The cultural foundation of resources, the resource foundation of political cultures: An explanation for the outcomes of two general strikes

Politics and Society

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 331-365

  Johnson, Victoria ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034377538     PISSN: 00323292     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032329200028003003     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Anna Louise Strong, I Change Worlds: The Remaking of an American (New York: Henry Holt, 1935), 84.
2. Harry Bridges, quoted in Warran Hinkle, The Big Strike: A Pictorial History of the 1934 San Francisco General Strike (Virginia City, NV: Silver Dollar Books, 1985), 96.
3. A general strike is a walk out by workers in enough key industries to stop the functioning of a city or region. In other words, the location is systematically shut down through the noncooperation of crucial segments of the labor force. Labor's assertion of general authority over the distribution of essential goods and services is a characteristic of this tactic.
4. The discussion of occupational networking draws heavily on both Howard Kimeldorf's Reds or Rackets: The Making of Radical and Conservative Unions on the Waterfront (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988) and Bruce Nelson's Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1990).
5. The discussion of occupational networking draws heavily on both Howard Kimeldorf's Reds or Rackets: The Making of Radical and Conservative Unions on the Waterfront (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988) and Bruce Nelson's Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1990).
6. Anthony Obershall, Social Conflict and Social Movements (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973); John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory," American Journal of Sociology 82 (1976): 1212-41; Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978); Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Craig Jenkins, "The Transformation of a Constituency into a Social Movement Revisited: Farmworker Organizing in California," in Jo Freeman and Victoria Johnson, eds., Waves of Protest: Social Movements since the Sixties (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 277-99.
7. Anthony Obershall, Social Conflict and Social Movements (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973); John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory," American Journal of Sociology 82 (1976): 1212-41; Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978); Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Craig Jenkins, "The Transformation of a Constituency into a Social Movement Revisited: Farmworker Organizing in California," in Jo Freeman and Victoria Johnson, eds., Waves of Protest: Social Movements since the Sixties (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 277-99.
8. Anthony Obershall, Social Conflict and Social Movements (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973); John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory," American Journal of Sociology 82 (1976): 1212-41; Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978); Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Craig Jenkins, "The Transformation of a Constituency into a Social Movement Revisited: Farmworker Organizing in California," in Jo Freeman and Victoria Johnson, eds., Waves of Protest: Social Movements since the Sixties (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 277-99.
9. Anthony Obershall, Social Conflict and Social Movements (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973); John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory," American Journal of Sociology 82 (1976): 1212-41; Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978); Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Craig Jenkins, "The Transformation of a Constituency into a Social Movement Revisited: Farmworker Organizing in California," in Jo Freeman and Victoria Johnson, eds., Waves of Protest: Social Movements since the Sixties (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 277-99.
10. Anthony Obershall, Social Conflict and Social Movements (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973); John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, "Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory," American Journal of Sociology 82 (1976): 1212-41; Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: Random House, 1978); Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Craig Jenkins, "The Transformation of a Constituency into a Social Movement Revisited: Farmworker Organizing in California," in Jo Freeman and Victoria Johnson, eds., Waves of Protest: Social Movements since the Sixties (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 277-99.
11. David A. Snow, E. Burke Rochford Jr., Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford, "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 464-81; David A. Snow and Robert D. Bedford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, eds., Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 133-55; Alberto Melucci, Nomads of the Present: Social Movements and Individual Needs in Contemporary Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989); Enrique Larana, Hank Johnston, and Joseph R, Gusfield, eds., New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, eds., Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
12. David A. Snow, E. Burke Rochford Jr., Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford, "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 464-81; David A. Snow and Robert D. Bedford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, eds., Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 133-55; Alberto Melucci, Nomads of the Present: Social Movements and Individual Needs in Contemporary Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989); Enrique Larana, Hank Johnston, and Joseph R, Gusfield, eds., New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, eds., Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
13. David A. Snow, E. Burke Rochford Jr., Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford, "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 464-81; David A. Snow and Robert D. Bedford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, eds., Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 133-55; Alberto Melucci, Nomads of the Present: Social Movements and Individual Needs in Contemporary Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989); Enrique Larana, Hank Johnston, and Joseph R, Gusfield, eds., New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, eds., Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
14. David A. Snow, E. Burke Rochford Jr., Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford, "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 464-81; David A. Snow and Robert D. Bedford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, eds., Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 133-55; Alberto Melucci, Nomads of the Present: Social Movements and Individual Needs in Contemporary Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989); Enrique Larana, Hank Johnston, and Joseph R, Gusfield, eds., New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, eds., Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
15. David A. Snow, E. Burke Rochford Jr., Steven K. Worden, and Robert D. Benford, "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 464-81; David A. Snow and Robert D. Bedford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, eds., Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 133-55; Alberto Melucci, Nomads of the Present: Social Movements and Individual Needs in Contemporary Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989); Enrique Larana, Hank Johnston, and Joseph R, Gusfield, eds., New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, eds., Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995).
16. Doug McAdam and Dieter Rucht, "The Cross National Diffusion of Ideas," ANNALS, AAPSS 528 (July): 56-74; David A. Snow and Robert A. Bedford, "Alternative Types of Cross-National Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena," in Della Donatella, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Deiter Rucht, eds., Social Movements in a Globalizing World (New York: St. Martin's, 1999).
17. Doug McAdam and Dieter Rucht, "The Cross National Diffusion of Ideas," ANNALS, AAPSS 528 (July): 56-74; David A. Snow and Robert A. Bedford, "Alternative Types of Cross-National Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena," in Della Donatella, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Deiter Rucht, eds., Social Movements in a Globalizing World (New York: St. Martin's, 1999).
18. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
19. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
20. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
21. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
22. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
23. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
24. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
25. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
26. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
27. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
28. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
29. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
30. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
31. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
32. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
33. There have been individual case studies: Robert H. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964); Harvey O'Conner, Revolution in Seattle: A Memoir (New York: Monthly Review Books, 1964); Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes of San Francisco, 1934: A Brief History, San Francisco (San Francisco: Industrial Association of San Francisco, 1934); Mike Quinn, The Big Strike (New York: International Publishers, 1949); David F. Selvin, A Terrible Anger: The 1934 Waterfront and General Strikes in San Francisco (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996). For discussion of the Seattle and San Francisco general strikes as part of larger histories, see Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of University Press, 1935); Irving Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941: The Turbulent Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Charles P. Larrowe, Harry Bridges: The Rise and Fall of Radical Labor in the United States (New York: Lawrence Hill, 1972); Roger Sales, Seattle: Past and Present (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1976); Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda, 1906-1988 (New York: International Publishers, 1991); Ronald E. Magden, A History of Seattle Waterfront Workers, 1884-1934 (Seattle: ILWU, Local 19 and the Washington Commission for the Humanities, 1991); Richard C. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920: From Boomtown, Urban Turbulance, to Restoration (Seattle, WA: Charles Press, 1991). For noncomparative histories, see Wilfred H. Crook, 1960, Communism and the General Strike (Hamden, CT: Shoe String, 1960); Wilfred Harris Crook, The General Strike: A Study of Labor's Tragic Weapon in Theory and Practice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1931); Jeremy Brecher, Strike, edited by Manning Marable (Boston: South End, 1997).
34. The word radical is used here to communicate something different from being militant. Militancy denotes being combative or aggressive to further a cause but is not the same as radicalism, which implies the goal of transforming social structures. In the case of workplace collectivism, the goal of worker ownership and/or control of the workplace represents an attempt at structural transformation in the relations between capital and labor.
35. It is important to note that the model of socialism proposed by Debs emphasized direct worker control of industries. Debs stated that the purpose of the union was to educate "the workers in the management of industrial activities and fitting them for cooperative control and democratic regulation of their trades." Eugene V. Debs, Writings and Speeches of Eugene V. Debs (New York: Hermitage, 1948), 112.
36. Jonathan Dembo, "A History of the Washington State Labor Movement" (Ph.D. diss., University of Washington, 1978), 27.
37. Selig Perlman, History of Trade Unionism in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1923), 72.
38. Kim Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 81.
39. Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward 2000-1887 (Chicago: M. A. Donohue, 1915).
40. Carlos A. Schwantes, "Leftward Tilt on the Pacific Slope: Indigenous Unionism and the Struggle against AFL Hegemony in the State of Washington," Pacific Northwest Quarterly (January 1979): 25.
41. Ibid., 30.
42. Anarchism teaches that economic and social injustices are intimately linked with the centralized organization of the state, which inevitably produces hierarchy and oppression. The doctrine proposes a social organization of localized, autonomous communities freely interacting through mutual cooperation. See Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What is Poverty? An Essay into the Principle of Right and of Government (New York: Fertig, 1966); Petr Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (Boston: Extending Horizons, 1955); and Michael Bakunin, God and the State (New York: Dover, 1970).
43. Anarchism teaches that economic and social injustices are intimately linked with the centralized organization of the state, which inevitably produces hierarchy and oppression. The doctrine proposes a social organization of localized, autonomous communities freely interacting through mutual cooperation. See Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What is Poverty? An Essay into the Principle of Right and of Government (New York: Fertig, 1966); Petr Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (Boston: Extending Horizons, 1955); and Michael Bakunin, God and the State (New York: Dover, 1970).
44. Anarchism teaches that economic and social injustices are intimately linked with the centralized organization of the state, which inevitably produces hierarchy and oppression. The doctrine proposes a social organization of localized, autonomous communities freely interacting through mutual cooperation. See Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, What is Poverty? An Essay into the Principle of Right and of Government (New York: Fertig, 1966); Petr Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (Boston: Extending Horizons, 1955); and Michael Bakunin, God and the State (New York: Dover, 1970).
45. Revolutionary syndicalists had been influenced by the philosophy of Bergson and Nietzsche, both part of the antirationalist backlash prominent in late-nineteenth century Europe. The emphasis on paralogical influences in human behavior and the celebration of emotion, intuition, and instinct in opposition to empiricism and reason are apparent. See Georges Sorel's Reflections on Violence (New York: Cillier-Macmillan, 1950).
46. John Graham Brooks, American Syndicalism: The IWW (New York: Macmillan, 1913), 64.
47. Despite the Industrial Workers of the World's (IWW's) masculinist rhetoric and imagery, the logic of industrial unionism made it necessary to organize women workers, often immigrants. Bill Haywood, a legendary IWW leader, even proposed organizing children who were working in factories. See Bill Haywood's The General Strike (New York: Buccafori Defense Committee, Shoe Workers Union No 168, IWW, 1911).
48. There were, of course, distinctions. Most significant was the centralized organization of the Knights of Labor and their use of the political system in attempts to change the state. Voss has pointed out, however, that while the Knights were a centralized organization on paper, in practice there was much autonomy among the local assemblies. See Voss's The Making of American Exceptionalism, 76, 77.
49. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike, 24.
50. Friedheim, Robert H., "The Seattle Labor Movement, 1917-1920," Pacific Northwest Quarterly (October 1964), 148.
51. Kimeldorf, Reds or Rackets; Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront.
52. Kimeldorf, Reds or Rackets, 24, 20.
53. Frederic Caire Chiles, "War on the Waterfront: The Struggles of the San Francisco Longshoremen, 1851-1934" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1981), 17.
54. Kimeldorf, Reds or Rackets, 19.
55. Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront, 65, 66.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid., 40.
58. Michael Egan, "That's Why Organizing Was So Good: Portland Longshoremen, 1934: An Oral History" (B.A. thesis, Reed College, May 1975), 72. There are grammatical errors in this quote. The English usage in this quote constitutes a class-based dialect. To note the grammatical errors with sic, as is the convention, would detract from the quote.
59. See Kimeldorf's Reds or Rackets for a discussion of the differences in market structure, occupational profiles, and the political orientations of East and West Coast longshore workers.
60. Dembo, A History of the Washington State Labor Movement, 188.
61. W. M. Short, "History of Activities of Seattle Labor Movement and Conspiracy of Employers to Destroy It and Attempted Suppression of Labor's Daily Newspaper," Seattle Union Record (Washington DC, 28 November 1919, Archives and Manuscripts Division, University of Washington, Seattle).
62. Mary Joan O'Connell, "The Seattle Union Record, 1918-1928: A Pioneer Labor Daily" (Master's thesis, University of Washington, 1964), 5.
63. Friedheim, The Seattle General Strike, 67.
64. Ibid., 66. Friedheim notes that Piez confirmed in writing that he had made this agreement with the Metal Trades Council representatives.
65. Ibid., 61.
66. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920, 278.
67. The reason that Piez would go this far was subject to speculation. In The Seattle General Strike, Friedheim described three possible scenarios proposed by different labor sources. The first was that the local employers sincerely wanted to come to an agreement with labor. Both parties resented Piez's control over the shipbuilding industry. So employers and workers were actually working together to undermine Piez. The strike had been approved by the shipowners, in particular Skinner and Eddy. Harry Ault, editor of the Seattle Union Record, firmly believed this to be the case. The second possible explanation was that Piez was forced to take a firm stand on the Macy award due to the pressure from Seattle shipyard management, which could not absorb the cost of wage increases. Apparently, the pressure was mostly from the smaller yards. This version was proposed by William Short of the Washington State Federation of Labor. The third possible scenario proposed that Piez was trying to crush Seattle unions so that he could protect his investment in a shipyard in his native Philadelphia. The shipyard owners went along with this because "Eastern capitalists" had bribed them with stock in the eastern shipyards. This version was most popular among the rank and file. Friedheim maintained that the last version had the least evidence to support it, while the second version had the most credibility.
68. The reason that Piez would go this far was subject to speculation. In The Seattle General Strike, Friedheim described three possible scenarios proposed by different labor sources. The first was that the local employers sincerely wanted to come to an agreement with labor. Both parties resented Piez's control over the shipbuilding industry. So employers and workers were actually working together to undermine Piez. The strike had been approved by the shipowners, in particular Skinner and Eddy. Harry Ault, editor of the Seattle Union Record, firmly believed this to be the case. The second possible explanation was that Piez was forced to take a firm stand on the Macy award due to the pressure from Seattle shipyard management, which could not absorb the cost of wage increases. Apparently, the pressure was mostly from the smaller yards. This version was proposed by William Short of the Washington State Federation of Labor. The third possible scenario proposed that Piez was trying to crush Seattle unions so that he could protect his investment in a shipyard in his native Philadelphia. The shipyard owners went along with this because "Eastern capitalists" had bribed them with stock in the eastern shipyards. This version was most popular among the rank and file. Friedheim maintained that the last version had the least evidence to support it, while the second version had the most credibility.
69. Labor activist Tom Mooney had been framed for bombing a parade in San Francisco in 1916.
70. Seattle Union Record, 30 January 1919, 1 (University of Washington Libraries).
71. Murray Morgan, Skid Road: An Informal Portrait of Seattle (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1951), 201.
72. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920, 289.
73. Seattle unionists mostly supported the Bolshevik revolution in 1917. In contrast to the cautious response of the Washington State Federation of Labor, the Central Labor Council was jubilant at the success of the revolution. The longshoremen refused to load munitions destined for General Kolchak's counterrevolutionary forces in Russia. The Seattle Union Record strongly opposed intervention against the new "worker's state" and printed numerous articles and editorials on developments in Russia.
74. Barbara Windslow, "The Decline of Socialism in Washington, 1910-1925" (master's thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, 1969), 6.
75. A similar process occurred after WWII. Toward the end of the war and through 1946, more antilabor legislation was passed than at any other time during U.S. history. This culminated in the Taft-Hartly Act in 1947, which outlawed sympathy strikes, among other restrictions. Notably, the last American general strikes occurred in 1946.
76. According to the IWW's newsletter, the Industrial Worker, the strike could not have succeeded because its goals were not revolutionary. It was a demonstration strike, but the state was in a better position to wait it out.
77. Rob Rosenthal, "Nothing Moved but the Tide," Labor's Heritage (fall 1992), 53, fn 36.
78. Berner, Seattle, 1900-1920, 309.
79. Communism gained greater credibility at this time because the Soviet Union, less dependent on the world capitalist economy, was not as hard hit during the depression.
80. Chiles, War on the Waterfront, 81, fn 40.
81. Larrowe, Harry Bridges, 13
82. Sam Darcy, "The Great West Coast Maritime Strike," The Communist (13 July 1934): 664-86.
83. Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront, 12.
84. Darcy, "The Great West Coast Maritime Strike."
85. Paul Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes, 19.
86. Ibid., 672.
87. Larrowe, Harry Bridges, 49.
88. Eliel, The Waterfront General Strikes, 63.
89. Quinn, The Big Strike, 83.
90. Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 270.
91. Ibid., 271.
92. Frederic Caire Chiles, War on the Waterfront: The Struggles of the San Francisco Longshoremen, 1851-1934 (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1981), 160.
93. Bernstein, A History of the American Worker, 79.
94. Quinn, The Big Strike, 104, 105.
95. ILA Radio Address, KGGC, San Francisco, California, 20 July 1934, International Longshoremen and Warehousemen's Union Library, San Francisco.
96. The closest experience was the Great Upheaval, a multistate strike by railway workers in 1887. But much of the strike was spontaneous, not organized. See Philip Foner, The Great Uprising 1877 (New York: Monad, 1977).
97. International Longshoremen's and Warehousemen's Union, The ILWU Story: Three Decades of Militant Unionism, 2d ed. (San Francisco: ILWU Information Department, ILWU Library, San Francisco, California, 1963), 4, 5.
98. In the field of cultural studies, the "institutional" approach analyzes the relationship between resources and cultural production. But the focus is limited to analyzing the emergence of institutions such as science. See Robert Wuthnow, Meaning and Moral Order: Explorations in Cultural Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987).