Military government, political control and crime: The case of Israeli Arabs

Crime, Law and Social Change

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 159-182

  Korn, Alina ^a  

^a BAR ILAN UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034365830     PISSN: 09254994     EISSN: 15730751     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1008355629861     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Annual Statistical Yearbooks and Annual Criminal Statistics (Jerusalem: Government Printer, Central Bureau of Statistics) for the relevant years.
2. See Stanley Cohen, Crime, Justice and Social Control in the Israeli Arab Population (Tel Aviv: International Center for Peace in the Middle East, 1989), 60-61.
3. See David Reifen, Patterns and Motivations of Juvenile Delinquency Among Israeli Arabs (Jerusalem: Ministry of Social Welfare, 1964); Shlomo G. Shoham, Esther Segal and Giora Rahav, “Secularization, Deviance and Delinquency among Israeli Arab Villagers,” Human Relations 1975 (28:7) 661-674; Yael Hassin, “Jewish and Arab Juvenile Delinquency in Israel: The Problem and Its Remedies,” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 1987 (11:2) 213-230.
4. See David Reifen, Patterns and Motivations of Juvenile Delinquency Among Israeli Arabs (Jerusalem: Ministry of Social Welfare, 1964); Shlomo G. Shoham, Esther Segal and Giora Rahav, “Secularization, Deviance and Delinquency among Israeli Arab Villagers,” Human Relations 1975 (28:7) 661-674; Yael Hassin, “Jewish and Arab Juvenile Delinquency in Israel: The Problem and Its Remedies,” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 1987 (11:2) 213-230.
5. See David Reifen, Patterns and Motivations of Juvenile Delinquency Among Israeli Arabs (Jerusalem: Ministry of Social Welfare, 1964); Shlomo G. Shoham, Esther Segal and Giora Rahav, “Secularization, Deviance and Delinquency among Israeli Arab Villagers,” Human Relations 1975 (28:7) 661-674; Yael Hassin, “Jewish and Arab Juvenile Delinquency in Israel: The Problem and Its Remedies,” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 1987 (11:2) 213-230.
6. 4 For a critical review of the theories used in order to explain crime amongst the Arab minority, see Cohen, op cit., 1989, 6-10; Elia T. Zureik, “Crime, Justice and Underdevelopment: The Palestinians Under Israeli Control,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 1988 (20) 411-442.
7. 4 For a critical review of the theories used in order to explain crime amongst the Arab minority, see Cohen, op cit., 1989, 6-10; Elia T. Zureik, “Crime, Justice and Underdevelopment: The Palestinians Under Israeli Control,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 1988 (20) 411-442.
8. See Ben-Zion Cohen and Shulamit Palmor, “The Impact of Ethnicity on Probation Recommendation and Dispositions in Israel,” Justice Quarterly 1985 (2:2) 197-212; Yael Hassin and Mordechai Kremnitzer, “Uniformity and Sentence in Traffic Offences,” Mishpatim 1988 (18:1) 103-129 [Hebrew]; Gideon Fishman and Arye Rattner, “The Israeli Criminal Justice System in Action - Is Justice Administered Differentially,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 1997 (13:1) 7-28.
9. See Ben-Zion Cohen and Shulamit Palmor, “The Impact of Ethnicity on Probation Recommendation and Dispositions in Israel,” Justice Quarterly 1985 (2:2) 197-212; Yael Hassin and Mordechai Kremnitzer, “Uniformity and Sentence in Traffic Offences,” Mishpatim 1988 (18:1) 103-129 [Hebrew]; Gideon Fishman and Arye Rattner, “The Israeli Criminal Justice System in Action - Is Justice Administered Differentially,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 1997 (13:1) 7-28.
10. See Ben-Zion Cohen and Shulamit Palmor, “The Impact of Ethnicity on Probation Recommendation and Dispositions in Israel,” Justice Quarterly 1985 (2:2) 197-212; Yael Hassin and Mordechai Kremnitzer, “Uniformity and Sentence in Traffic Offences,” Mishpatim 1988 (18:1) 103-129 [Hebrew]; Gideon Fishman and Arye Rattner, “The Israeli Criminal Justice System in Action - Is Justice Administered Differentially,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 1997 (13:1) 7-28.
11. A review of the studies that examine the discrimination against ethnic minorities at different stages of the criminal justice process in Europe and the United States, and a discussion of their contradictory results, may be found in Barbara Hudson, “Racism and Criminology: Concepts and Controversies,” in D. Cook and B. Hudson (eds.), Racism and Criminology (London: Sage, 1993) 1-27; Loraine Gelsthorpe, “Critical Decisions and Processes in the Criminal Courts,” in E. McLaughlin and J. Muncie (eds.), Controlling Crime (London: Sage, 1996), 107-156.
12. A review of the studies that examine the discrimination against ethnic minorities at different stages of the criminal justice process in Europe and the United States, and a discussion of their contradictory results, may be found in Barbara Hudson, “Racism and Criminology: Concepts and Controversies,” in D. Cook and B. Hudson (eds.), Racism and Criminology (London: Sage, 1993) 1-27; Loraine Gelsthorpe, “Critical Decisions and Processes in the Criminal Courts,” in E. McLaughlin and J. Muncie (eds.), Controlling Crime (London: Sage, 1996), 107-156.
13. Four principal models should be mentioned: The first is based on the modernization approach and was advocated by Jacob M. Landau, The Arabs in Israel: A Political Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1969) and Yohanan Peres, “Modernization and Nationalism in the Identity of the Israeli Arabs,” The Middle East Journal 1970 (24:4) 479-492. The second model is based on the Marxist analysis of Elia T. Zureik, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979). For Zureik, the master concept is that of “Internal Colonialism". The third is held by Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel’s Control of a National Minority (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) and is described as a “system of control". The fourth is defined as the “Ethnic Democracy" approach and is brought by Sammy Smooha, “Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: the Status of the Arab Minority in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1990 (13:3) 389-413. For Smooha, the master concept is “Institutionalized Domination". For further discussion and for a critique of the analysis of Smooha, see Oren Yiftachel, “The Concept of ‘Ethnic Democracy’ and its Applicability to the Case of Israel", Ethnic and Racial Studies 1992 (15:1) 125-136; Oren Yiftachel, “Israeli Society and Jewish-Palestinian Reconciliation: ‘Ethnocracy’ and its Territorial Contradictions,” Middle East Journal 1997 (51:4) 505-519; Azmi Bishara, “The Israeli Arab: Reflections on a Split Political Discourse,” in P. Ginossar and A. Barelf (eds.), Zionism: Contemporary Disputes (Sde Boker: Ben Gurion Research Centre, 1996) 312-339 [Hebrew].
14. Four principal models should be mentioned: The first is based on the modernization approach and was advocated by Jacob M. Landau, The Arabs in Israel: A Political Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1969) and Yohanan Peres, “Modernization and Nationalism in the Identity of the Israeli Arabs,” The Middle East Journal 1970 (24:4) 479-492. The second model is based on the Marxist analysis of Elia T. Zureik, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979). For Zureik, the master concept is that of “Internal Colonialism". The third is held by Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel’s Control of a National Minority (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) and is described as a “system of control". The fourth is defined as the “Ethnic Democracy" approach and is brought by Sammy Smooha, “Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: the Status of the Arab Minority in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1990 (13:3) 389-413. For Smooha, the master concept is “Institutionalized Domination". For further discussion and for a critique of the analysis of Smooha, see Oren Yiftachel, “The Concept of ‘Ethnic Democracy’ and its Applicability to the Case of Israel", Ethnic and Racial Studies 1992 (15:1) 125-136; Oren Yiftachel, “Israeli Society and Jewish-Palestinian Reconciliation: ‘Ethnocracy’ and its Territorial Contradictions,” Middle East Journal 1997 (51:4) 505-519; Azmi Bishara, “The Israeli Arab: Reflections on a Split Political Discourse,” in P. Ginossar and A. Barelf (eds.), Zionism: Contemporary Disputes (Sde Boker: Ben Gurion Research Centre, 1996) 312-339 [Hebrew].
15. Four principal models should be mentioned: The first is based on the modernization approach and was advocated by Jacob M. Landau, The Arabs in Israel: A Political Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1969) and Yohanan Peres, “Modernization and Nationalism in the Identity of the Israeli Arabs,” The Middle East Journal 1970 (24:4) 479-492. The second model is based on the Marxist analysis of Elia T. Zureik, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979). For Zureik, the master concept is that of “Internal Colonialism". The third is held by Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel’s Control of a National Minority (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) and is described as a “system of control". The fourth is defined as the “Ethnic Democracy" approach and is brought by Sammy Smooha, “Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: the Status of the Arab Minority in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1990 (13:3) 389-413. For Smooha, the master concept is “Institutionalized Domination". For further discussion and for a critique of the analysis of Smooha, see Oren Yiftachel, “The Concept of ‘Ethnic Democracy’ and its Applicability to the Case of Israel", Ethnic and Racial Studies 1992 (15:1) 125-136; Oren Yiftachel, “Israeli Society and Jewish-Palestinian Reconciliation: ‘Ethnocracy’ and its Territorial Contradictions,” Middle East Journal 1997 (51:4) 505-519; Azmi Bishara, “The Israeli Arab: Reflections on a Split Political Discourse,” in P. Ginossar and A. Barelf (eds.), Zionism: Contemporary Disputes (Sde Boker: Ben Gurion Research Centre, 1996) 312-339 [Hebrew].
16. Four principal models should be mentioned: The first is based on the modernization approach and was advocated by Jacob M. Landau, The Arabs in Israel: A Political Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1969) and Yohanan Peres, “Modernization and Nationalism in the Identity of the Israeli Arabs,” The Middle East Journal 1970 (24:4) 479-492. The second model is based on the Marxist analysis of Elia T. Zureik, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979). For Zureik, the master concept is that of “Internal Colonialism". The third is held by Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel’s Control of a National Minority (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) and is described as a “system of control". The fourth is defined as the “Ethnic Democracy" approach and is brought by Sammy Smooha, “Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: the Status of the Arab Minority in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1990 (13:3) 389-413. For Smooha, the master concept is “Institutionalized Domination". For further discussion and for a critique of the analysis of Smooha, see Oren Yiftachel, “The Concept of ‘Ethnic Democracy’ and its Applicability to the Case of Israel", Ethnic and Racial Studies 1992 (15:1) 125-136; Oren Yiftachel, “Israeli Society and Jewish-Palestinian Reconciliation: ‘Ethnocracy’ and its Territorial Contradictions,” Middle East Journal 1997 (51:4) 505-519; Azmi Bishara, “The Israeli Arab: Reflections on a Split Political Discourse,” in P. Ginossar and A. Barelf (eds.), Zionism: Contemporary Disputes (Sde Boker: Ben Gurion Research Centre, 1996) 312-339 [Hebrew].
17. Four principal models should be mentioned: The first is based on the modernization approach and was advocated by Jacob M. Landau, The Arabs in Israel: A Political Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1969) and Yohanan Peres, “Modernization and Nationalism in the Identity of the Israeli Arabs,” The Middle East Journal 1970 (24:4) 479-492. The second model is based on the Marxist analysis of Elia T. Zureik, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979). For Zureik, the master concept is that of “Internal Colonialism". The third is held by Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel’s Control of a National Minority (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) and is described as a “system of control". The fourth is defined as the “Ethnic Democracy" approach and is brought by Sammy Smooha, “Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: the Status of the Arab Minority in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1990 (13:3) 389-413. For Smooha, the master concept is “Institutionalized Domination". For further discussion and for a critique of the analysis of Smooha, see Oren Yiftachel, “The Concept of ‘Ethnic Democracy’ and its Applicability to the Case of Israel", Ethnic and Racial Studies 1992 (15:1) 125-136; Oren Yiftachel, “Israeli Society and Jewish-Palestinian Reconciliation: ‘Ethnocracy’ and its Territorial Contradictions,” Middle East Journal 1997 (51:4) 505-519; Azmi Bishara, “The Israeli Arab: Reflections on a Split Political Discourse,” in P. Ginossar and A. Barelf (eds.), Zionism: Contemporary Disputes (Sde Boker: Ben Gurion Research Centre, 1996) 312-339 [Hebrew].
18. Four principal models should be mentioned: The first is based on the modernization approach and was advocated by Jacob M. Landau, The Arabs in Israel: A Political Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1969) and Yohanan Peres, “Modernization and Nationalism in the Identity of the Israeli Arabs,” The Middle East Journal 1970 (24:4) 479-492. The second model is based on the Marxist analysis of Elia T. Zureik, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979). For Zureik, the master concept is that of “Internal Colonialism". The third is held by Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel’s Control of a National Minority (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) and is described as a “system of control". The fourth is defined as the “Ethnic Democracy" approach and is brought by Sammy Smooha, “Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: the Status of the Arab Minority in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1990 (13:3) 389-413. For Smooha, the master concept is “Institutionalized Domination". For further discussion and for a critique of the analysis of Smooha, see Oren Yiftachel, “The Concept of ‘Ethnic Democracy’ and its Applicability to the Case of Israel", Ethnic and Racial Studies 1992 (15:1) 125-136; Oren Yiftachel, “Israeli Society and Jewish-Palestinian Reconciliation: ‘Ethnocracy’ and its Territorial Contradictions,” Middle East Journal 1997 (51:4) 505-519; Azmi Bishara, “The Israeli Arab: Reflections on a Split Political Discourse,” in P. Ginossar and A. Barelf (eds.), Zionism: Contemporary Disputes (Sde Boker: Ben Gurion Research Centre, 1996) 312-339 [Hebrew].
19. Four principal models should be mentioned: The first is based on the modernization approach and was advocated by Jacob M. Landau, The Arabs in Israel: A Political Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1969) and Yohanan Peres, “Modernization and Nationalism in the Identity of the Israeli Arabs,” The Middle East Journal 1970 (24:4) 479-492. The second model is based on the Marxist analysis of Elia T. Zureik, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979). For Zureik, the master concept is that of “Internal Colonialism". The third is held by Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel’s Control of a National Minority (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) and is described as a “system of control". The fourth is defined as the “Ethnic Democracy" approach and is brought by Sammy Smooha, “Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: the Status of the Arab Minority in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1990 (13:3) 389-413. For Smooha, the master concept is “Institutionalized Domination". For further discussion and for a critique of the analysis of Smooha, see Oren Yiftachel, “The Concept of ‘Ethnic Democracy’ and its Applicability to the Case of Israel", Ethnic and Racial Studies 1992 (15:1) 125-136; Oren Yiftachel, “Israeli Society and Jewish-Palestinian Reconciliation: ‘Ethnocracy’ and its Territorial Contradictions,” Middle East Journal 1997 (51:4) 505-519; Azmi Bishara, “The Israeli Arab: Reflections on a Split Political Discourse,” in P. Ginossar and A. Barelf (eds.), Zionism: Contemporary Disputes (Sde Boker: Ben Gurion Research Centre, 1996) 312-339 [Hebrew].
20. Four principal models should be mentioned: The first is based on the modernization approach and was advocated by Jacob M. Landau, The Arabs in Israel: A Political Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1969) and Yohanan Peres, “Modernization and Nationalism in the Identity of the Israeli Arabs,” The Middle East Journal 1970 (24:4) 479-492. The second model is based on the Marxist analysis of Elia T. Zureik, The Palestinians in Israel: A Study in Internal Colonialism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979). For Zureik, the master concept is that of “Internal Colonialism". The third is held by Ian Lustick, Arabs in the Jewish State: Israel’s Control of a National Minority (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980) and is described as a “system of control". The fourth is defined as the “Ethnic Democracy" approach and is brought by Sammy Smooha, “Minority Status in an Ethnic Democracy: the Status of the Arab Minority in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1990 (13:3) 389-413. For Smooha, the master concept is “Institutionalized Domination". For further discussion and for a critique of the analysis of Smooha, see Oren Yiftachel, “The Concept of ‘Ethnic Democracy’ and its Applicability to the Case of Israel", Ethnic and Racial Studies 1992 (15:1) 125-136; Oren Yiftachel, “Israeli Society and Jewish-Palestinian Reconciliation: ‘Ethnocracy’ and its Territorial Contradictions,” Middle East Journal 1997 (51:4) 505-519; Azmi Bishara, “The Israeli Arab: Reflections on a Split Political Discourse,” in P. Ginossar and A. Barelf (eds.), Zionism: Contemporary Disputes (Sde Boker: Ben Gurion Research Centre, 1996) 312-339 [Hebrew].
21. See Cohen, op cit., 1989, 14.
22. These questions were raised by Cohen, op cit., 1989, in his most valuable and revealing study concerning crime and social control in the Israeli Arab Population.
23. See, for example, the critical analyses of Baruch Kimmerling, “Constitutional Revolution or Continual Discrimination,” Alpayim 1999 (18) 69-76 [Hebrew]; Menachem Hofnung, Democracy, Law and National Security in Israel (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996); Gad Barzilai, “The Argument of ‘National Security’ in Politics and Jurisprudence,” in D. Bar-Tal, D. Jacobson and A. Kleiman (eds.), National Security Concerns: Insights from Israeli Experience (Stanford: JAI Press, 1998) 243-266; David Kretzmer, The Legal Status of the Arabs in Israel (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Also, see the Symposium on “A Jewish and Democratic State,” Iyunei Mishpat (Legal Studies) 1995 (19) [Hebrew].
24. See, for example, the critical analyses of Baruch Kimmerling, “Constitutional Revolution or Continual Discrimination,” Alpayim 1999 (18) 69-76 [Hebrew]; Menachem Hofnung, Democracy, Law and National Security in Israel (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996); Gad Barzilai, “The Argument of ‘National Security’ in Politics and Jurisprudence,” in D. Bar-Tal, D. Jacobson and A. Kleiman (eds.), National Security Concerns: Insights from Israeli Experience (Stanford: JAI Press, 1998) 243-266; David Kretzmer, The Legal Status of the Arabs in Israel (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Also, see the Symposium on “A Jewish and Democratic State,” Iyunei Mishpat (Legal Studies) 1995 (19) [Hebrew].
25. See, for example, the critical analyses of Baruch Kimmerling, “Constitutional Revolution or Continual Discrimination,” Alpayim 1999 (18) 69-76 [Hebrew]; Menachem Hofnung, Democracy, Law and National Security in Israel (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996); Gad Barzilai, “The Argument of ‘National Security’ in Politics and Jurisprudence,” in D. Bar-Tal, D. Jacobson and A. Kleiman (eds.), National Security Concerns: Insights from Israeli Experience (Stanford: JAI Press, 1998) 243-266; David Kretzmer, The Legal Status of the Arabs in Israel (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Also, see the Symposium on “A Jewish and Democratic State,” Iyunei Mishpat (Legal Studies) 1995 (19) [Hebrew].
26. See, for example, the critical analyses of Baruch Kimmerling, “Constitutional Revolution or Continual Discrimination,” Alpayim 1999 (18) 69-76 [Hebrew]; Menachem Hofnung, Democracy, Law and National Security in Israel (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996); Gad Barzilai, “The Argument of ‘National Security’ in Politics and Jurisprudence,” in D. Bar-Tal, D. Jacobson and A. Kleiman (eds.), National Security Concerns: Insights from Israeli Experience (Stanford: JAI Press, 1998) 243-266; David Kretzmer, The Legal Status of the Arabs in Israel (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Also, see the Symposium on “A Jewish and Democratic State,” Iyunei Mishpat (Legal Studies) 1995 (19) [Hebrew].
27. See, for example, the critical analyses of Baruch Kimmerling, “Constitutional Revolution or Continual Discrimination,” Alpayim 1999 (18) 69-76 [Hebrew]; Menachem Hofnung, Democracy, Law and National Security in Israel (Aldershot: Dartmouth, 1996); Gad Barzilai, “The Argument of ‘National Security’ in Politics and Jurisprudence,” in D. Bar-Tal, D. Jacobson and A. Kleiman (eds.), National Security Concerns: Insights from Israeli Experience (Stanford: JAI Press, 1998) 243-266; David Kretzmer, The Legal Status of the Arabs in Israel (Boulder: Westview Press, 1990); Also, see the Symposium on “A Jewish and Democratic State,” Iyunei Mishpat (Legal Studies) 1995 (19) [Hebrew].
28. Ya’acov Shimoni, the representative of the Foreign Ministry in the Committee Meeting near the Military Government of the Occupied Territories, 29 August 1948, Israel State Archives (ISA), Minority Affairs Ministry Papers (MAM), Gimel/308/9.
29. In the second half of the war, from July 1948, the army conducted many expulsions. See Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 292.
30. See Charles Kamen, “After the Tragedy: the Arabs in the State of Israel, 1948-1950,” Notebooks of Research and Criticism 1984 (10) 40 [Hebrew]. After signing the armistice agreements with the Arab countries, some expulsions were carried out the most prominent one was the transfer of the inhabitants of Al Majdal (Ashkelon) to the Gaza Strip in 1950. See Morris, op cit., 1987, 246-247.
31. See Charles Kamen, “After the Tragedy: the Arabs in the State of Israel, 1948-1950,” Notebooks of Research and Criticism 1984 (10) 40 [Hebrew]. After signing the armistice agreements with the Arab countries, some expulsions were carried out the most prominent one was the transfer of the inhabitants of Al Majdal (Ashkelon) to the Gaza Strip in 1950. See Morris, op cit., 1987, 246-247.
32. The number of Arabs who were transferred from their homes to places within the boundaries of the state is estimated at 23, 000. See Kamen, op cit., 1984, 18.
33. In the files of the Police Ministry in the State Archives, there are applications made by Arab inhabitants asking to be granted entrance visas for members of their families who were resident outside Israel. There are also many applications of refugees who had succeeded in residing in the country for an extended period of time without the knowledge of the authorities and who had tried to receive either Israeli citizenship or permits for permanent residence in order to avert their expulsion. ISA, Police Ministry Papers, Gimel/6839.
34. See Benny Morris, Israel’s Border Wars 1949-1956 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), 28.
35. A comprehensive historical review of the emergence and nature of Arab infiltration into Israel, and a serious discussion of the determining processes that characterized the development and shaping of the Israeli policy of retaliation, may be found in Morris, op cit., 1993.
36. See, for example, the lecture of Yehoshua Palmon, Prime Minister’s Adviser on Arab Affairs, to the delegates of the Foreign Ministry, 26 July 1950. ISA, Prime Minister’s Office Papers (PMO), Gimel/5592/4669II.
37. Mentioned in the police survey on the Problems of Infiltration into Israel for the year 1953. ISA, PMO, Gimel/5434/1397.
38. Permits for family and social visits were rarely granted. From data published in the government yearbook of 1954, it appears that in 1953/54, some 80% of the permits were issued for purposes of employment and the remainder was for medical treatments, court appearances or consultations with lawyers, or dealings with government agencies. Mentioned in Lustick, op cit., 1980.
39. Over the years some alleviation in the system of travel permits was introduced. The aim was to facilitate movement from the distant villages to the center of the country. The division to districts and to smaller areas was retained, and through general exit permits, inhabitants from certain areas were allowed to go to other areas without requiring a special permit.
40. According to different estimations, until 1954 there were 54 closed areas in the Galilee (Northern district), and afterwards about one third of those remained closed. See Lustick, op cit., 1980; Ze’ev SchifF, “The Pros and Cons of the Military Government,” New Outlook 1962 (5:3) 64-71.
41. According to different estimations, until 1954 there were 54 closed areas in the Galilee (Northern district), and afterwards about one third of those remained closed. See Lustick, op cit., 1980; Ze’ev SchifF, “The Pros and Cons of the Military Government,” New Outlook 1962 (5:3) 64-71.
42. For example, in December 1955, some 74, 000 dunums of land in the central Galilee were expropriated in order to build the city of Carmiel, and in June 1959, lands next to Baqa Al Gharbiya, in the Arab Triangle, were declared closed for army maneuvers. Mentioned in Sabri Jiryis, The Arabs in Israel (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1976), 26.
43. From an interview with Benjamin Lobetkin (1 July 1993), who was the representative of the military governor in Tayba, and military governor of the central and northern districts between the years 1953 and 1966.
44. Interview with Lobetkin, op cit., 1993.
45. The Minister of Health, Y. Barzilai, forwarded a letter to the Prime Minister from the chairman of the Doctors’ Union on the 23 December 1957, whereby he was requested to begin negotiations with the Ministry of Defense, with the purpose of extending the period of the permits for doctors in Nazareth from six months to a year, and to include districts and not specific places in the permit. ISA, PMO, Gimel/5593/4696.
46. See Lustick, op cit., 1980.
47. Moshe Yitah, the director of the Minority Affairs Ministry office in Haifa, to the Minority Affairs Minister, 28 October 1948. ISA, MAM, Gimel/309/65.
48. Emmanuel Friedman, the director of the Minority Afiairs Ministry office in Safed, forwarded the appeal of the Arab villagers to the Minority Affairs Ministry in Tel Aviv, 3 January 1949. ISA, MAM, Gimel/302/67.
49. For further discussion of the offences against the Defense (Emergency) Regulations, 1945, see Alina Kom, “Crime and Legal Control: the Israeli Arab Population during the Military Government Period (1948-1966),” British Journal of Criminology 2000 (40) 570-589.
50. For a detailed discussion of the Defense (Emergency) Regulations, 1945, see Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Kretzmer, op cit., 1990; Hofnung, op cit., 1996. The most extreme incident, but indeed relevant in this context is the massacre at Kfar Kassim on 29 October 1956. On the eve of the Sinai Campaign, 51 villagers were shot dead by a unit of Border Guard, while returning home, singly and in groups, from working in the fields, not knowing about the curfew that had been imposed on the village.
51. For a detailed discussion of the Defense (Emergency) Regulations, 1945, see Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Kretzmer, op cit., 1990; Hofnung, op cit., 1996. The most extreme incident, but indeed relevant in this context is the massacre at Kfar Kassim on 29 October 1956. On the eve of the Sinai Campaign, 51 villagers were shot dead by a unit of Border Guard, while returning home, singly and in groups, from working in the fields, not knowing about the curfew that had been imposed on the village.
52. For a detailed discussion of the Defense (Emergency) Regulations, 1945, see Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Kretzmer, op cit., 1990; Hofnung, op cit., 1996. The most extreme incident, but indeed relevant in this context is the massacre at Kfar Kassim on 29 October 1956. On the eve of the Sinai Campaign, 51 villagers were shot dead by a unit of Border Guard, while returning home, singly and in groups, from working in the fields, not knowing about the curfew that had been imposed on the village.
53. Usually, the representatives of the military government could not pay in money, but they had the authority to grant exit permits and work permits and they were in a position to speed up the processing of applications in the administration. Interview with Zvi Shpan (19 June 1993), who was the representative of the military governor in eastern Galilee and military governor in the north between the years 1953 and 1964; Interview with Isar Halamish (23 June 1993) who was military governor in the central district between the years 1964 and 1966.
54. Interview with Pinchas Amir (6 July 1993), who was military governor in the Negev (south) between the years 1956 and 1963.
55. Interview with Amir, op cit., 1993.
56. Interview with Amir, op cit., 1993; Interview with Aryeh Samsonov (21 July 1993), who was the representative of the military governor in Tayba, Baqa Al Gharbiya, Um Al Fahm and Ara between the years 1950 and 1958.
57. A description of a variety of techniques used by the military government in order to pressurize those who refused to collaborate on the political level, may be found in Lustick, op cit., 1980; Walter Schwartz, The Arabs in Israel (London: Faber and Faber, 1959).
58. A description of a variety of techniques used by the military government in order to pressurize those who refused to collaborate on the political level, may be found in Lustick, op cit., 1980; Walter Schwartz, The Arabs in Israel (London: Faber and Faber, 1959).
59. See Abner Cohen, Arab Border Villages in Israel: A Study of Continuity and Change in Social Organization (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1965); Lustick, op cit., 1980.
60. See Abner Cohen, Arab Border Villages in Israel: A Study of Continuity and Change in Social Organization (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1965); Lustick, op cit., 1980.
61. See Lustick, op cit., 1980.
62. See Subhi Abu-Ghosh, The Politics of an Arab Village in Israel (Ann Arbor: Princeton University, 1965); Schiff, op cit., 1962; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
63. See Subhi Abu-Ghosh, The Politics of an Arab Village in Israel (Ann Arbor: Princeton University, 1965); Schiff, op cit., 1962; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
64. See Subhi Abu-Ghosh, The Politics of an Arab Village in Israel (Ann Arbor: Princeton University, 1965); Schiff, op cit., 1962; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
65. According to Zvi Al-Peleg, it was not necessary to tell the Arab citizens for whom they should vote and it was also not necessary to threaten them with sanctions if they did not cast their vote for Mapai: one small movement of the Governor’s head sufficed in order to influence the voting decisions of the Arab population. From an interview with Zvi Al-Peleg (9 August 1993), who was the representative of the military governor in Tayba, Baqa Al Gharbiya, Um Al Fahm and Ara between the years 1949 and 1953. According to Lustick, op cit., 1980, the military government distributed slightly different ballot tickets to the different Hamulahs in order to control their vote.
66. The following story may not be characteristic but it demonstrates the inconsistent character of these offences. Dr Levi Eden, the director of the Youth Probation Service, told me in a conversation that took place in January 1990, about something that he was accustomed to doing in the fifties when he was the commanding officer of the police station in Afula. A police station that opened more than a thousand files in a month on an average, was considered a large station, and as a result was entitled to certain benefits. Each year in December, when he estimated that he needed some more files in order to reach the required number of 1, 000, he ordered his policemen to go to the central bus station in the city in order to arrest Arabs who did not have travel permits in their possession, and to open files on them. In that way he was able to fulfill the desired quota.
67. For example, people who were arrested after comm tting offences like fraud or forgery and wished to avoid being brought to trial, had to find a way of “compensating" the governor by giving him useful information. Interview with Samsonov, op cit., 1993.
68. With the establishment of the interim government on 15 May 1948 a Ministry of Minority Affairs was established in order to centralize the administration of the vanquished population, and for a short period, it served as an intermediary in its contacts with the government. With the rationale of overlapping and duplicated roles between the Ministry of Minority Affairs and other Ministries, in subordination to the military government, the Ministry of Minority Affairs was closed in July 1949.
69. A discussion of the discrimination against Arab citizens in many fields of life may be found in Lustick, op cit., 1980; Uzi Benziman and Atallah Mansour, Subtenants (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1992) [Hebrew]; Kretzmer, op cit., 1990; Sammy Smooha, “Existing and Alternative Policy Towards the Arabs in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1982 (5:1) 71-98; Majid Al-Haj and Henry Rosenfeld, Arab Local Government in Israel (Tel-Aviv: International Center for Peace in the Middle East, 1998).
70. A discussion of the discrimination against Arab citizens in many fields of life may be found in Lustick, op cit., 1980; Uzi Benziman and Atallah Mansour, Subtenants (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1992) [Hebrew]; Kretzmer, op cit., 1990; Sammy Smooha, “Existing and Alternative Policy Towards the Arabs in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1982 (5:1) 71-98; Majid Al-Haj and Henry Rosenfeld, Arab Local Government in Israel (Tel-Aviv: International Center for Peace in the Middle East, 1998).
71. A discussion of the discrimination against Arab citizens in many fields of life may be found in Lustick, op cit., 1980; Uzi Benziman and Atallah Mansour, Subtenants (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1992) [Hebrew]; Kretzmer, op cit., 1990; Sammy Smooha, “Existing and Alternative Policy Towards the Arabs in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1982 (5:1) 71-98; Majid Al-Haj and Henry Rosenfeld, Arab Local Government in Israel (Tel-Aviv: International Center for Peace in the Middle East, 1998).
72. A discussion of the discrimination against Arab citizens in many fields of life may be found in Lustick, op cit., 1980; Uzi Benziman and Atallah Mansour, Subtenants (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1992) [Hebrew]; Kretzmer, op cit., 1990; Sammy Smooha, “Existing and Alternative Policy Towards the Arabs in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1982 (5:1) 71-98; Majid Al-Haj and Henry Rosenfeld, Arab Local Government in Israel (Tel-Aviv: International Center for Peace in the Middle East, 1998).
73. A discussion of the discrimination against Arab citizens in many fields of life may be found in Lustick, op cit., 1980; Uzi Benziman and Atallah Mansour, Subtenants (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, 1992) [Hebrew]; Kretzmer, op cit., 1990; Sammy Smooha, “Existing and Alternative Policy Towards the Arabs in Israel,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 1982 (5:1) 71-98; Majid Al-Haj and Henry Rosenfeld, Arab Local Government in Israel (Tel-Aviv: International Center for Peace in the Middle East, 1998).
74. The data in my possession were received from the Israel Defense Forces Archives (IDFA). They include daily reports from the headquarters of the northern district of the police for the months: August 1955, October 1955, and January 1956. The reports summarize the events that were recorded, daily, in each of the police stations of the northern district. The reports include recording of the complaints brought by people against their fellowmen and recording of activities initiated by the police.
75. Baruch Kimmerling, Zionism and Territory: The Socio-Territorial Dimensions of Zionist Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Oren Yiftachel, “Democracy or Ethnocracy? Territory and Settler Politics in Israel/Palestine,” Middle Eastern Research and Information 1998 (28:2) 8-14.
76. Baruch Kimmerling, Zionism and Territory: The Socio-Territorial Dimensions of Zionist Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Oren Yiftachel, “Democracy or Ethnocracy? Territory and Settler Politics in Israel/Palestine,” Middle Eastern Research and Information 1998 (28:2) 8-14.
77. Yiftachel, op cit., 1998; Alexander Kedar, “Time of Majority, Time of Minority: Land, Nationality and Statutes of Limitations in Israel,” Iyunei Mishpat (Legal Studies) 1998 (21:3) 665-746 [Hebrew].
78. Yiftachel, op cit., 1998; Alexander Kedar, “Time of Majority, Time of Minority: Land, Nationality and Statutes of Limitations in Israel,” Iyunei Mishpat (Legal Studies) 1998 (21:3) 665-746 [Hebrew].
79. See, for example, Yiftachel, op cit., 1998; Benziman and Mansour, op cit., 1992; Kimmerling, op cit., 1983; Baruch Kimmerling, “Boundaries and Frontiers in the Israeli Control System: Analytical Conclusions,” in B. Kimmerling (ed.), The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989); Hofnung, op cit., 1996; Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
80. See, for example, Yiftachel, op cit., 1998; Benziman and Mansour, op cit., 1992; Kimmerling, op cit., 1983; Baruch Kimmerling, “Boundaries and Frontiers in the Israeli Control System: Analytical Conclusions,” in B. Kimmerling (ed.), The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989); Hofnung, op cit., 1996; Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
81. See, for example, Yiftachel, op cit., 1998; Benziman and Mansour, op cit., 1992; Kimmerling, op cit., 1983; Baruch Kimmerling, “Boundaries and Frontiers in the Israeli Control System: Analytical Conclusions,” in B. Kimmerling (ed.), The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989); Hofnung, op cit., 1996; Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
82. See, for example, Yiftachel, op cit., 1998; Benziman and Mansour, op cit., 1992; Kimmerling, op cit., 1983; Baruch Kimmerling, “Boundaries and Frontiers in the Israeli Control System: Analytical Conclusions,” in B. Kimmerling (ed.), The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989); Hofnung, op cit., 1996; Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
83. See, for example, Yiftachel, op cit., 1998; Benziman and Mansour, op cit., 1992; Kimmerling, op cit., 1983; Baruch Kimmerling, “Boundaries and Frontiers in the Israeli Control System: Analytical Conclusions,” in B. Kimmerling (ed.), The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989); Hofnung, op cit., 1996; Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
84. See, for example, Yiftachel, op cit., 1998; Benziman and Mansour, op cit., 1992; Kimmerling, op cit., 1983; Baruch Kimmerling, “Boundaries and Frontiers in the Israeli Control System: Analytical Conclusions,” in B. Kimmerling (ed.), The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989); Hofnung, op cit., 1996; Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
85. See, for example, Yiftachel, op cit., 1998; Benziman and Mansour, op cit., 1992; Kimmerling, op cit., 1983; Baruch Kimmerling, “Boundaries and Frontiers in the Israeli Control System: Analytical Conclusions,” in B. Kimmerling (ed.), The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers (Albany: SUNY Press, 1989); Hofnung, op cit., 1996; Jiryis, op cit., 1976; Lustick, op cit., 1980.
86. Or “internal refugees", in contrast to “external refugees" or “absentees" that fled beyond the borders of the state, and their return to their homes was blocked.
87. Quoted from Yehoshua Palmon, Prime Minister’s Adviser on Arab Affairs at a conference of delegates of the Foreign Ministry, 26 July 1950. ISA, PMO, Gimel/5592/4669II.
88. According to a report by B. Yekutieli from the Prime Minister’s Adviser on Arab Affairs office to the secretary of the Foreign Minister, 13 May 1953. ISA, PMO, Gimel/5592/4669II.
89. Ran Kislev in the daily “Ha’Aretz", 25 July 1976.
90. Mentioned by A. Dotan from the Department of International Institutions in the Foreign Ministry and the Coordinator of the Rehabilitation Activity, in a report on the situation of the Arab refugees in Israel, 9 November 1952. ISA, PMO, Gimel/5592/4669II.
91. Ibid.
92. Mentioned in a report by Aharon Liskowsky entitled, The “Present Absentees" in Israel, that was sent in August 1959 to the Prime Minister’s Adviser on Arab Affairs office. ISA, PMO, Gimel/5592/4669II.
93. A discussion of the implications of the land policy on building and housing within the Arab local authorities, as well as data on the scope of illegal building and house demolition, may be found in Rasem Khameyseh, Planning and Housing Policy in the Arab Sector of Israel (Tel-Aviv: International Center for Peace in the Middle East, 1990).