Land, politics, and Buganda's 'indigenous' colonial state

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 65-89

  McKnight, Glenn H ^a  

^a DRAKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034349746     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086530008583079     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. 1. Basil Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State (New York, 1992); Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven, 1994); Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, 1996).
2. 1. Basil Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State (New York, 1992); Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven, 1994); Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, 1996).
3. 1. Basil Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State (New York, 1992); Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven, 1994); Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton, 1996).
4. 2. Young, 45.
5. 3. Davidson, 72; Mamdani, Citizen, 49.
6. 3. Davidson, 72; Mamdani, Citizen, 49.
7. 4. Davidson, 72.
8. 5. Both Young and Mamdani maintain that Indirect Rule in form, if not in name, characterized all African colonial governments because all used indigenous ruling structures to greater rather than lesser degrees. Young, 107; Mamdani, Citizen, 72-90.
9. 6. Young, 96-116.
10. 7. Young's and Mamdani's analyses of customary law differ distinctly. Young pictures customary law as appropriated and modified by and for the state (115), while Mamdani examines how conflict between the colonial state, local indigenous rulers, and a range of non-state interests generated that law (111-24). While the specific analysis Mamdani makes of customary law has its merits, his overall discussion of Indirect Rule's imposition contradicts this depiction. The theme of colonial power is fundamental to Mamdani's image of containerization. Officials made land communal, labour obligatory, and 'sculpted tradition and custom as and when the need arose' (49) in order to create the 'dependent but autonomous system of rule' (60) that was decentralized despotism. Mamdani's specific discussion of customary law recognizes the impact of different African social groups on the colonial experience which his larger discussion of Indirect Rule ignores. Mamdani's equivocal analysis of customary law and his overall emphasis on colonial power (and thus his agreement with Young) has been remarked on elsewhere. Ran Greenstein, 'Review Symposium: Mahmood Mamdani and the Analysis of African Society', African Sociological Review, 1, 2 (1997), 111, 113.
11. 8. Mamdani, Citizen, 16-24, 37-61.
12. 9. Mamdani and Young do differ in their breakdown of Indirect Rule. Mamdani's concept of the bifurcated state of indirectly ruled 'subjects' (tribalized Africans who regarded the state as 'other') and directly ruled 'citizens' (largely westernized Africans and settlers) introduces an important analytical distinction which Young does not share. Nevertheless, both see Indirect Rule as an independent choice of a dominant, autonomous colonial state.
13. 10. Young, 9.
14. 11. Young, 9, 244-281; Davidson, 197-265; Mamdani, Citizen, 25, 181-284.
15. 11. Young, 9, 244-281; Davidson, 197-265; Mamdani, Citizen, 25, 181-284.
16. 11. Young, 9, 244-281; Davidson, 197-265; Mamdani, Citizen, 25, 181-284.
17. 12. Although Young in particular sees the colonial state as a unit with specific characteristics, these are hard to define. While its core may have been European administrators (who were not necessarily unified), the state included various indigenous elements, unofficial European constituents, and metropolitan interests (both government and non-government). See Philip Corrigan and Derek Sayer. The Great Arch (Oxford, 1985); Robert Shenton, The Development of Capitalism in Northern Nigeria (Toronto, 1986); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya (London, 1990).
18. 12. Although Young in particular sees the colonial state as a unit with specific characteristics, these are hard to define. While its core may have been European administrators (who were not necessarily unified), the state included various indigenous elements, unofficial European constituents, and metropolitan interests (both government and non-government). See Philip Corrigan and Derek Sayer. The Great Arch (Oxford, 1985); Robert Shenton, The Development of Capitalism in Northern Nigeria (Toronto, 1986); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya (London, 1990).
19. 12. Although Young in particular sees the colonial state as a unit with specific characteristics, these are hard to define. While its core may have been European administrators (who were not necessarily unified), the state included various indigenous elements, unofficial European constituents, and metropolitan interests (both government and non-government). See Philip Corrigan and Derek Sayer. The Great Arch (Oxford, 1985); Robert Shenton, The Development of Capitalism in Northern Nigeria (Toronto, 1986); Bruce Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya (London, 1990).
20. 13. Bruce Berman, 'The Perils of Bula Matari: Constraint and Power in the Colonial State', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 31, 3 (1997), 564.
21. 14. Report of the Uganda Development Commission, 1920 (London: Foreign and Commonwealth Office Library).
22. 15. Both imperial apologists and dependency theorists have interpreted the switch in this manner. See C.C. Wrigley, Crops and Wealth in Uganda (Kampala, 1959) and Cyril Ehrlich, The Uganda Economy, 1903-45', in Vincent Harlow and E.M. Chilvers (eds.), History of East Africa, II (Oxford, 1965). See also E.A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa (London, 1973) and Mahmood Mamdani, Politics and Class Formation in Uganda (New York, 1976).
23. 15. Both imperial apologists and dependency theorists have interpreted the switch in this manner. See C.C. Wrigley, Crops and Wealth in Uganda (Kampala, 1959) and Cyril Ehrlich, The Uganda Economy, 1903-45', in Vincent Harlow and E.M. Chilvers (eds.), History of East Africa, II (Oxford, 1965). See also E.A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa (London, 1973) and Mahmood Mamdani, Politics and Class Formation in Uganda (New York, 1976).
24. 15. Both imperial apologists and dependency theorists have interpreted the switch in this manner. See C.C. Wrigley, Crops and Wealth in Uganda (Kampala, 1959) and Cyril Ehrlich, The Uganda Economy, 1903-45', in Vincent Harlow and E.M. Chilvers (eds.), History of East Africa, II (Oxford, 1965). See also E.A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa (London, 1973) and Mahmood Mamdani, Politics and Class Formation in Uganda (New York, 1976).
25. 15. Both imperial apologists and dependency theorists have interpreted the switch in this manner. See C.C. Wrigley, Crops and Wealth in Uganda (Kampala, 1959) and Cyril Ehrlich, The Uganda Economy, 1903-45', in Vincent Harlow and E.M. Chilvers (eds.), History of East Africa, II (Oxford, 1965). See also E.A. Brett, Colonialism and Underdevelopment in East Africa (London, 1973) and Mahmood Mamdani, Politics and Class Formation in Uganda (New York, 1976).
26. 16. Wrigley, Crops, 37.
27. 17. Mamdani, Politics, 58-61; Brett, 121-23.
28. 17. Mamdani, Politics, 58-61; Brett, 121-23.
29. 18. I explain this law more fully below. Wrigley, Crops, 50-53; Mamdani, Politics, 120-29.
30. 18. I explain this law more fully below. Wrigley, Crops, 50-53; Mamdani, Politics, 120-29.
31. 19. Christopher Youé's biography of Robert Coryndon (Uganda's governor for part of the crisis) describes these influences without the deterministic viewpoint of the writers I have mentioned. Christopher P. Youé, Robert Thorne Coryndon (Waterloo, Ont., 1986), 122-52.
32. 20. The Bataka Community was the main protagonist in the bataka crisis and had as members most of the bataka who had not been given landed estates in 1900. Its two main leaders were Daudi Bassude and Jemusi Miti Kabazi. It had three different names over the course of the crisis but the name 'The Bataka Community' is used throughout this piece.
33. 21. Christopher Wrigley, Kingship and State: The Buganda Dynasty (Cambridge, 1996), represents the latest contribution to the debate over when the kingdom was centralized.
34. 22. Muteesa encouraged his bakungu chiefs to become Christian and Muslim converts further to erode clan strength.
35. 23. This complex story is well-told in Martin Southwold, Bureaucracy and Chiefship in Buganda (Kampala, n.d.); C.C. Wrigley, 'The Christian Revolution in Buganda', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 2 (1959-60); Michael Wright, Buganda in the Heroic Age (London, 1971); M.S.M. Semakula Kiwanuka, A History of Buganda: From the Foundation of the Kingdom to 1900 (New York, 1972); Holger Bernt Hansen, Mission, Church and State in a Colonial Setting: Uganda, 1890-1925 (London, 1984).
36. 23. This complex story is well-told in Martin Southwold, Bureaucracy and Chiefship in Buganda (Kampala, n.d.); C.C. Wrigley, 'The Christian Revolution in Buganda', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 2 (1959-60); Michael Wright, Buganda in the Heroic Age (London, 1971); M.S.M. Semakula Kiwanuka, A History of Buganda: From the Foundation of the Kingdom to 1900 (New York, 1972); Holger Bernt Hansen, Mission, Church and State in a Colonial Setting: Uganda, 1890-1925 (London, 1984).
37. 23. This complex story is well-told in Martin Southwold, Bureaucracy and Chiefship in Buganda (Kampala, n.d.); C.C. Wrigley, 'The Christian Revolution in Buganda', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 2 (1959-60); Michael Wright, Buganda in the Heroic Age (London, 1971); M.S.M. Semakula Kiwanuka, A History of Buganda: From the Foundation of the Kingdom to 1900 (New York, 1972); Holger Bernt Hansen, Mission, Church and State in a Colonial Setting: Uganda, 1890-1925 (London, 1984).
38. 23. This complex story is well-told in Martin Southwold, Bureaucracy and Chiefship in Buganda (Kampala, n.d.); C.C. Wrigley, 'The Christian Revolution in Buganda', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 2 (1959-60); Michael Wright, Buganda in the Heroic Age (London, 1971); M.S.M. Semakula Kiwanuka, A History of Buganda: From the Foundation of the Kingdom to 1900 (New York, 1972); Holger Bernt Hansen, Mission, Church and State in a Colonial Setting: Uganda, 1890-1925 (London, 1984).
39. 23. This complex story is well-told in Martin Southwold, Bureaucracy and Chiefship in Buganda (Kampala, n.d.); C.C. Wrigley, 'The Christian Revolution in Buganda', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 2 (1959-60); Michael Wright, Buganda in the Heroic Age (London, 1971); M.S.M. Semakula Kiwanuka, A History of Buganda: From the Foundation of the Kingdom to 1900 (New York, 1972); Holger Bernt Hansen, Mission, Church and State in a Colonial Setting: Uganda, 1890-1925 (London, 1984).
40. 24. For a detailed study of the negotiations, see D.A. Low and R.C. Pratt, Buganda and British Overrule, 1900-1955 (Oxford, 1960) 3-105.
41. 25. Glenn McKnight, 'A Moral Economy of Development: Transforming the Discourse of Development in Uganda, 1895-1930' (Ph.D. diss., Queen's University, Kingston, 1996), 47-53.
42. 26. The Uganda Agreement divided the land of Buganda roughly in half. Half became Crown land and half was to be divided in freehold estates amongst Baganda who held chiefly estates in 1900. The Lukiko oversaw the allotment process whereby chiefs marked out land they controlled before 1900 but now would own by virtue of the new freehold or mailo tenure. This allotment was not without controversy as there were gainers and losers. The estates these chiefs received were called mailo estates or allotments and the land itself was called mailo land.
43. 27. Kagwa's faction gave estates to some bataka but, by their own admission, deprived lesser bataka of the clan's butaka. Lukiko to Kabaka, 18 March 1922, A46/2212, Entebbe, Uganda National Archive.
44. 28. McKnight, 46-55.
45. 29. This happened at least twice - once in 1912 and again in 1914. The Regents and Lukiko were able to defeat both attempts. See Michael Twaddle, 'The Bakungu chiefs of Buganda under British Colonial Rule, 1900-1930', Journal of African History, 10, 2 (1969), 316-19, for the 1912 story, and David Apter, The Political Kingdom in Uganda (Princeton, 1961), 139-41, for the 1914 controversy.
46. 29. This happened at least twice - once in 1912 and again in 1914. The Regents and Lukiko were able to defeat both attempts. See Michael Twaddle, 'The Bakungu chiefs of Buganda under British Colonial Rule, 1900-1930', Journal of African History, 10, 2 (1969), 316-19, for the 1912 story, and David Apter, The Political Kingdom in Uganda (Princeton, 1961), 139-41, for the 1914 controversy.
47. 30. Ham Mukasa, Uganda's Katikiro in England, Simon Gikandi (ed.), (Manchester, 1998).
48. 31. Johnston to CO, 26 June 1910, CO 536/38. Copies of Colonial Office material in the P[ublic] R(ecord| O[ffice], London, held by Documents Library, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.
49. 32. Tenants on mailo land owed landowners busuulu, envujjo, kasanvu, and luwalo. Variously tributes in kind and labour, by 1921, all had largely been commoditized. Envujjo was particularly onerous for tenant farmers as landlords in some areas charged as much as a third of a tenant's cotton for envujjo. Henry W. West, Land Policy in Buganda (Cambridge, 1972), 12-13; Report of the Committee on Tenure and Rents in Buganda, 31 Dec. 1925, CO 536/141.
50. 32. Tenants on mailo land owed landowners busuulu, envujjo, kasanvu, and luwalo. Variously tributes in kind and labour, by 1921, all had largely been commoditized. Envujjo was particularly onerous for tenant farmers as landlords in some areas charged as much as a third of a tenant's cotton for envujjo. Henry W. West, Land Policy in Buganda (Cambridge, 1972), 12-13; Report of the Committee on Tenure and Rents in Buganda, 31 Dec. 1925, CO 536/141.
51. 33. Low and Pratt, 234.
52. 34. Brett, 220; Wrigley, Crops, 39.
53. 34. Brett, 220; Wrigley, Crops, 39.
54. 35. Carter to CO, 21 April 1920, CO 536/100.
55. 36. Resolution, the Buganda Lukiko, 12 Nov. 1921, in Jarvis to CO, 7 Nov. 1922, CO 536/121.
56. 37. McKnight, 90-131.
57. 38. Jemusi Kabazi to Kabaka, 25 Feb. 1922, A46/2212. This letter summarizes the arguments of the Bataka Community's appeal to the Kabaka which began in early 1921.
58. 39. The Uganda Agreement. Johnston to FO, 12 March 1900, F[oreign O[ffice] 2/297, PRO.
59. 40. Kabazi made this clear by saying that 'we do not mean that we are desirous of breaking the Buganda Agreement of 1900 or do[ing] away with the Mailo allotment in Buganda[.]' Governor Archer, also aware of the Community's stance on mailo tenure, commented that they 'do not want to re-establish the former communal system of clan tenure'. In fact, they seemed to anticipate remaking butaka tenure into a form of individual holding so that it could be integrated into, probably under conditions of lease, the market economy. Kabazi to Kabaka, 25 Feb. 1922, A46/2212; Archer to CO, 20 Apr. 1923, CO 536/125; Gowers to CO, 20 July 1926, CO 536/141.
60. 41. Kabaka to Kabazi, 13 May 1922, A46/2212.
61. 42. David S. Bassude, letter to editor, Uganda Herald, 9 Dec. 1921, A46/2288.
62. 43. Coryndon to CO, 1 June 1922, CO 536/119. Coryndon commented: '[t]his government has recently been made aware that the question of the bataka lands was causing some controversy. The argument for the bataka claimants has now been organised and presented by one Daudi Bassude since his return from England last year. He is an educated Muganda of good status and I believe of good character.'
63. 44. Bataka Federation (Bataka Community) to PC Buganda, 18 Feb. 1923, A46/2212.
64. 45. Archer to Bataka Community, 6 June 1923, A46/2212.
65. 46. Bataka Community to Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society, 11 Apr. 1923, in Delmege to Scott, A46/2213. The Community's letter indicates that it had had previous contact with the ASAPS, though the extent is not at present known.
66. 47. Bataka Community to ASAPS, Dec. 1923, in Sturrock to CS, 17 Dec. 1923, A46/2213.
67. 48. For a discussion of such critiques and their philosophical foundations, see Michael Cowen and Robert Shenton, 'The Origin and Course of Fabian Colonialism in Africa', Journal of Historical Sociology, 4, 2 (1991), 143-74.
68. 49. Margaret Cole (ed.), The Webbs and Their Work (London, 1949), passim.
69. 50. See Peter Gould, Early Green Politics (New York, 1988) and Jan Marsh, Back to the Land (New York, 1982) for analyses of England's 'Back to the Land' movement. There were significant differences between the Radical liberal programme (selling small freehold plots to a romanticized yeoman farmer class) and the Fabian programme (state-owned land granted to smallholding tenants). See Cowen and Shenton, 'Fabian Colonialism'.
70. 50. See Peter Gould, Early Green Politics (New York, 1988) and Jan Marsh, Back to the Land (New York, 1982) for analyses of England's 'Back to the Land' movement. There were significant differences between the Radical liberal programme (selling small freehold plots to a romanticized yeoman farmer class) and the Fabian programme (state-owned land granted to smallholding tenants). See Cowen and Shenton, 'Fabian Colonialism'.
71. 50. See Peter Gould, Early Green Politics (New York, 1988) and Jan Marsh, Back to the Land (New York, 1982) for analyses of England's 'Back to the Land' movement. There were significant differences between the Radical liberal programme (selling small freehold plots to a romanticized yeoman farmer class) and the Fabian programme (state-owned land granted to smallholding tenants). See Cowen and Shenton, 'Fabian Colonialism'.
72. 51. Cowen and Shenton, 'Fabian Colonialism', 161, 162.
73. 52. The 'Third Party' group in British politics was a mix of Radicals and Fabians who advocated land nationalization and a single-tax system for Africa. See Anne Phillips. The Enigma of Colonialism (Bloomington, IN, 1989), 66-67, and Paul E. Lovejoy and Jan S. Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery (Cambridge, 1993), 145-47.
74. 52. The 'Third Party' group in British politics was a mix of Radicals and Fabians who advocated land nationalization and a single-tax system for Africa. See Anne Phillips. The Enigma of Colonialism (Bloomington, IN, 1989), 66-67, and Paul E. Lovejoy and Jan S. Hogendorn, Slow Death for Slavery (Cambridge, 1993), 145-47.
75. 53. Leonard Woolf, Empire and Commerce in Africa (London, 1920), 362.
76. 54. While this moral responsibility was certainly paternalistic and concerned more with England than with Africa, it was sincere, to the extent that their concerns about England's social problems were genuine.
77. 55. Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters (New Haven, CT, 1980), 24-124; Martin Chanock, 'Paradigms, Policies, and Property: A Review of the Customary Law of Land Tenure', in Kristin Mann and Richard Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa (Portsmouth, NH, 1991); Thomas C. Holt, The Problem of Freedom (Baltimore, 1992).
78. 55. Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters (New Haven, CT, 1980), 24-124; Martin Chanock, 'Paradigms, Policies, and Property: A Review of the Customary Law of Land Tenure', in Kristin Mann and Richard Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa (Portsmouth, NH, 1991); Thomas C. Holt, The Problem of Freedom (Baltimore, 1992).
79. 55. Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters (New Haven, CT, 1980), 24-124; Martin Chanock, 'Paradigms, Policies, and Property: A Review of the Customary Law of Land Tenure', in Kristin Mann and Richard Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa (Portsmouth, NH, 1991); Thomas C. Holt, The Problem of Freedom (Baltimore, 1992).
80. 56. Read and Anderson in Jackson to CO, 17 Aug. 1915, CO 536/77 and Butler in Wallis to CO, 12 Feb. 1917, CO 536/84.
81. 56. Read and Anderson in Jackson to CO, 17 Aug. 1915, CO 536/77 and Butler in Wallis to CO, 12 Feb. 1917, CO 536/84.
82. 57. Bottomley in Bataka Community to CO, 8 March 1923, CO 536/129.
83. 58. McKnight, 315-30.
84. 59. Jeffries in Archer to CO, 14 Feb. 1924, CO 536/130.
85. 60. Archer to CO, 14 Feb. 1924, CO 536/130.
86. 61. Griffin/Sturrock Commission Report, 20 Nov. 1924, in Sturrock to CO, 23 Dec. 1924, CO 536/133.
87. 62. Postlethwaite to CS, 9 Nov. 1925, A46/2214.
88. 63. McKnight, 333.
89. 64. Memorandum, Archer, 9 July 1925, A46/2213.
90. 65. Apter, 154.
91. 66. Low and Pratt, 215.
92. 67. Apter, 157.
93. 68. Kabaka to Governor, 25 Oct. 1925, in Postlethwaite to CS, 9 Nov. 1925, A46/2214.
94. 69. Low and Pratt, 213-18.
95. 70. Scott to CS, 25 Nov. 1925, A46/2214; Report of the Committee on Tenure and Rents in Buganda, 31 Dec. 1925, CO 536/141.
96. 70. Scott to CS, 25 Nov. 1925, A46/2214; Report of the Committee on Tenure and Rents in Buganda, 31 Dec. 1925, CO 536/141.
97. 71. Wrigley, Crops, 50-3; Mamdani, Politics, 120-29.
98. 71. Wrigley, Crops, 50-3; Mamdani, Politics, 120-29.
99. 72. Allen F. Isaacman, 'Peasants and Rural Social Protest in Africa', and Frederick Cooper, 'Africa and the World Economy', in Frederick Cooper et al., Confronting Historical Paradigms (Madison, 1993).
100. 72. Allen F. Isaacman, 'Peasants and Rural Social Protest in Africa', and Frederick Cooper, 'Africa and the World Economy', in Frederick Cooper et al., Confronting Historical Paradigms (Madison, 1993).
101. 73. Berman, 'Perils', 567.
102. 74. Louise Lennihan, 'The Origins and Development of Agricultural Wage Labor in Northern Nigeria: 1886-1980' (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1983); Phillips, Enigma; Lovejoy and Hogendorn, Slow Death; Carolyn Brown, 'Testing the Boundaries of Marginality'. Journal of African History, 37 (1996), 51-80; M.P. Cowen and R.W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London, 1996); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein (eds.), Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, 19, 2 (1998).
103. 74. Louise Lennihan, 'The Origins and Development of Agricultural Wage Labor in Northern Nigeria: 1886-1980' (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1983); Phillips, Enigma; Lovejoy and Hogendorn, Slow Death; Carolyn Brown, 'Testing the Boundaries of Marginality'. Journal of African History, 37 (1996), 51-80; M.P. Cowen and R.W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London, 1996); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein (eds.), Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, 19, 2 (1998).
104. 74. Louise Lennihan, 'The Origins and Development of Agricultural Wage Labor in Northern Nigeria: 1886-1980' (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1983); Phillips, Enigma; Lovejoy and Hogendorn, Slow Death; Carolyn Brown, 'Testing the Boundaries of Marginality'. Journal of African History, 37 (1996), 51-80; M.P. Cowen and R.W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London, 1996); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein (eds.), Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, 19, 2 (1998).
105. 74. Louise Lennihan, 'The Origins and Development of Agricultural Wage Labor in Northern Nigeria: 1886-1980' (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1983); Phillips, Enigma; Lovejoy and Hogendorn, Slow Death; Carolyn Brown, 'Testing the Boundaries of Marginality'. Journal of African History, 37 (1996), 51-80; M.P. Cowen and R.W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London, 1996); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein (eds.), Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, 19, 2 (1998).
106. 74. Louise Lennihan, 'The Origins and Development of Agricultural Wage Labor in Northern Nigeria: 1886-1980' (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1983); Phillips, Enigma; Lovejoy and Hogendorn, Slow Death; Carolyn Brown, 'Testing the Boundaries of Marginality'. Journal of African History, 37 (1996), 51-80; M.P. Cowen and R.W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London, 1996); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein (eds.), Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, 19, 2 (1998).
107. 74. Louise Lennihan, 'The Origins and Development of Agricultural Wage Labor in Northern Nigeria: 1886-1980' (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1983); Phillips, Enigma; Lovejoy and Hogendorn, Slow Death; Carolyn Brown, 'Testing the Boundaries of Marginality'. Journal of African History, 37 (1996), 51-80; M.P. Cowen and R.W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development (London, 1996); Suzanne Miers and Martin Klein (eds.), Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa, 19, 2 (1998).
108. 75. Berman, Conflicts; Jean-François Bayart, The State in Africa (New York, 1993); Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent (eds.), Everyday Forms of State Formation (Durham, NC, 1994).
109. 75. Berman, Conflicts; Jean-François Bayart, The State in Africa (New York, 1993); Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent (eds.), Everyday Forms of State Formation (Durham, NC, 1994).
110. 75. Berman, Conflicts; Jean-François Bayart, The State in Africa (New York, 1993); Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent (eds.), Everyday Forms of State Formation (Durham, NC, 1994).
111. 76. Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order (Cambridge, 1985); Jane L. Parpart, 'Sexuality and Power on the Zambian Copperbelt: 1926-1964', in Sharon B. Stichler and Jane L. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class (Boulder, CO, 1988); Leroy Vail, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1989); Steven Feierman, Peasant Intellectuals (Madison, WI, 1990); Mann and Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa; Terence Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition Revisited: The Case of Colonial Africa', in Terence Ranger and Olufemi Vaughan (eds.), Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa (London, 1993).
112. 76. Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order (Cambridge, 1985); Jane L. Parpart, 'Sexuality and Power on the Zambian Copperbelt: 1926-1964', in Sharon B. Stichler and Jane L. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class (Boulder, CO, 1988); Leroy Vail, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1989); Steven Feierman, Peasant Intellectuals (Madison, WI, 1990); Mann and Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa; Terence Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition Revisited: The Case of Colonial Africa', in Terence Ranger and Olufemi Vaughan (eds.), Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa (London, 1993).
113. 76. Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order (Cambridge, 1985); Jane L. Parpart, 'Sexuality and Power on the Zambian Copperbelt: 1926-1964', in Sharon B. Stichler and Jane L. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class (Boulder, CO, 1988); Leroy Vail, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1989); Steven Feierman, Peasant Intellectuals (Madison, WI, 1990); Mann and Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa; Terence Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition Revisited: The Case of Colonial Africa', in Terence Ranger and Olufemi Vaughan (eds.), Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa (London, 1993).
114. 76. Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order (Cambridge, 1985); Jane L. Parpart, 'Sexuality and Power on the Zambian Copperbelt: 1926-1964', in Sharon B. Stichler and Jane L. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class (Boulder, CO, 1988); Leroy Vail, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1989); Steven Feierman, Peasant Intellectuals (Madison, WI, 1990); Mann and Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa; Terence Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition Revisited: The Case of Colonial Africa', in Terence Ranger and Olufemi Vaughan (eds.), Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa (London, 1993).
115. 76. Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order (Cambridge, 1985); Jane L. Parpart, 'Sexuality and Power on the Zambian Copperbelt: 1926-1964', in Sharon B. Stichler and Jane L. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class (Boulder, CO, 1988); Leroy Vail, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1989); Steven Feierman, Peasant Intellectuals (Madison, WI, 1990); Mann and Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa; Terence Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition Revisited: The Case of Colonial Africa', in Terence Ranger and Olufemi Vaughan (eds.), Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa (London, 1993).
116. 76. Martin Chanock, Law, Custom and Social Order (Cambridge, 1985); Jane L. Parpart, 'Sexuality and Power on the Zambian Copperbelt: 1926-1964', in Sharon B. Stichler and Jane L. Parpart (eds.), Patriarchy and Class (Boulder, CO, 1988); Leroy Vail, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1989); Steven Feierman, Peasant Intellectuals (Madison, WI, 1990); Mann and Roberts (eds.), Law in Colonial Africa; Terence Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition Revisited: The Case of Colonial Africa', in Terence Ranger and Olufemi Vaughan (eds.), Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa (London, 1993).
117. 77. Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest (London, 1990); John Lonsdale, 'The Moral Economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, Poverty and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought', in Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley (London, 1992); Thomas Spear and Richard Waller (eds.), Being Maasai (London, 1993); Patrick Harries, Work, Culture and Identity (London, 1994); Bill Bravman, Making Ethnic Ways (Oxford, 1998).
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