 53-70; Roberta Goldberg, Organizing Women Office Workers: Dissatisfaction, Consciousness and Action (New York: Praeger, 1983); Carol Kates, "Working Class Feminism and Feminist Unions: Title VII, The UAW and NOW, " Labor Studies Journal, 14 (1989), 28-45; Gail Gregory Sansbury, "'Now What's the Matter With You Girls?': Clerical Workers Organize, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 67-75;
24. On the relationship between feminism and labor movements, see Deborah Bell, "Unionized Women in State and Local Government, " in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work and Protest (Boston: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1985) 280-299; Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993); Roslyn Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing Among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 53-70; Roberta Goldberg, Organizing Women Office Workers: Dissatisfaction, Consciousness and Action (New York: Praeger, 1983); Carol Kates, "Working Class Feminism and Feminist Unions: Title VII, The UAW and NOW, " Labor Studies Journal, 14 (1989), 28-45; Gail Gregory Sansbury, "'Now What's the Matter With You Girls?': Clerical Workers Organize, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 67-75;
25. On the relationship between feminism and labor movements, see Deborah Bell, "Unionized Women in State and Local Government, " in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work and Protest (Boston: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1985) 280-299; Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993); Roslyn Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing Among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 53-70; Roberta Goldberg, Organizing Women Office Workers: Dissatisfaction, Consciousness and Action (New York: Praeger, 1983); Carol Kates, "Working Class Feminism and Feminist Unions: Title VII, The UAW and NOW, " Labor Studies Journal, 14 (1989), 28-45; Gail Gregory Sansbury, "'Now What's the Matter With You Girls?': Clerical Workers Organize, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 67-75;
26. On the relationship between feminism and labor movements, see Deborah Bell, "Unionized Women in State and Local Government, " in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work and Protest (Boston: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1985) 280-299; Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993); Roslyn Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing Among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 53-70; Roberta Goldberg, Organizing Women Office Workers: Dissatisfaction, Consciousness and Action (New York: Praeger, 1983); Carol Kates, "Working Class Feminism and Feminist Unions: Title VII, The UAW and NOW, " Labor Studies Journal, 14 (1989), 28-45; Gail Gregory Sansbury, "'Now What's the Matter With You Girls?': Clerical Workers Organize, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 67-75;
27. On the relationship between feminism and labor movements, see Deborah Bell, "Unionized Women in State and Local Government, " in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work and Protest (Boston: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1985) 280-299; Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993); Roslyn Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing Among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 53-70; Roberta Goldberg, Organizing Women Office Workers: Dissatisfaction, Consciousness and Action (New York: Praeger, 1983); Carol Kates, "Working Class Feminism and Feminist Unions: Title VII, The UAW and NOW, " Labor Studies Journal, 14 (1989), 28-45; Gail Gregory Sansbury, "'Now What's the Matter With You Girls?': Clerical Workers Organize, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 67-75;
28. On the relationship between feminism and labor movements, see Deborah Bell, "Unionized Women in State and Local Government, " in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work and Protest (Boston: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1985) 280-299; Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993); Roslyn Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing Among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 53-70; Roberta Goldberg, Organizing Women Office Workers: Dissatisfaction, Consciousness and Action (New York: Praeger, 1983); Carol Kates, "Working Class Feminism and Feminist Unions: Title VII, The UAW and NOW, " Labor Studies Journal, 14 (1989), 28-45; Gail Gregory Sansbury, "'Now What's the Matter With You Girls?': Clerical Workers Organize, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 67-75;
29. Nancy Seifer and Barbara Wertheimer, "New Approaches to Collective Power: Four Working Women's Organizations, " Women Organizing: An Anthology (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1979) 152-183.
30. Strom, Beyond The Typewriter.
31. Roslyn Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing Among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 53-70; Sharon Hartman Strom, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950, " in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work and Protest: A Century of US Women's Labor History (Boston: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1985) 206-234.
32. Roslyn Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing Among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 53-70; Sharon Hartman Strom, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950, " in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work and Protest: A Century of US Women's Labor History (Boston: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1985) 206-234.
33. See, for example, Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in A merica (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Company, 1975); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women's Healers (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Donna Haraway, "Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic, Part I and II', " Signs, 4 (1978), 21-60; Donna Haraway, "The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology, " Radical History Review, 20 (1979), 206-237; Ruth Hubbard, Mary Sue Henifin, and Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women: A Collection of Feminist Critiques (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1979); Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Rawson Associates, 1977). By the 1980s diverse writings by feminist historians, philosophers, sociologists and biologists about science and medicine formed a new field of academic inquiry, "feminist science studies, " from which this article descends. For an overview, see Londa Schiebinger, "The History and Philosophy of Women in Science, " Signs, 12 (1987), 305-332.
34. See, for example, Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in A merica (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Company, 1975); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women's Healers (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Donna Haraway, "Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic, Part I and II', " Signs, 4 (1978), 21-60; Donna Haraway, "The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology, " Radical History Review, 20 (1979), 206-237; Ruth Hubbard, Mary Sue Henifin, and Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women: A Collection of Feminist Critiques (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1979); Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Rawson Associates, 1977). By the 1980s diverse writings by feminist historians, philosophers, sociologists and biologists about science and medicine formed a new field of academic inquiry, "feminist science studies, " from which this article descends. For an overview, see Londa Schiebinger, "The History and Philosophy of Women in Science, " Signs, 12 (1987), 305-332.
35. See, for example, Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in A merica (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Company, 1975); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women's Healers (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Donna Haraway, "Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic, Part I and II', " Signs, 4 (1978), 21-60; Donna Haraway, "The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology, " Radical History Review, 20 (1979), 206-237; Ruth Hubbard, Mary Sue Henifin, and Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women: A Collection of Feminist Critiques (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1979); Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Rawson Associates, 1977). By the 1980s diverse writings by feminist historians, philosophers, sociologists and biologists about science and medicine formed a new field of academic inquiry, "feminist science studies, " from which this article descends. For an overview, see Londa Schiebinger, "The History and Philosophy of Women in Science, " Signs, 12 (1987), 305-332.
36. See, for example, Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in A merica (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Company, 1975); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women's Healers (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Donna Haraway, "Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic, Part I and II', " Signs, 4 (1978), 21-60; Donna Haraway, "The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology, " Radical History Review, 20 (1979), 206-237; Ruth Hubbard, Mary Sue Henifin, and Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women: A Collection of Feminist Critiques (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1979); Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Rawson Associates, 1977). By the 1980s diverse writings by feminist historians, philosophers, sociologists and biologists about science and medicine formed a new field of academic inquiry, "feminist science studies, " from which this article descends. For an overview, see Londa Schiebinger, "The History and Philosophy of Women in Science, " Signs, 12 (1987), 305-332.
37. See, for example, Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in A merica (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Company, 1975); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women's Healers (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Donna Haraway, "Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic, Part I and II', " Signs, 4 (1978), 21-60; Donna Haraway, "The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology, " Radical History Review, 20 (1979), 206-237; Ruth Hubbard, Mary Sue Henifin, and Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women: A Collection of Feminist Critiques (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1979); Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Rawson Associates, 1977). By the 1980s diverse writings by feminist historians, philosophers, sociologists and biologists about science and medicine formed a new field of academic inquiry, "feminist science studies, " from which this article descends. For an overview, see Londa Schiebinger, "The History and Philosophy of Women in Science, " Signs, 12 (1987), 305-332.
38. See, for example, Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in A merica (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Company, 1975); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women's Healers (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Donna Haraway, "Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic, Part I and II', " Signs, 4 (1978), 21-60; Donna Haraway, "The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology, " Radical History Review, 20 (1979), 206-237; Ruth Hubbard, Mary Sue Henifin, and Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women: A Collection of Feminist Critiques (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1979); Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Rawson Associates, 1977). By the 1980s diverse writings by feminist historians, philosophers, sociologists and biologists about science and medicine formed a new field of academic inquiry, "feminist science studies, " from which this article descends. For an overview, see Londa Schiebinger, "The History and Philosophy of Women in Science, " Signs, 12 (1987), 305-332.
39. See, for example, Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in A merica (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Company, 1975); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women's Healers (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Donna Haraway, "Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic, Part I and II', " Signs, 4 (1978), 21-60; Donna Haraway, "The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology, " Radical History Review, 20 (1979), 206-237; Ruth Hubbard, Mary Sue Henifin, and Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women: A Collection of Feminist Critiques (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1979); Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Rawson Associates, 1977). By the 1980s diverse writings by feminist historians, philosophers, sociologists and biologists about science and medicine formed a new field of academic inquiry, "feminist science studies, " from which this article descends. For an overview, see Londa Schiebinger, "The History and Philosophy of Women in Science, " Signs, 12 (1987), 305-332.
40. See, for example, Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in A merica (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Company, 1975); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women's Healers (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Donna Haraway, "Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic, Part I and II', " Signs, 4 (1978), 21-60; Donna Haraway, "The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology, " Radical History Review, 20 (1979), 206-237; Ruth Hubbard, Mary Sue Henifin, and Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women: A Collection of Feminist Critiques (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1979); Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Rawson Associates, 1977). By the 1980s diverse writings by feminist historians, philosophers, sociologists and biologists about science and medicine formed a new field of academic inquiry, "feminist science studies, " from which this article descends. For an overview, see Londa Schiebinger, "The History and Philosophy of Women in Science, " Signs, 12 (1987), 305-332.
41. See, for example, Suzanne Arms, Immaculate Deception: A New Look at Women and Childbirth in A merica (San Francisco: San Francisco Book Company, 1975); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Complaints and Disorders: The Sexual Politics of Sickness (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, Witches, Midwives, and Nurses: A History of Women's Healers (Old Westbury, NY: The Feminist Press, 1973); Donna Haraway, "Animal Sociology and a Natural Economy of the Body Politic, Part I and II', " Signs, 4 (1978), 21-60; Donna Haraway, "The Biological Enterprise: Sex, Mind, and Profit from Human Engineering to Sociobiology, " Radical History Review, 20 (1979), 206-237; Ruth Hubbard, Mary Sue Henifin, and Barbara Fried, eds., Women Look at Biology Looking at Women: A Collection of Feminist Critiques (Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1979); Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1980); Barbara Seaman and Gideon Seaman, Women and the Crisis in Sex Hormones (New York: Rawson Associates, 1977). By the 1980s diverse writings by feminist historians, philosophers, sociologists and biologists about science and medicine formed a new field of academic inquiry, "feminist science studies, " from which this article descends. For an overview, see Londa Schiebinger, "The History and Philosophy of Women in Science, " Signs, 12 (1987), 305-332.
42. Claudia Dreifus, ed., Seizing Our Bodies: The Politics Of Women's Health (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), xxxi.
43. By affirming "experience" as a legitimate form of knowledge just as valuable as scientific knowledge, the women's health movement challenged the scientization of clinical medicine. Over the course of the 20th century, doctors had moved away from using their patients' accounts of their illness as the primary source of information for making their medical diagnosis. With the success of bacteriology and the rise of scientific biomedicine, doctors turned increasingly to laboratory tests and instruments that could make graphical representations of bodily functions, such as heart function, blood pressure, or brain waves. Further, the rising dominance of medical insurance also led to the standardization of physical exams and history-taking techniques. [Angela Nugent, "Fit for Work: The Introduction of Physical Examinations in Industry, " Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 57 (1983), 578-595.] The purpose of the clinical encounter became to extract data from the patient's body by using instruments that measured and quantified bodily functions and by employing an interview technique that uncovered information that would otherwise be obscured by the patient's subjective account of illness. The role of the doctor was to gather "objective" data and then interpret that data using expertise unavailable to the patient. Emily Martin, in her book The Woman in the Body, describes this practice in the management of hospital deliveries: doctors placed primacy on monitors and other instruments discounting women's experiences of what was happening to their bodies during birthing (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989). On the Women's Health Movement, see Sheryl Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Women's Alternatives To Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978).
44. By affirming "experience" as a legitimate form of knowledge just as valuable as scientific knowledge, the women's health movement challenged the scientization of clinical medicine. Over the course of the 20th century, doctors had moved away from using their patients' accounts of their illness as the primary source of information for making their medical diagnosis. With the success of bacteriology and the rise of scientific biomedicine, doctors turned increasingly to laboratory tests and instruments that could make graphical representations of bodily functions, such as heart function, blood pressure, or brain waves. Further, the rising dominance of medical insurance also led to the standardization of physical exams and history-taking techniques. [Angela Nugent, "Fit for Work: The Introduction of Physical Examinations in Industry, " Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 57 (1983), 578-595.] The purpose of the clinical encounter became to extract data from the patient's body by using instruments that measured and quantified bodily functions and by employing an interview technique that uncovered information that would otherwise be obscured by the patient's subjective account of illness. The role of the doctor was to gather "objective" data and then interpret that data using expertise unavailable to the patient. Emily Martin, in her book The Woman in the Body, describes this practice in the management of hospital deliveries: doctors placed primacy on monitors and other instruments discounting women's experiences of what was happening to their bodies during birthing (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989). On the Women's Health Movement, see Sheryl Ruzek, The Women's Health Movement: Women's Alternatives To Medical Control (New York: Praeger, 1978).
45. Jean Tepperman documented the feminist Clerical Movement in the Boston area. She published two books and interviewed many clerical workers in 1974-75. Jean Tepperman, Sixty Words a Minute, and What Do You Get? Clerical Workers Today (Somerville: New England Free Press, 1972) and Not Servants, Not Machines: Office Workers Speak Out (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976). The interviews are archived at Schlesinger Archive, Radcliffe College, Harvard University.
46. Jean Tepperman documented the feminist Clerical Movement in the Boston area. She published two books and interviewed many clerical workers in 1974-75. Jean Tepperman, Sixty Words a Minute, and What Do You Get? Clerical Workers Today (Somerville: New England Free Press, 1972) and Not Servants, Not Machines: Office Workers Speak Out (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976). The interviews are archived at Schlesinger Archive, Radcliffe College, Harvard University.
47. Susan Davis, "Organizing from Within, " Ms. Magazine, 1 (1972), 92-99.
48. On earlier forms of office organization and technologies, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974); Alan Delgado, The Enormous File: A Social History of the Office (London: John Murray, 1979); Adrian Forty, Objects Of Desire: Design and Society, 1750-1980 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986); C. Wright Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953); JoAnne Yates, Control Through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). On the shift from modernist to postmodernist building organizations, see Reyer Banham, The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962) and Theory and Design in The First Machine Age (New York: Praeger, 1967).
49. On earlier forms of office organization and technologies, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974); Alan Delgado, The Enormous File: A Social History of the Office (London: John Murray, 1979); Adrian Forty, Objects Of Desire: Design and Society, 1750-1980 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986); C. Wright Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953); JoAnne Yates, Control Through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). On the shift from modernist to postmodernist building organizations, see Reyer Banham, The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962) and Theory and Design in The First Machine Age (New York: Praeger, 1967).
50. On earlier forms of office organization and technologies, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974); Alan Delgado, The Enormous File: A Social History of the Office (London: John Murray, 1979); Adrian Forty, Objects Of Desire: Design and Society, 1750-1980 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986); C. Wright Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953); JoAnne Yates, Control Through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). On the shift from modernist to postmodernist building organizations, see Reyer Banham, The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962) and Theory and Design in The First Machine Age (New York: Praeger, 1967).
51. On earlier forms of office organization and technologies, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974); Alan Delgado, The Enormous File: A Social History of the Office (London: John Murray, 1979); Adrian Forty, Objects Of Desire: Design and Society, 1750-1980 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986); C. Wright Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953); JoAnne Yates, Control Through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). On the shift from modernist to postmodernist building organizations, see Reyer Banham, The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962) and Theory and Design in The First Machine Age (New York: Praeger, 1967).
52. On earlier forms of office organization and technologies, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974); Alan Delgado, The Enormous File: A Social History of the Office (London: John Murray, 1979); Adrian Forty, Objects Of Desire: Design and Society, 1750-1980 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986); C. Wright Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953); JoAnne Yates, Control Through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). On the shift from modernist to postmodernist building organizations, see Reyer Banham, The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962) and Theory and Design in The First Machine Age (New York: Praeger, 1967).
53. On earlier forms of office organization and technologies, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974); Alan Delgado, The Enormous File: A Social History of the Office (London: John Murray, 1979); Adrian Forty, Objects Of Desire: Design and Society, 1750-1980 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986); C. Wright Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953); JoAnne Yates, Control Through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). On the shift from modernist to postmodernist building organizations, see Reyer Banham, The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962) and Theory and Design in The First Machine Age (New York: Praeger, 1967).
54. On earlier forms of office organization and technologies, see Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974); Alan Delgado, The Enormous File: A Social History of the Office (London: John Murray, 1979); Adrian Forty, Objects Of Desire: Design and Society, 1750-1980 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1986); C. Wright Mills, White Collar (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953); JoAnne Yates, Control Through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). On the shift from modernist to postmodernist building organizations, see Reyer Banham, The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962) and Theory and Design in The First Machine Age (New York: Praeger, 1967).
55. On the transition to "flexible" forms of capitalism, see Ash Amin, ed., Post-Fordism: A Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994); Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1996); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1990); Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991).
56. On the transition to "flexible" forms of capitalism, see Ash Amin, ed., Post-Fordism: A Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994); Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1996); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1990); Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991).
57. On the transition to "flexible" forms of capitalism, see Ash Amin, ed., Post-Fordism: A Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994); Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1996); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1990); Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991).
58. On the transition to "flexible" forms of capitalism, see Ash Amin, ed., Post-Fordism: A Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994); Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers, 1996); David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1990); Fredric Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991).
59. A system termed "office monogamy" in Barbara Garrison, The Electronic Sweatshop (New York: Penguin Books, 1988).
60. The cybernetic office was first designed by the Quickborner team of Germany, and was made popular in America by the Roben Propst "Action Office" modular furniture system, sold by Herman Miller. John Pile, Open Office Planning (New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1978); Robert Propst, The Office: A Facility Based on Change (Zeeland, MI: Herman Miller, 1968). On cybernetics, see Norbert Wiener, Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (New York: Avon Books, 1967). For a more detailed history of the change from the modernist to cybernetic office, see Michelle Murphy, Sick Buildings and Sick Bodies: The Materialization of an Occupational Illness in Late Capitalism [Unpublished PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1998 (Ann Arbor: UMI, 9832450)].
61. The cybernetic office was first designed by the Quickborner team of Germany, and was made popular in America by the Roben Propst "Action Office" modular furniture system, sold by Herman Miller. John Pile, Open Office Planning (New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1978); Robert Propst, The Office: A Facility Based on Change (Zeeland, MI: Herman Miller, 1968). On cybernetics, see Norbert Wiener, Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (New York: Avon Books, 1967). For a more detailed history of the change from the modernist to cybernetic office, see Michelle Murphy, Sick Buildings and Sick Bodies: The Materialization of an Occupational Illness in Late Capitalism [Unpublished PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1998 (Ann Arbor: UMI, 9832450)].
62. The cybernetic office was first designed by the Quickborner team of Germany, and was made popular in America by the Roben Propst "Action Office" modular furniture system, sold by Herman Miller. John Pile, Open Office Planning (New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1978); Robert Propst, The Office: A Facility Based on Change (Zeeland, MI: Herman Miller, 1968). On cybernetics, see Norbert Wiener, Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (New York: Avon Books, 1967). For a more detailed history of the change from the modernist to cybernetic office, see Michelle Murphy, Sick Buildings and Sick Bodies: The Materialization of an Occupational Illness in Late Capitalism [Unpublished PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1998 (Ann Arbor: UMI, 9832450)].
63. The cybernetic office was first designed by the Quickborner team of Germany, and was made popular in America by the Roben Propst "Action Office" modular furniture system, sold by Herman Miller. John Pile, Open Office Planning (New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1978); Robert Propst, The Office: A Facility Based on Change (Zeeland, MI: Herman Miller, 1968). On cybernetics, see Norbert Wiener, Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (New York: Avon Books, 1967). For a more detailed history of the change from the modernist to cybernetic office, see Michelle Murphy, Sick Buildings and Sick Bodies: The Materialization of an Occupational Illness in Late Capitalism [Unpublished PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1998 (Ann Arbor: UMI, 9832450)].
64. Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988). On the changes the computer brought to office organization, see Joan Greenbaum, Windows on the Workplace: Computers, Jobs, and the Organization of Office Work in the Late 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1995). On gender, computer work, and capitalism see Evelyn Nakano Glenn and Roslyn Feldberg, "Proletarianizing Clerical Work: Technology and Organizational Control in the Office, " in Andrew Zimbalist, ed., Case Studies on the Labor Process (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 51-72; Rachael Grossman, "Women's Place in the Integrated Circuit, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 29-49; Heidi Hartmann, ed., Computer Chips and
65. Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988). On the changes the computer brought to office organization, see Joan Greenbaum, Windows on the Workplace: Computers, Jobs, and the Organization of Office Work in the Late 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1995). On gender, computer work, and capitalism see Evelyn Nakano Glenn and Roslyn Feldberg, "Proletarianizing Clerical Work: Technology and Organizational Control in the Office, " in Andrew Zimbalist, ed., Case Studies on the Labor Process (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 51-72; Rachael Grossman, "Women's Place in the Integrated Circuit, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 29-49; Heidi Hartmann, ed., Computer Chips and Papers Clips: Technology and Women's Employment (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1987).
66. Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988). On the changes the computer brought to office organization, see Joan Greenbaum, Windows on the Workplace: Computers, Jobs, and the Organization of Office Work in the Late 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1995). On gender, computer work, and capitalism see Evelyn Nakano Glenn and Roslyn Feldberg, "Proletarianizing Clerical Work: Technology and Organizational Control in the Office, " in Andrew Zimbalist, ed., Case Studies on the Labor Process (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 51-72; Rachael Grossman, "Women's Place in the Integrated Circuit, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 29-49; Heidi Hartmann, ed., Computer Chips and Papers Clips: Technology and Women's Employment (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1987).
67. Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988). On the changes the computer brought to office organization, see Joan Greenbaum, Windows on the Workplace: Computers, Jobs, and the Organization of Office Work in the Late 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1995). On gender, computer work, and capitalism see Evelyn Nakano Glenn and Roslyn Feldberg, "Proletarianizing Clerical Work: Technology and Organizational Control in the Office, " in Andrew Zimbalist, ed., Case Studies on the Labor Process (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 51-72; Rachael Grossman, "Women's Place in the Integrated Circuit, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 29-49; Heidi Hartmann, ed., Computer Chips and Papers Clips: Technology and Women's Employment (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1987).
68. Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988). On the changes the computer brought to office organization, see Joan Greenbaum, Windows on the Workplace: Computers, Jobs, and the Organization of Office Work in the Late 20th Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1995). On gender, computer work, and capitalism see Evelyn Nakano Glenn and Roslyn Feldberg, "Proletarianizing Clerical Work: Technology and Organizational Control in the Office, " in Andrew Zimbalist, ed., Case Studies on the Labor Process (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 51-72; Rachael Grossman, "Women's Place in the Integrated Circuit, " Radical America, 14 (1980), 29-49; Heidi Hartmann, ed., Computer Chips and Papers Clips: Technology and Women's Employment (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1987).
69. David Plotke and Karen Nussbaum, "Women Clerical Workers and Trade Unionism: Interview with Karen Nussbaum, " Socialist Review, 49 (1980), 153.
70. Plotke and Nussbaum, "Women Clerical Workers, " 154-155.
71. On the complicated relationship between unions, feminism and the status of women in the postwar period, see Ruth Milkman, "Organizing the Sexual Division of Labor: Historical Perspectives on 'Women's Work' and the American Labor Movement, " Socialist Review, 49 (1980), 95-150; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-75 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).
72. On the complicated relationship between unions, feminism and the status of women in the postwar period, see Ruth Milkman, "Organizing the Sexual Division of Labor: Historical Perspectives on 'Women's Work' and the American Labor Movement, " Socialist Review, 49 (1980), 95-150; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-75 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990).
73. "'Women's Ways of Organizing': A Conversation with AFSCME Organizers Kris Rondeau and Gladys McKenzie, " Labor Research Review, 18 (1991/2), 45-59 and
74. Richard Hurd, "Learning from Clerical Unions: Two Cases of Organizing Success, " Labor Research Review, 14 (1989), 30-51.
75. Ruth Needleman, "'Women Workers': A Force for Rebuilding Unionism, " Labor Research Review, 11 (1988), 1-13.
76. Ellen Messer Davidow, "Acting Otherwise, " in Judith Keegan Gardner, Provoking Agents: Gender and Agency in Theory and Practice (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 36-37;
77. Anita Shreve, Women Together, Women Alone: The Legacy of the Consciousness-Raising Movement (New York: Viking, 1989), 11.
78. Women Office Workers News, Jan./Feb. 1974.
79. Women Office Workers News, April/May 1974.
80. Ellen Cassidy and Karen Nussbaum, 9 to 5: The Working Woman's Guide to Office Survival (New York: Penguin, 1983), 158.
81. The film was used as a vehicle to promote the women's office worker movement. Jane Fonda went on a national promotional tour with it. The movie's success went on to spawn a hit single, Parton s "Working 9 to 5, " and a short-lived television series in 1982.
82. On experience, see Elizabeth Bellamy and Artemis Leontis, "A Genealogy of Experience: From Epistemology to Politics, " Yale Journal of Criticism, 6 (1993), 163-184; Chandra Mohanty, "Feminist Encounters: Locating the Politics of Experience, " Copyright, 1 (1987), 30-44; Joan W. Scott, "'Experience', " in Joan W. Scott and Judith Butler, eds., Feminists Theorize the Political (New York: Routledge, 1995), 22-40.
83. On experience, see Elizabeth Bellamy and Artemis Leontis, "A Genealogy of Experience: From Epistemology to Politics, " Yale Journal of Criticism, 6 (1993), 163-184; Chandra Mohanty, "Feminist Encounters: Locating the Politics of Experience, " Copyright, 1 (1987), 30-44; Joan W. Scott, "'Experience', " in Joan W. Scott and Judith Butler, eds., Feminists Theorize the Political (New York: Routledge, 1995), 22-40.
84. On experience, see Elizabeth Bellamy and Artemis Leontis, "A Genealogy of Experience: From Epistemology to Politics, " Yale Journal of Criticism, 6 (1993), 163-184; Chandra Mohanty, "Feminist Encounters: Locating the Politics of Experience, " Copyright, 1 (1987), 30-44; Joan W. Scott, "'Experience', " in Joan W. Scott and Judith Butler, eds., Feminists Theorize the Political (New York: Routledge, 1995), 22-40.
85. For ways victim status and injury are used in late-capitalism, see Wendy Brown, States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
86. Scott, "'Experience'." On situated knowledge, see Donna Haraway, "Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective, " Simians, Cyborgs and Women (New York: Routlege, 1991), 183-201.
87. This is not to argue that all feminists avoided pointing to large structural inequalities. In particular, feminists building on Marxian analyses sometimes argued for an underlying "dialectics of reproduction" at the root of women's oppression. See, for example, Shilamuth Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1970) and Mary O'Brien, The Politics of Reproduction (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983).
88. This is not to argue that all feminists avoided pointing to large structural inequalities. In particular, feminists building on Marxian analyses sometimes argued for an underlying "dialectics of reproduction" at the root of women's oppression. See, for example, Shilamuth Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1970) and Mary O'Brien, The Politics of Reproduction (Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983).
89. Herman Miller Office Furniture, advertisement, Wall Street Journal, Nov. 14, 1974.
90. Karen Nussbaum quoted in Jean Tepperman, Not Servants, 89.
91. Herman Miller Office Furniture advertisement, Wall Street Journal, Nov. 14, 1974.
92. It is interesting to note the striking similarity between this analysis and that developed roughly contemporaneously by Michel Foucault, who showed how the operation of any modern institutional apparatus, be it a prison or an office, is exercised in the abundance of small details, of daily gestures, bodily disciplines, habits, schedules, spatial demarcations, and repetitions - what he called the "microphysics" of power, or the "capillary" operation of power. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Random House, 1978) and Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1979).
93. It is interesting to note the striking similarity between this analysis and that developed roughly contemporaneously by Michel Foucault, who showed how the operation of any modern institutional apparatus, be it a prison or an office, is exercised in the abundance of small details, of daily gestures, bodily disciplines, habits, schedules, spatial demarcations, and repetitions - what he called the "microphysics" of power, or the "capillary" operation of power. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Random House, 1978) and Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1979).
94. Darlene Still of Women Employed, quoted in Tepperman, Not Servants, 85.
95. 9 to 5, Hidden Victims: Clerical Workers, Automation, and the Changing Economy (Cleveland: Working Women, 1985); to 5, VDT Syndrome: The Physical and Mental Trauma of Computer Work (Cleveland: Working Women, 1988); Daniel Armschall and Judith Gregory, eds., Office Automation, Jekyll or Hyde? Highlights of the International Conference on Office Work & New Technology (Cleveland: Working Women Education Fund, 1983); Tepperman, Sixty Words; Tepperman, Not Servants; Working Women, ed., Race Against Time: Automation of the Office (Cleveland: National Association of Office Workers, 1980).
96. 9 to 5, Hidden Victims: Clerical Workers, Automation, and the Changing Economy (Cleveland: Working Women, 1985); to 5, VDT Syndrome: The Physical and Mental Trauma of Computer Work (Cleveland: Working Women, 1988); Daniel Armschall and Judith Gregory, eds., Office Automation, Jekyll or Hyde? Highlights of the International Conference on Office Work & New Technology (Cleveland: Working Women Education Fund, 1983); Tepperman, Sixty Words; Tepperman, Not Servants; Working Women, ed., Race Against Time: Automation of the Office (Cleveland: National Association of Office Workers, 1980).
97. 9 to 5, Hidden Victims: Clerical Workers, Automation, and the Changing Economy (Cleveland: Working Women, 1985); to 5, VDT Syndrome: The Physical and Mental Trauma of Computer Work (Cleveland: Working Women, 1988); Daniel Armschall and Judith Gregory, eds., Office Automation, Jekyll or Hyde? Highlights of the International Conference on Office Work & New Technology (Cleveland: Working Women Education Fund, 1983); Tepperman, Sixty Words; Tepperman, Not Servants; Working Women, ed., Race Against Time: Automation of the Office (Cleveland: National Association of Office Workers, 1980).
98. 9 to 5, Hidden Victims: Clerical Workers, Automation, and the Changing Economy (Cleveland: Working Women, 1985); to 5, VDT Syndrome: The Physical and Mental Trauma of Computer Work (Cleveland: Working Women, 1988); Daniel Armschall and Judith Gregory, eds., Office Automation, Jekyll or Hyde? Highlights of the International Conference on Office Work & New Technology (Cleveland: Working Women Education Fund, 1983); Tepperman, Sixty Words; Tepperman, Not Servants; Working Women, ed., Race Against Time: Automation of the Office (Cleveland: National Association of Office Workers, 1980).
99. 9 to 5, Hidden Victims: Clerical Workers, Automation, and the Changing Economy (Cleveland: Working Women, 1985); to 5, VDT Syndrome: The Physical and Mental Trauma of Computer Work (Cleveland: Working Women, 1988); Daniel Armschall and Judith Gregory, eds., Office Automation, Jekyll or Hyde? Highlights of the International Conference on Office Work & New Technology (Cleveland: Working Women Education Fund, 1983); Tepperman, Sixty Words; Tepperman, Not Servants; Working Women, ed., Race Against Time: Automation of the Office (Cleveland: National Association of Office Workers, 1980).
100. 9 to 5, Hidden Victims: Clerical Workers, Automation, and the Changing Economy (Cleveland: Working Women, 1985); to 5, VDT Syndrome: The Physical and Mental Trauma of Computer Work (Cleveland: Working Women, 1988); Daniel Armschall and Judith Gregory, eds., Office Automation, Jekyll or Hyde? Highlights of the International Conference on Office Work & New Technology (Cleveland: Working Women Education Fund, 1983); Tepperman, Sixty Words; Tepperman, Not Servants; Working Women, ed., Race Against Time: Automation of the Office (Cleveland: National Association of Office Workers, 1980).
101. On the history of plastic technologies, see Jeffrey Meikle, American Plastic: A Cultural History (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995).
102. See for example, "Office Work: Hazardous to Your Health, " Union WAGE, Mar./April 1974 and "Health and Safety: The Dangers of Clerical Work, " Union WAGE, Nov./Dec. 1975.
103. See for example, "Office Work: Hazardous to Your Health, " Union WAGE, Mar./April 1974 and "Health and Safety: The Dangers of Clerical Work, " Union WAGE, Nov./Dec. 1975.
104. "Health & Safety: Writing & Negotiating Your Union Contract, " Union WAGE, Mar./April 1975.
105. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (New York: Crest Books, 1962); Riley Dunlap and Angela Mertig, "The Evolution of the U.S. Environmental Movement From 1970 to 1990: An Overview, " in Riley Dunlap and Angela Mertig, eds., American Environmentalism: The U.S. Environmental Movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992), 1-10.
106. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (New York: Crest Books, 1962); Riley Dunlap and Angela Mertig, "The Evolution of the U.S. Environmental Movement From 1970 to 1990: An Overview, " in Riley Dunlap and Angela Mertig, eds., American Environmentalism: The U.S. Environmental Movement, 1970-1990 (Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis, 1992), 1-10.
107. However, there were specific instances of famous occupational diseases that had affected women, for example the radiation poisoning of the radium dial painters and phosphorus poisoning of women who worked in match factories. David Moss, "Kindling a Flame under Federalism: Progressive Reformers, Corporate Elites, and the Phosphorus Poisoning Campaign of 1909-12, " Business History Review, 68 (1994), 244-275; Claudia Clark, Radium Girls, Women, and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-35 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
108. However, there were specific instances of famous occupational diseases that had affected women, for example the radiation poisoning of the radium dial painters and phosphorus poisoning of women who worked in match factories. David Moss, "Kindling a Flame under Federalism: Progressive Reformers, Corporate Elites, and the Phosphorus Poisoning Campaign of 1909-12, " Business History Review, 68 (1994), 244-275; Claudia Clark, Radium Girls, Women, and Industrial Health Reform, 1910-35 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
109. See "Work, Stress, and Health, " and pages 103-118 in Jeanne Stellman, Women's Work, Women's Health: Myths and Realities (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977).
110. Women's Occupational Health Resource Center, "Clerical Workers: Fact Sheet, " Stellman Papers, Box 2, unlabelled black folder.
111. Stellman, unlike the women at Project Health and Safety, did not believe the evidence supported the claim that VDTs emitted radiation.
112. Jeanne Stellman, speech, Institute on Safety and Health, Columbus, Ohio. Quoted in Margaret Banning, "Workplace Chemicals Put the Emphasis on Occupational Health, " Monitor (May 1984), 16-17.
113. Photocopiers had been maligned in the press in a series of articles with titles such as, "Cancer from Photocopiers?" Mother Jones (Dec. 1980), 8; Gören Lofroth et al., "Mutagenic Activity in Photocopies, " Science, 29 (Aug. 1980), 1037-1039; and "IBM Brass Knew TNF 'Possible' Carcinogen More than a Decade Ago, " Computerworld, 8 (Sept. 1980), 1.
114. Photocopiers had been maligned in the press in a series of articles with titles such as, "Cancer from Photocopiers?" Mother Jones (Dec. 1980), 8; Gören Lofroth et al., "Mutagenic Activity in Photocopies, " Science, 29 (Aug. 1980), 1037-1039; and "IBM Brass Knew TNF 'Possible' Carcinogen More than a Decade Ago, " Computerworld, 8 (Sept. 1980), 1.
115. Photocopiers had been maligned in the press in a series of articles with titles such as, "Cancer from Photocopiers?" Mother Jones (Dec. 1980), 8; Gören Lofroth et al., "Mutagenic Activity in Photocopies, " Science, 29 (Aug. 1980), 1037-1039; and "IBM Brass Knew TNF 'Possible' Carcinogen More than a Decade Ago, " Computerworld, 8 (Sept. 1980), 1.
116. Testimony by Anita Reber, House Subcommittee on Health, Feb. 4, 1981. Also, see NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Number 76-70-367.
117. Consumer Product Safety Commission, "Alert Sheet: Urea Formaldehyde Foam Insulation" (Washington, DC: Consumer Product Safety Commission, Dec. 1980).
118. Karen Nussbaum, Speech, Women's Occupational Health Resource Center, New York, Oct. 1981, quoted in "Sending a letter: PCBs and Other Office Hazards, " Working Women News, Nov./Dec. 1981.
119. Jeanne Stellman and Mary Sue Henifin, "Health Hazards in the Computerized Office, " Office Automation, 63.
120. On the history of hysteria, see Mark Micale, "Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth-Century France and Britain, " in Marina Benjamin, ed., Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780-1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 200-239; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985); Philip R. Slaveny, Perspectives on "Hysteria" (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). For examples of controversial contemporary historical scholarship that uses these diagnoses to explain illness amongst women, see Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modem Era (New York: Free Press, 1992); Edward Shorter, From the Mind into the Body: The Cultural Origins of Psychosomatic Symptoms (New York: Free Press, 1994); Elaine Showalter, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modem Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
121. On the history of hysteria, see Mark Micale, "Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth-Century France and Britain, " in Marina Benjamin, ed., Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780-1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 200-239; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985); Philip R. Slaveny, Perspectives on "Hysteria" (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). For examples of controversial contemporary historical scholarship that uses these diagnoses to explain illness amongst women, see Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modem Era (New York: Free Press, 1992); Edward Shorter, From the Mind into the Body: The Cultural Origins of Psychosomatic Symptoms (New York: Free Press, 1994); Elaine Showalter, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modem Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
122. On the history of hysteria, see Mark Micale, "Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth-Century France and Britain, " in Marina Benjamin, ed., Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780-1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 200-239; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985); Philip R. Slaveny, Perspectives on "Hysteria" (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). For examples of controversial contemporary historical scholarship that uses these diagnoses to explain illness amongst women, see Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modem Era (New York: Free Press, 1992); Edward Shorter, From the Mind into the Body: The Cultural Origins of Psychosomatic Symptoms (New York: Free Press, 1994); Elaine Showalter, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modem Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
123. On the history of hysteria, see Mark Micale, "Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth-Century France and Britain, " in Marina Benjamin, ed., Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780-1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 200-239; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985); Philip R. Slaveny, Perspectives on "Hysteria" (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). For examples of controversial contemporary historical scholarship that uses these diagnoses to explain illness amongst women, see Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modem Era (New York: Free Press, 1992); Edward Shorter, From the Mind into the Body: The Cultural Origins of Psychosomatic Symptoms (New York: Free Press, 1994); Elaine Showalter, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modem Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
124. On the history of hysteria, see Mark Micale, "Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth-Century France and Britain, " in Marina Benjamin, ed., Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780-1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 200-239; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985); Philip R. Slaveny, Perspectives on "Hysteria" (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). For examples of controversial contemporary historical scholarship that uses these diagnoses to explain illness amongst women, see Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modem Era (New York: Free Press, 1992); Edward Shorter, From the Mind into the Body: The Cultural Origins of Psychosomatic Symptoms (New York: Free Press, 1994); Elaine Showalter, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modem Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
125. On the history of hysteria, see Mark Micale, "Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth-Century France and Britain, " in Marina Benjamin, ed., Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780-1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 200-239; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985); Philip R. Slaveny, Perspectives on "Hysteria" (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). For examples of controversial contemporary historical scholarship that uses these diagnoses to explain illness amongst women, see Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modem Era (New York: Free Press, 1992); Edward Shorter, From the Mind into the Body: The Cultural Origins of Psychosomatic Symptoms (New York: Free Press, 1994); Elaine Showalter, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modem Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
126. On the history of hysteria, see Mark Micale, "Hysteria Male/Hysteria Female: Reflections on Comparative Gender Construction in Nineteenth-Century France and Britain, " in Marina Benjamin, ed., Science and Sensibility: Gender and Scientific Enquiry, 1780-1945 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 200-239; Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York: Penguin, 1985); Philip R. Slaveny, Perspectives on "Hysteria" (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). For examples of controversial contemporary historical scholarship that uses these diagnoses to explain illness amongst women, see Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modem Era (New York: Free Press, 1992); Edward Shorter, From the Mind into the Body: The Cultural Origins of Psychosomatic Symptoms (New York: Free Press, 1994); Elaine Showalter, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modem Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
127. On the history of NIOSH investigations of office buildings, see Murphy, Sick Buildings and Sick Bodies.
128. Michael Colligan, James Pennebaker, and Lawrence Murphy, eds., Mass Psychogenic Illness (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1982); Neal Schmitt, Michael Colligan, and Michael Fitzgerald, "Unexplained physical symptoms in eight organizations: Individual and organizational analyses, " Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53 (1980), 305-317.
129. Michael Colligan, James Pennebaker, and Lawrence Murphy, eds., Mass Psychogenic Illness (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1982); Neal Schmitt, Michael Colligan, and Michael Fitzgerald, "Unexplained physical symptoms in eight organizations: Individual and organizational analyses, " Journal of Occupational Psychology, 53 (1980), 305-317.
130. Jerome Singer et al., "Mass Psychogenic Illness: The Case for Social Comparison, " in Michael Colligan, James Pennebaker, and Lawrence Murphy, eds., Mass Psychogenic Illness (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1982), 166. On the history of menstruation and work, see Susan Cayleff, "She Was Rendered Incapacitated by Menstrual Difficulties: Historical Perspectives on Perceived Intellectual and Physiological Impairment Among Menstruating Women" in Alice Dan and Linda Lewis, Menstrual Health in Women's Lives (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 229-235; Sioban Harlow, "Function and Dysfunction: A Historical Critique of the Literature on Menstruation and Work, " in Virginia Olesen and Nancy Fugate Woods, Culture, Society, and Menstruation (Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Co., 1986), 39-51 ; Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body, 92-138; Anne Walker, "A History of Menstrual Psychology, " The Menstrual Cycle (London: Routledge, 1997), 30-58.
131. Jerome Singer et al., "Mass Psychogenic Illness: The Case for Social Comparison, " in Michael Colligan, James Pennebaker, and Lawrence Murphy, eds., Mass Psychogenic Illness (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1982), 166. On the history of menstruation and work, see Susan Cayleff, "She Was Rendered Incapacitated by Menstrual Difficulties: Historical Perspectives on Perceived Intellectual and Physiological Impairment Among Menstruating Women" in Alice Dan and Linda Lewis, Menstrual Health in Women's Lives (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 229-235; Sioban Harlow, "Function and Dysfunction: A Historical Critique of the Literature on Menstruation and Work, " in Virginia Olesen and Nancy Fugate Woods, Culture, Society, and Menstruation (Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Co., 1986), 39-51 ; Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body, 92-138; Anne Walker, "A History of Menstrual Psychology, " The Menstrual Cycle (London: Routledge, 1997), 30-58.
132. Jerome Singer et al., "Mass Psychogenic Illness: The Case for Social Comparison, " in Michael Colligan, James Pennebaker, and Lawrence Murphy, eds., Mass Psychogenic Illness (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1982), 166. On the history of menstruation and work, see Susan Cayleff, "She Was Rendered Incapacitated by Menstrual Difficulties: Historical Perspectives on Perceived Intellectual and Physiological Impairment Among Menstruating Women" in Alice Dan and Linda Lewis, Menstrual Health in Women's Lives (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 229-235; Sioban Harlow, "Function and Dysfunction: A Historical Critique of the Literature on Menstruation and Work, " in Virginia Olesen and Nancy Fugate Woods, Culture, Society, and Menstruation (Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Co., 1986), 39-51 ; Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body, 92-138; Anne Walker, "A History of Menstrual Psychology, " The Menstrual Cycle (London: Routledge, 1997), 30-58.
133. Jerome Singer et al., "Mass Psychogenic Illness: The Case for Social Comparison, " in Michael Colligan, James Pennebaker, and Lawrence Murphy, eds., Mass Psychogenic Illness (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1982), 166. On the history of menstruation and work, see Susan Cayleff, "She Was Rendered Incapacitated by Menstrual Difficulties: Historical Perspectives on Perceived Intellectual and Physiological Impairment Among Menstruating Women" in Alice Dan and Linda Lewis, Menstrual Health in Women's Lives (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 229-235; Sioban Harlow, "Function and Dysfunction: A Historical Critique of the Literature on Menstruation and Work, " in Virginia Olesen and Nancy Fugate Woods, Culture, Society, and Menstruation (Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Co., 1986), 39-51 ; Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body, 92-138; Anne Walker, "A History of Menstrual Psychology, " The Menstrual Cycle (London: Routledge, 1997), 30-58.
134. Jerome Singer et al., "Mass Psychogenic Illness: The Case for Social Comparison, " in Michael Colligan, James Pennebaker, and Lawrence Murphy, eds., Mass Psychogenic Illness (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1982), 166. On the history of menstruation and work, see Susan Cayleff, "She Was Rendered Incapacitated by Menstrual Difficulties: Historical Perspectives on Perceived Intellectual and Physiological Impairment Among Menstruating Women" in Alice Dan and Linda Lewis, Menstrual Health in Women's Lives (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 229-235; Sioban Harlow, "Function and Dysfunction: A Historical Critique of the Literature on Menstruation and Work, " in Virginia Olesen and Nancy Fugate Woods, Culture, Society, and Menstruation (Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Co., 1986), 39-51 ; Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body, 92-138; Anne Walker, "A History of Menstrual Psychology, " The Menstrual Cycle (London: Routledge, 1997), 30-58.
135. Karen Nussbaum, "Office Automation: Jekyll or Hyde?, " Office Automation, 19.
136. "Clerical Workers Tell All, " Union Wage, July/Aug. 1979, 3.
137. M.G. Smith, "Potential Health Hazards of Video Display Terminals" (Cincinnati: NIOSH, June, 1981).
138. S. Haynes and M. Feinleib, "Women, Work and Coronary Heart Disease: Prospective Findings From the Framingham Heart Study, " American Journal of Public Health, 70 (1980), 133-141.
139. "Stress is a Social Disease, " 1973 (Reprinted in Processed World, Fall 1987, 41).
140. Hans Selye, The Stress of Life (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965).
141. Jeanne Stellman, Women's Work, Women's Health: Myths and Realities (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977).
142. "Stress: The Office Worker's Illness, " 9 to 5 Newsletter, Sept./Oct. 1993, 3.
143. Neurasthenia, hysteria, and nerves, like stress, were also thought to result from the "new" anxieties of their moment. Robert Kugelmann, Stress: The Nature and History of Engineered Grief (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1992).
144. Nussbaum, "Office Automation: Jekyll or Hyde?, " 19.
145. Jane Fonda, Jane Fonda's Workout Book (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1981).
146. In this same period psychosomatic explanations split into two politically divergent camps. In the first, and more politically conservative form, physical illness with no known biological underpinning is explained, usually by a process of elimination, as a somatic expression of an underlying gendered psychological disorder or disposition. In its second, and more politically radical form, psychosomaticism is understood as a biological expression caused by racial, sexual, or other kinds of oppression. Thus, there is a recent scientifically rigorous epidemiological literature on the relationship between racism and hypertension. For a historical account of this association, see Edwin J. Greenlee, "Biomedicine and Ideology: a Social History of the Conceptualization and Treatment of Essential Hypertension in the United States" (unpublished PhD dissertation, Temple University, 1989).
147. Susan Davis, "Organizing from Within, " Ms. Magazine, 1 (1972), 92-99.
148. In fact, some of the volunteers in Project Health and Safety critiqued the way the organization of the committee reflected office work itself. As one volunteer explained in her resignation letter: "In our questionnaires, we inquired about the issue of lack of control as being a contributory factor causing stress in the workplace. I feel a lack of control and input into committee decisions that is as devastating as that which I currently experience in my workplace. It is as if the decisions for the Committee have already been made by 9 to 5 and Working Women in advance and we are simply to fulfill these constant requests. The members do not appear to be an integral part of the decision-making process." Letter of resignation to Health and Safety Committee, 9 to 5 Papers, May 6, 1981, Box 5, Folder 150. The committee was also critiqued for not representing the diversity of office workers (committee members tended to be young, college-educated, white and single). Self-evaluation of the Committee on Health and Safety, 9 to 5 Papers, July 7, 1981, Box 5, Folder 151.
149. Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Helene Silverberg, ed., Gender and American Social Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Hull-House Maps and Papers: Social Science as Women's Work in the 1890s, " in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales, and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 111-147.
150. Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Helene Silverberg, ed., Gender and American Social Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Hull-House Maps and Papers: Social Science as Women's Work in the 1890s, " in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales, and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 111-147.
151. Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994); Helene Silverberg, ed., Gender and American Social Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Kathryn Kish Sklar, "Hull-House Maps and Papers: Social Science as Women's Work in the 1890s, " in Martin Bulmer, Kevin Bales, and Kathryn Kish Sklar, eds., The Social Survey in Historical Perspective, 1880-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 111-147.
152. According to the survey, 70% of women clerical workers experienced an inadequate supply of fresh air, two-thirds reported air circulation problems, and 25% reported irritating fumes. Stress was also widely reported, particularly among office workers who used video display terminals.
153. 9 to 5, The 9 to 5 National Survey on Women and Stress (Cleveland: 9 to 5, National Association of Working Women, 1984).
154. Joel Makower, Office Hazards: How Your Job Can Make You Sick (Washington, DC: Tilden Press, 1981); Stellman, Women's Work; Stellman and Henifin, Office Work; Working Women, Warning: Health Hazards in the Office (Cleveland: Working Women, 1981).
155. Joel Makower, Office Hazards: How Your Job Can Make You Sick (Washington, DC: Tilden Press, 1981); Stellman, Women's Work; Stellman and Henifin, Office Work; Working Women, Warning: Health Hazards in the Office (Cleveland: Working Women, 1981).
156. Joel Makower, Office Hazards: How Your Job Can Make You Sick (Washington, DC: Tilden Press, 1981); Stellman, Women's Work; Stellman and Henifin, Office Work; Working Women, Warning: Health Hazards in the Office (Cleveland: Working Women, 1981).
157. Joel Makower, Office Hazards: How Your Job Can Make You Sick (Washington, DC: Tilden Press, 1981); Stellman, Women's Work; Stellman and Henifin, Office Work; Working Women, Warning: Health Hazards in the Office (Cleveland: Working Women, 1981).
158. On the history of objectification through quantification, see Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
159. On the history of objectification through quantification, see Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
160. Lisa Fein, 9 to 5's Project Health and Safety, to Rep. T. Moffet, U.S. House of Representatives, 9 to 5 Papers, April 24, 1981, Box 5, Folder 150.
161. Mary Mitchell, Speech, April 22, 1981, 9 to 5 Papers, Box 5, Folder 150.
162. Repetitive Strain Injury is another nonspecific office occupational health problem that has gained prominent attention in the 1990s. Dembe, Occupation and Disease; R. Dennis Hayes, "Digital Palsy: RSI and Restructuring Capital, " in James Brook and Iain A. Boal, eds., Resisting the Virtual Life: The Culture and Politics of Information (San Francisco: City Lights, 1995), 173-180.
163. Repetitive Strain Injury is another nonspecific office occupational health problem that has gained prominent attention in the 1990s. Dembe, Occupation and Disease; R. Dennis Hayes, "Digital Palsy: RSI and Restructuring Capital, " in James Brook and Iain A. Boal, eds., Resisting the Virtual Life: The Culture and Politics of Information (San Francisco: City Lights, 1995), 173-180.
164. On the history of Sick Building Syndrome as a nonspecific occupational illness, see Murphy, Sick Buildings and Sick Bodies.
165. Before holding this post, Nussbaum was appointed to head the Women's Bureau of the Labor Department during Clinton's first term. On the recent increase of women in unions, both in the rank and file and positions of power, see Julie Kosterlitz, "Luring Women to Labor's Ranks, " National Journal, March 15, 1997, 541; Amy Waldman, "Labor's New Face, " The Nation, Sept. 22, 1997, 11-16. This increase in unionism amongst women has come hand-in-hand with a return to organizing techniques that involve one-to-one contact. See, for example, John Hoerr, We Can't Eat Prestige: The Women Who Organized Harvard (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997).
166. Before holding this post, Nussbaum was appointed to head the Women's Bureau of the Labor Department during Clinton's first term. On the recent increase of women in unions, both in the rank and file and positions of power, see Julie Kosterlitz, "Luring Women to Labor's Ranks, " National Journal, March 15, 1997, 541; Amy Waldman, "Labor's New Face, " The Nation, Sept. 22, 1997, 11-16. This increase in unionism amongst women has come hand-in-hand with a return to organizing techniques that involve one-to-one contact. See, for example, John Hoerr, We Can't Eat Prestige: The Women Who Organized Harvard (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997).
167. Before holding this post, Nussbaum was appointed to head the Women's Bureau of the Labor Department during Clinton's first term. On the recent increase of women in unions, both in the rank and file and positions of power, see Julie Kosterlitz, "Luring Women to Labor's Ranks, " National Journal, March 15, 1997, 541; Amy Waldman, "Labor's New Face, " The Nation, Sept. 22, 1997, 11-16. This increase in unionism amongst women has come hand-in-hand with a return to organizing techniques that involve one-to-one contact. See, for example, John Hoerr, We Can't Eat Prestige: The Women Who Organized Harvard (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997).
168. See, for example, Peter Boxer, "Occupational Mass Psychogenic Illness, " Journal of Occupational Medicine, 27 (1985), 867-872; Halley Faust and Lawrence Brilliant, "Is the Diagnosis of 'Mass Hysteria' an Excuse for Incomplete Investigation of Low-Level Environmental Contamination?, " Journal of Occupational Medicine, 23 (1981), 11-16; Christopher Ryan and Lisa Morrow, "Dysfunctional Buildings or Dysfunctional People: An Examination of the Sick Building Syndrome and Allied Disorders, " Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60 (1992), 220-224; Michael Colligan, "The Psychological Effects of Indoor Air Pollution, " Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 57 (1981), 1014-1026.
169. See, for example, Peter Boxer, "Occupational Mass Psychogenic Illness, " Journal of Occupational Medicine, 27 (1985), 867-872; Halley Faust and Lawrence Brilliant, "Is the Diagnosis of 'Mass Hysteria' an Excuse for Incomplete Investigation of Low-Level Environmental Contamination?, " Journal of Occupational Medicine, 23 (1981), 11-16; Christopher Ryan and Lisa Morrow, "Dysfunctional Buildings or Dysfunctional People: An Examination of the Sick Building Syndrome and Allied Disorders, " Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60 (1992), 220-224; Michael Colligan, "The Psychological Effects of Indoor Air Pollution, " Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 57 (1981), 1014-1026.
170. See, for example, Peter Boxer, "Occupational Mass Psychogenic Illness, " Journal of Occupational Medicine, 27 (1985), 867-872; Halley Faust and Lawrence Brilliant, "Is the Diagnosis of 'Mass Hysteria' an Excuse for Incomplete Investigation of Low-Level Environmental Contamination?, " Journal of Occupational Medicine, 23 (1981), 11-16; Christopher Ryan and Lisa Morrow, "Dysfunctional Buildings or Dysfunctional People: An Examination of the Sick Building Syndrome and Allied Disorders, " Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60 (1992), 220-224; Michael Colligan, "The Psychological Effects of Indoor Air Pollution, " Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 57 (1981), 1014-1026.
171. See, for example, Peter Boxer, "Occupational Mass Psychogenic Illness, " Journal of Occupational Medicine, 27 (1985), 867-872; Halley Faust and Lawrence Brilliant, "Is the Diagnosis of 'Mass Hysteria' an Excuse for Incomplete Investigation of Low-Level Environmental Contamination?, " Journal of Occupational Medicine, 23 (1981), 11-16; Christopher Ryan and Lisa Morrow, "Dysfunctional Buildings or Dysfunctional People: An Examination of the Sick Building Syndrome and Allied Disorders, " Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60 (1992), 220-224; Michael Colligan, "The Psychological Effects of Indoor Air Pollution, " Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 57 (1981), 1014-1026.