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Volumn 37, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 51-80

Testing the boundaries of marginality: Twentieth-century slavery and emancipation struggles in Nkanu, northern Igboland, 1920-29

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Indexed keywords


EID: 0002404243     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0021853700034794     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (23)

References (182)
  • 1
    • 8344231788 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nigerian National Archives Ibadan (hereafter NNAI), CSO 26/1 W. Ormsby-Gore, Secretary of State for Colonies, to Governor Sir Hugh Clifford, 31 Mar. 1925
    • Nigerian National Archives Ibadan (hereafter NNAI), CSO 26/1 W. Ormsby-Gore, Secretary of State for Colonies, to Governor Sir Hugh Clifford, 31 Mar. 1925.
  • 2
    • 8344270464 scopus 로고
    • London
    • In 1932 the Temporary Commission was replaced by the Committee of Experts on Slavery. The consultative machinery was more effective and the Nigerian government was forced to respond with more specifics of Nkanu slavery. For the Nigerian government's manipulation of the League's queries see NNAI, CSO 26/2/11799, VIII, 'Question of Slavery in British West Africa'. For the League of Nations responses see League of Nations Publications, Series VI B, 'Slavery' 1923-34. For an account of the Commission's role see C. W. W. Greenidge, Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Anti-Slavery Society (London, 1958), and, from an 'insider', Lord Lugard, 'Slavery in all its forms', Africa, VI (1933), 1-14.
    • (1958) Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Anti-Slavery Society
    • Greenidge, C.W.W.1
  • 3
    • 84887596987 scopus 로고
    • Slavery in all its forms
    • In 1932 the Temporary Commission was replaced by the Committee of Experts on Slavery. The consultative machinery was more effective and the Nigerian government was forced to respond with more specifics of Nkanu slavery. For the Nigerian government's manipulation of the League's queries see NNAI, CSO 26/2/11799, VIII, 'Question of Slavery in British West Africa'. For the League of Nations responses see League of Nations Publications, Series VI B, 'Slavery' 1923-34. For an account of the Commission's role see C. W. W. Greenidge, Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Anti-Slavery Society (London, 1958), and, from an 'insider', Lord Lugard, 'Slavery in all its forms', Africa, VI (1933), 1-14.
    • (1933) Africa , vol.6 , pp. 1-14
    • Lugard, L.1
  • 4
    • 8344258598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Colonial reports in the 1920s repeatedly noted that South Nkanu was still free of missionary influence. This was the experience of the Revd A. Humphrey Richardson, the first missionary in South Nkanu. See Mrs Humphrey Richardson, 1An account of the pioneer work in the Agbani area of Nigeria undertaken by the Rev. Arthur Humphrey Richardson of the Primitive Methodist Missionary Society 1916-1920', unpublished manuscript, The Methodist Church, Overseas Division (Missionary Society), London (hereafter MMS). I would like to thank Mrs M. J. Fox, Archivist, for calling my attention to this valuable manuscript.
  • 6
    • 0003886156 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • Hopkins, focusing on the steady growth of agro-exports after emancipation, claims there was little economic or social dislocation. He thought that the availability of land, the trading boom in agro-exports and the development of slaves in agriculture accounted for the 'smoothness of the transition'. A. G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (New York, 1973), 225-9.
    • (1973) An Economic History of West Africa , pp. 225-229
    • Hopkins, A.G.1
  • 7
    • 0038932498 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hopkins, Economic History, 227. Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives (Madison, 1977), 73-4.
    • Economic History , pp. 227
    • Hopkins1
  • 9
    • 8344279843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A village-group is a cluster of villages who claim to be related to a common ancestor. Each kinship group within a specific village holds similar claims to a common ancestor descended from this ancestor
    • A village-group is a cluster of villages who claim to be related to a common ancestor. Each kinship group within a specific village holds similar claims to a common ancestor descended from this ancestor.
  • 13
    • 84899248729 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Disaffection and revolts in Nigeria during the First World War, 1914-1918
    • Akinjide Osuntokun, 'Disaffection and revolts in Nigeria during the First World War, 1914-1918', Can. J. Afr. Studies, V (1971), 180. The documentation of the uprising is in Public Records Office (hereafter PRO), CO 583, files 12, 14, 19, 20, 23 and 32.
    • (1971) Can. J. Afr. Studies , vol.5 , pp. 180
    • Osuntokun, A.1
  • 14
    • 84974098203 scopus 로고
    • The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • (1954) Africa , vol.24 , pp. 311-336
    • Horton, W.G.R.1
  • 15
    • 84974121484 scopus 로고
    • God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • (1956) Africa , vol.24 , pp. 17-28
  • 16
    • 0344442025 scopus 로고
    • The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • (1985) Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies , vol.13 , pp. 473-485
    • Nwaka, G.I.1
  • 17
    • 8344280596 scopus 로고
    • Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • (1937) Africa , vol.20 , pp. 206-220
    • Leith-Ross, S.1
  • 18
    • 8344289362 scopus 로고
    • The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • (1967) Journal of Religion in Africa , vol.1 , pp. 35-45
    • Ezeanya, S.N.1
  • 19
    • 0005404729 scopus 로고
    • Enugu
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • (1986) The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria
    • Okeke, I.R.1
  • 20
    • 8344264791 scopus 로고
    • Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • (1942) Journal of Negro History , vol.27 , pp. 37-54
    • Harris, J.S.1
  • 21
    • 0003258096 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria
    • Miers and Kopytoff (eds.)
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • Slavery in Africa
    • Uchendu, V.1
  • 22
    • 0005587939 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)
    • Miers and Kopytoff (eds.)
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • Slavery in Africa , pp. 133-154
    • Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, K.1
  • 23
    • 0003657953 scopus 로고
    • Oxford
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • (1956) Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885
    • Dike, K.O.1
  • 24
    • 0038199119 scopus 로고
    • London
    • The only studies of slavery in Nkanu are W. G. R. Horton, 'The Ohu system of slavery in a northern Igboland village-group', Africa, XXIV (1954), 311-36, and 'God, man and the land in a northern Ibo village-group', Africa, XXIV (1956), 17-28. Nkanu features prominently in Nwaka's study of contemporary discrimination against slaves descendants. Geoffrey I. Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in colonial Igboland', Int. J. Afr. Hist. Studies, XIII (1985), 473-85. Of the few studies of Igbo slavery most focus on either the unusual cult slaves, called Osu, slavery in central Igboland or on the highly stratified coastal trading communities of the Niger Delta. The Osu slaves are the subject of Sylvia Leith-Ross, 'Notes on the Osu system among the Ibo of Owerri Province, Nigeria', Africa, XX (1937), 206-20; S. N. Ezeanya, 'The Osu (slave cult) system in Igboland', Journal of Religion in Africa, 1 (1967), 35-45; Igwebiuke Romeo Okeke, The 'Osu' Concept in Igboland: A Study of the Types of Slavery in Igbo-Speaking Areas of Nigeria (Enugu, 1986). Those based on research in central Igboland include J. S. Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery in southeastern Nigeria', Journal of Negro History, XXVII (1942), 37-54, and Victor Uchendu, 'Slaves and slavery in Igboland, Nigeria', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa. On the coastal/delta communities see K. Nwachukwu-Ogbedegbe, 'Slavery in nineteenth-century Aboh (Nigeria)', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 133-54. His is one of the few studies focusing on a specific community. There are sporadic references in K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956), and G. I. Jones, The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria (London, 1963).
    • (1963) The Trading States of the Oil Rivers: A Study of Political Development in Eastern Nigeria
    • Jones, G.I.1
  • 25
    • 8344290684 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Despite its flexibility slavery in central Igboland excluded slave descendants from certain rituals. NNAE, OW301/1922, District Officer (hereafter D.O.), Okigwi, to Resident (hereafter Res.), Owerri, 5 Apr. 1922; D.O. Degema to Res. Owerri, 10 Apr. 1922; D.O. Aba to Res. Owerri, 19 Apr. 1922; D.O. Owerri to Res. Owerri, 21 April 1922; Secretary, Southern Provinces (hereafter S.S.P.), to Res. Owerri, 1 May 1922
    • Despite its flexibility slavery in central Igboland excluded slave descendants from certain rituals. NNAE, OW301/1922, District Officer (hereafter D.O.), Okigwi, to Resident (hereafter Res.), Owerri, 5 Apr. 1922; D.O. Degema to Res. Owerri, 10 Apr. 1922; D.O. Aba to Res. Owerri, 19 Apr. 1922; D.O. Owerri to Res. Owerri, 21 April 1922; Secretary, Southern Provinces (hereafter S.S.P.), to Res. Owerri, 1 May 1922.
  • 30
    • 8344243999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The decline of slavery among the Igbo people
    • Miers and Kopytoff (eds.)
    • Thurstan Shaw, Igbo-Ukwu: An Account of Archaeological Discoveries in Eastern Nigeria (2 vols.) (London 1970); Don Ohadike, 'The decline of slavery among the Igbo people', in Miers and Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa, 443.
    • Slavery in Africa , pp. 443
    • Ohadike, D.1
  • 33
    • 0003567701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oxford
    • The Aro dominated the internal market, virtually monopolizing the exchange of slaves for imported goods. As custodians of an oracle recognized throughout south-east Nigeria, Ebinokpabi, they secured slaves initially for ritualistic and eventually commercial purposes. David Northrup, Trade Without Rulers: Pre-Colonial Economic Development in South-Eastern Nigeria (Oxford, 1978); A. E. Afigbo, Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture (Nsukka, 1981), 239-81; Ukwu I. Ukwu, 'The development of trade and marketing in Igboland', J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, in (1967), 651-5.
    • (1978) Trade Without Rulers: Pre-Colonial Economic Development in South-Eastern Nigeria
    • Northrup, D.1
  • 34
    • 0009831873 scopus 로고
    • Nsukka
    • The Aro dominated the internal market, virtually monopolizing the exchange of slaves for imported goods. As custodians of an oracle recognized throughout south-east Nigeria, Ebinokpabi, they secured slaves initially for ritualistic and eventually commercial purposes. David Northrup, Trade Without Rulers: Pre-Colonial Economic Development in South-Eastern Nigeria (Oxford, 1978); A. E. Afigbo, Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture (Nsukka, 1981), 239-81; Ukwu I. Ukwu, 'The development of trade and marketing in Igboland', J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, in (1967), 651-5.
    • (1981) Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture , pp. 239-281
    • Afigbo, A.E.1
  • 35
    • 53549106564 scopus 로고
    • The development of trade and marketing in Igboland
    • The Aro dominated the internal market, virtually monopolizing the exchange of slaves for imported goods. As custodians of an oracle recognized throughout south-east Nigeria, Ebinokpabi, they secured slaves initially for ritualistic and eventually commercial purposes. David Northrup, Trade Without Rulers: Pre-Colonial Economic Development in South-Eastern Nigeria (Oxford, 1978); A. E. Afigbo, Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture (Nsukka, 1981), 239-81; Ukwu I. Ukwu, 'The development of trade and marketing in Igboland', J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria, in (1967), 651-5.
    • (1967) J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria , pp. 651-655
    • Ukwu, U.I.1
  • 36
    • 0345480294 scopus 로고
    • London
    • S. W. Koelle, Polyglotta Africana (London, 1854). Informants in Ugbawka, a South Nkanu village, mention that Aro and Awka traders bought children supplied by kidnappers sometimes organized in guilds. Interview with Igwe Emmanuel N. Agu, Ugbawka, Nigeria, 3 Aug. 1988.
    • (1854) Polyglotta Africana
    • Koelle, S.W.1
  • 37
    • 8344273823 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rhodes House Library, Oxford University (hereafter, RHL), Mss. Afr. s. 1556, 'Nigeria Diary', Sandys Parker George to Inspector General of Police, Lagos, 4 Feb. 1935; Harris, 'Some aspects of slavery', 40-2; Interview with Benson Ede, Isigwe, Ugbawka, 20 Aug. 1988.
    • Some Aspects of Slavery , pp. 40-42
    • Harris1
  • 38
    • 8344240672 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ukwu, 'Development of trade and marketing'; Horton, 'Ohu system of slavery', 317; Elizabeth Isichei, Igbo Worlds: An Anthology of Oral Histories and Historical Descriptions (Philadelphia, 1978), 76-7; Interview with Nwoha Nnamani and Kumuejim Nwachi, Agbani, 25 Aug. 1988.
    • Development of Trade and Marketing
    • Ukwu1
  • 39
    • 8344246436 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ukwu, 'Development of trade and marketing'; Horton, 'Ohu system of slavery', 317; Elizabeth Isichei, Igbo Worlds: An Anthology of Oral Histories and Historical Descriptions (Philadelphia, 1978), 76-7; Interview with Nwoha Nnamani and Kumuejim Nwachi, Agbani, 25 Aug. 1988.
    • Ohu System of Slavery , pp. 317
    • Horton1
  • 41
    • 84972476568 scopus 로고
    • The compatibility of the slave and palm oil trades in the Bight of Biafra
    • See David Northrup, 'The compatibility of the slave and palm oil trades in the Bight of Biafra', J. Afr. Hist., XVII (1976) 353-64.
    • (1976) J. Afr. Hist. , vol.17 , pp. 353-364
    • Northrup, D.1
  • 42
    • 8344222188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The 'Yam King' title or Ezeji was bestowed on a member of a title society. It was open to successful freeborn farmers who raised the requisite numbers of yams, fed the society's members for a fixed number of days and paid entrance fees. As expert farmers their opinions and technical assistance were sought by other villagers and they occasionally adjudicated land disputes. Afigbo, Ropes of Sand, 128.
    • Ropes of Sand , pp. 128
    • Afigbo1
  • 43
    • 0003567701 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Each ton of palm oil required 250 person-days to process, half by women and children. RHL, Mss. Afr. s. 679, A. F. B. Bridges, 'Report on palm oil survey in Ibo, Ibibio and Cross River Area' (1938), Appendix VII, 1. By 1863-4 south-eastern Nigeria was exporting over 40,000 tons. As cited in Northrup, Trade Without Rulers, 183.
    • Trade Without Rulers , pp. 183
    • Northrup1
  • 44
    • 8344246436 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Horton, 'Ohu system of slavery', 311; NNAE, P. E. H. Hair, Enugu: An Industrial West African City (mimeograph, Enugu, 1953), 145; Afigbo, Ropes of Sand, 127-30, 138.
    • Ohu System of Slavery , pp. 311
    • Horton1
  • 45
    • 8344285958 scopus 로고
    • mimeograph, Enugu
    • Horton, 'Ohu system of slavery', 311; NNAE, P. E. H. Hair, Enugu: An Industrial West African City (mimeograph, Enugu, 1953), 145; Afigbo, Ropes of Sand, 127-30, 138.
    • (1953) Enugu: An Industrial West African City , pp. 145
    • Hair, P.E.H.1
  • 46
    • 8344222188 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Horton, 'Ohu system of slavery', 311; NNAE, P. E. H. Hair, Enugu: An Industrial West African City (mimeograph, Enugu, 1953), 145; Afigbo, Ropes of Sand, 127-30, 138.
    • Ropes of Sand , pp. 127-130
    • Afigbo1
  • 47
    • 0039256179 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Isichei quotes Noo Adala, an Agbaja elder, then c. 102, who witnessed the ascent of the 'new' wealthy. In Agbaja the wealthy were called Amadi: 'As time went on, this gradation of authority right from the town to the family unit, depending on age as the criterion gave way to the authority of the wealthy. These were people who were rich enough to take the highest titles of the town . . . During deliberations in the governing council of ndi amadi, the suggestion made by an amadi was more agreeable to those present than that of a poor elder, no matter if he was the eldest'. Isichei, Igbo Worlds, 73. See also A. E. Afigbo, 'Southeastern Nigeria in the nineteenth century', in J. F. A. Ajayi and Michael Crowder (eds.), History of West Africa (2nd ed., New York, 1974), ii, 442.
    • Igbo Worlds , pp. 73
    • Isichei1
  • 48
    • 8344237719 scopus 로고
    • Southeastern Nigeria in the nineteenth century
    • J. F. A. Ajayi and Michael Crowder (eds.), New York
    • Isichei quotes Noo Adala, an Agbaja elder, then c. 102, who witnessed the ascent of the 'new' wealthy. In Agbaja the wealthy were called Amadi: 'As time went on, this gradation of authority right from the town to the family unit, depending on age as the criterion gave way to the authority of the wealthy. These were people who were rich enough to take the highest titles of the town . . . During deliberations in the governing council of ndi amadi, the suggestion made by an amadi was more agreeable to those present than that of a poor elder, no matter if he was the eldest'. Isichei, Igbo Worlds, 73. See also A. E. Afigbo, 'Southeastern Nigeria in the nineteenth century', in J. F. A. Ajayi and Michael Crowder (eds.), History of West Africa (2nd ed., New York, 1974), ii, 442.
    • (1974) History of West Africa 2nd Ed.
    • Afigbo, A.E.1
  • 49
    • 8344279062 scopus 로고
    • Accumulation and stratification in northern Igboland: The impact of the Atlantic slave trade on an African society
    • unpublished paper, Northeastern University, Department of African-American Studies, 25 April
    • The village of Nomeh had a junior patrilineage who used alliances with Aro slave traders and their many slaves to enforce their role as judicial officials, selling offenders into slavery. NNAE, OP/1145, S. P. L. Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on the Nara Village Group of the Nkanu Clan, Udi Division' (1934). Also see Carolyn Brown, 'Accumulation and stratification in northern Igboland: the impact of the Atlantic slave trade on an African society', unpublished paper, Northeastern University, Department of African-American Studies, Conference on the Slave Trade, 25 April 1991.
    • (1991) Conference on the Slave Trade
    • Brown, C.1
  • 53
    • 8344276175 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Also, as the wife's father had himself not paid the brideprice for his wife, he had no patriarchial rights to demand a brideprice for a betrothed daughter
    • Also, as the wife's father had himself not paid the brideprice for his wife, he had no patriarchial rights to demand a brideprice for a betrothed daughter.
  • 54
    • 8344251221 scopus 로고
    • London
    • There was apparently an important market for slave children in the Cross River area during the 1920s. Frank Hives, a former Resident of Onitsha, noted in a sensationalist racist book that much of his time was spent intercepting Aro caravans in which small children were abducted in long baskets. See Frank Hives, Justice in the Jungle (London, 1932), 207-21.
    • (1932) Justice in the Jungle , pp. 207-221
    • Hives, F.1
  • 56
    • 8344252231 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Revd Richardson intervened several times in Nara to save a slave woman from sale to the Aro. 'Pioneer work in Agbani', 124.
    • Pioneer Work in Agbani , pp. 124
  • 57
    • 8344279065 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This happened with those slaves in the Akegbe who had successfully eliminated many of the symbolic and actual restrictions on their freedom, only to have them reasserted by their master in the wake of the uprising. NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. Awgu to Res. Onitsha, 1 Sept. 1924
    • This happened with those slaves in the Akegbe who had successfully eliminated many of the symbolic and actual restrictions on their freedom, only to have them reasserted by their master in the wake of the uprising. NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. Awgu to Res. Onitsha, 1 Sept. 1924.
  • 58
    • 8344255169 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This analysis is an interpretation of Horton's conclusions about the foundations of solidarity in totally segregated slave villages in Nike clan area in North Nkanu. I have applied them to all slave quarters of mixed villages where possession of an Ani shrine is a symbol of community cohesion. Horton, 'God, man and the land', 17-28; 'Ohu system', 329. 39 Horton, 'God, man and the land', 23-6; 'Ohu system', 329.
    • God, Man and the Land , pp. 17-28
    • Horton1
  • 59
    • 8344266301 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This analysis is an interpretation of Horton's conclusions about the foundations of solidarity in totally segregated slave villages in Nike clan area in North Nkanu. I have applied them to all slave quarters of mixed villages where possession of an Ani shrine is a symbol of community cohesion. Horton, 'God, man and the land', 17-28; 'Ohu system', 329. 39 Horton, 'God, man and the land', 23-6; 'Ohu system', 329.
    • Ohu System , pp. 329
  • 60
    • 8344255169 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This analysis is an interpretation of Horton's conclusions about the foundations of solidarity in totally segregated slave villages in Nike clan area in North Nkanu. I have applied them to all slave quarters of mixed villages where possession of an Ani shrine is a symbol of community cohesion. Horton, 'God, man and the land', 17-28; 'Ohu system', 329. 39 Horton, 'God, man and the land', 23-6; 'Ohu system', 329.
    • God, Man and the Land , pp. 23-26
    • Horton1
  • 61
    • 8344266301 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This analysis is an interpretation of Horton's conclusions about the foundations of solidarity in totally segregated slave villages in Nike clan area in North Nkanu. I have applied them to all slave quarters of mixed villages where possession of an Ani shrine is a symbol of community cohesion. Horton, 'God, man and the land', 17-28; 'Ohu system', 329. 39 Horton, 'God, man and the land', 23-6; 'Ohu system', 329.
    • Ohu System , pp. 329
  • 62
    • 8344246436 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Horton, 'Ohu system of slavery', 326; NNAE, Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on Agbani-Akpugo'.
    • Ohu System of Slavery , pp. 326
    • Horton1
  • 64
    • 8344234445 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Today some slave descendants cite this as proof of their indigenous origins. But as Horton notes, this assertion is questionable: 'Ohu system of slavery', 324. This is another example of the inaccuracy of earlier Igbo studies. Uchendu claimed that this was prohibited to slaves: 'Slavery in Igboland', 128.
    • Ohu System of Slavery , pp. 324
  • 65
    • 8344243219 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Today some slave descendants cite this as proof of their indigenous origins. But as Horton notes, this assertion is questionable: 'Ohu system of slavery', 324. This is another example of the inaccuracy of earlier Igbo studies. Uchendu claimed that this was prohibited to slaves: 'Slavery in Igboland', 128.
    • Slavery in Igboland , pp. 128
  • 66
    • 8344243998 scopus 로고
    • 14 Oct.
    • Later in 1936 the Amadi of Akegbe Ukwu protested when an Awbia family tried to do this dance at a funeral. NNAE, OP129/ONDIST 12/1/101, A. F. R. Stoddart, 'Awbia-Amadi Dispute, Nkanu Area', 14 Oct. 1936. The exact definition of the Ubo dance varies with the town. In some cases it is the one done by the 'horsekiller' society, a prestigious title acquired by men of wealth.
    • (1936) Awbia-Amadi Dispute, Nkanu Area
    • Stoddart, A.F.R.1
  • 67
    • 8344281625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Egede drum is played by this title society which includes community elders. It is the highest band used at funerals. They sacrifice cows, horses, goats, etc. and when they dance they show all they have done. The dance usually lasts four days. Ohu could not dance the same day as the Amadi. Interview with Victor Uke, research assistant, 5 July 1989
    • The Egede drum is played by this title society which includes community elders. It is the highest band used at funerals. They sacrifice cows, horses, goats, etc. and when they dance they show all they have done. The dance usually lasts four days. Ohu could not dance the same day as the Amadi. Interview with Victor Uke, research assistant, 5 July 1989.
  • 72
    • 8344282218 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Horton, 'Ohu system', 318; NNAE, OP268/1921, A. G. J. Owen, 'Nkanu Progress Report No. 17', 30 Apr. 1923.
    • Ohu System , pp. 318
    • Horton1
  • 74
    • 8344273824 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OW301/1920, Res. to S.S.P., 18 Oct. 1921
    • NNAE, OW301/1920, Res. to S.S.P., 18 Oct. 1921.
  • 75
    • 8344236982 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. Awgu to Res. Onitsha, 1 Sept. 1924
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. Awgu to Res. Onitsha, 1 Sept. 1924.
  • 76
    • 8344225514 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Considering that the fourth day was usually a market day, the slaves worked for the owner from one-third to all of the working week. NNAE, OW301/1922, Dew, 11 Oct. 1921
    • Considering that the fourth day was usually a market day, the slaves worked for the owner from one-third to all of the working week. NNAE, OW301/1922, Dew, 11 Oct. 1921.
  • 77
    • 8344289364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This is another dissimilarity with central Igboland, where eldest sons were heirs: ibid.
    • This is another dissimilarity with central Igboland, where eldest sons were heirs: ibid.
  • 78
    • 8344274582 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This was a favorable arrangement for a master because it increased his lineages' labor resources. Interview with Chief Joseph Edenwonovo, Uhuona, Ugbawka, 17 Aug. 1988
    • This was a favorable arrangement for a master because it increased his lineages' labor resources. Interview with Chief Joseph Edenwonovo, Uhuona, Ugbawka, 17 Aug. 1988.
  • 79
    • 8344257502 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Although in Akpugo land reverted to the owner upon the slave father's death. NNAE, OP268/1921, Dew to Res.(?), 4 Sept. 1923
    • Although in Akpugo land reverted to the owner upon the slave father's death. NNAE, OP268/1921, Dew to Res.(?), 4 Sept. 1923.
  • 80
    • 8344286564 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview with Benson Ede, Isigwe, Ugbawka, 21 Aug. 1988
    • Interview with Benson Ede, Isigwe, Ugbawka, 21 Aug. 1988.
  • 81
    • 8344224744 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • PRO, CO520/10 'Memorandum on instructions with regard to the Aro expedition', 12 Nov. 1901, as cited in Ohadike, 'Decline of slavery', 447.
    • Decline of Slavery , pp. 447
    • Ohadike1
  • 82
    • 8344235227 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OW301/1922, Moorhouse, 25 Nov. 1921
    • NNAE, OW301/1922, Moorhouse, 25 Nov. 1921.
  • 83
    • 8344232864 scopus 로고
    • Command Paper 469, London, HMSO
    • The Proclamation attempted to preserve the 'house' as a commercial unit by making it more difficult for slave members to break away and work on their own. Resembling in some respects the post-Civil War vagrancy laws in the Southern United States, the Ordinance subjected rebellious or vagrant 'house' members to fines and imprisonment. By the time it was passed the system was in advanced decay and many slave members had contracted to work outside the 'house'. The law then entitled the owner/'house' head to a certain percentage of the earnings of his erstwhile employed slave. Frederick Lugard, Report on the Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria, and Administration, 1912-1919 (Command Paper 469, London, HMSO, 1920). For a discussion of the 'house' see K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956).
    • (1920) Report on the Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria, and Administration, 1912-1919
    • Lugard, F.1
  • 84
    • 0003657953 scopus 로고
    • Oxford
    • The Proclamation attempted to preserve the 'house' as a commercial unit by making it more difficult for slave members to break away and work on their own. Resembling in some respects the post-Civil War vagrancy laws in the Southern United States, the Ordinance subjected rebellious or vagrant 'house' members to fines and imprisonment. By the time it was passed the system was in advanced decay and many slave members had contracted to work outside the 'house'. The law then entitled the owner/'house' head to a certain percentage of the earnings of his erstwhile employed slave. Frederick Lugard, Report on the Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria, and Administration, 1912-1919 (Command Paper 469, London, HMSO, 1920). For a discussion of the 'house' see K. O. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta 1830-1885 (Oxford, 1956).
    • (1956) Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta 1830-1885
    • Dike, K.O.1
  • 85
    • 0343358039 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roberts and Miers (eds.), The End of Slavery in Africa, 12-13; Tamuno, The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898-1914 (New York, 1972), 324; Tamuno, 'Emancipation in Nigeria', Nigeria Magazine, LXXII, (1964), 223; Lord Lugard, Instructions to Political Officers on Subjects Chiefly Political and Administrative, 1913-1918 (revised) (London, 1919), 245-6.
    • The End of Slavery in Africa , pp. 12-13
    • Roberts1    Miers2
  • 86
    • 0005401522 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • Roberts and Miers (eds.), The End of Slavery in Africa, 12-13; Tamuno, The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898-1914 (New York, 1972), 324; Tamuno, 'Emancipation in Nigeria', Nigeria Magazine, LXXII, (1964), 223; Lord Lugard, Instructions to Political Officers on Subjects Chiefly Political and Administrative, 1913-1918 (revised) (London, 1919), 245-6.
    • (1972) The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898-1914 , pp. 324
    • Tamuno1
  • 87
    • 84896147806 scopus 로고
    • Emancipation in Nigeria
    • Roberts and Miers (eds.), The End of Slavery in Africa, 12-13; Tamuno, The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The Southern Phase, 1898-1914 (New York, 1972), 324; Tamuno, 'Emancipation in Nigeria', Nigeria Magazine, LXXII, (1964), 223; Lord Lugard, Instructions to Political Officers on Subjects Chiefly Political and Administrative, 1913-1918 (revised) (London, 1919), 245-6.
    • (1964) Nigeria Magazine , vol.72 , pp. 223
    • Tamuno1
  • 89
    • 8344261869 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on the Nara Village Group'; Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on Agbani-Akpugo'; A. E. Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in Southeastern Nigeria 1891-1929 (London, 1972) ch. 4; C. A. Brown, 'A history of the development of workers' consciousness among the coal miners of Enugu Government Colliery, Nigeria 1914-1920' (Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1985); Innocent F. Uzoechi, 'The social and political impact of the Eastern Nigerian Railway on Udi Division, 1914-1945' (Ph.D. thesis, Kent State University, 1985).
    • Intelligence Report on the Nara Village Group
    • Beaumont1
  • 90
    • 8344283762 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on the Nara Village Group'; Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on Agbani-Akpugo'; A. E. Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in Southeastern Nigeria 1891-1929 (London, 1972) ch. 4; C. A. Brown, 'A history of the development of workers' consciousness among the coal miners of Enugu Government Colliery, Nigeria 1914-1920' (Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1985); Innocent F. Uzoechi, 'The social and political impact of the Eastern Nigerian Railway on Udi Division, 1914-1945' (Ph.D. thesis, Kent State University, 1985).
    • Intelligence Report on Agbani-Akpugo
    • Beaumont1
  • 91
    • 0003506735 scopus 로고
    • London, ch. 4
    • NNAE, Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on the Nara Village Group'; Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on Agbani-Akpugo'; A. E. Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in Southeastern Nigeria 1891-1929 (London, 1972) ch. 4; C. A. Brown, 'A history of the development of workers' consciousness among the coal miners of Enugu Government Colliery, Nigeria 1914-1920' (Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1985); Innocent F. Uzoechi, 'The social and political impact of the Eastern Nigerian Railway on Udi Division, 1914-1945' (Ph.D. thesis, Kent State University, 1985).
    • (1972) The Warrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in Southeastern Nigeria 1891-1929
    • Afigbo, A.E.1
  • 92
    • 8344287691 scopus 로고
    • Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University
    • NNAE, Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on the Nara Village Group'; Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on Agbani-Akpugo'; A. E. Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in Southeastern Nigeria 1891-1929 (London, 1972) ch. 4; C. A. Brown, 'A history of the development of workers' consciousness among the coal miners of Enugu Government Colliery, Nigeria 1914-1920' (Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1985); Innocent F. Uzoechi, 'The social and political impact of the Eastern Nigerian Railway on Udi Division, 1914-1945' (Ph.D. thesis, Kent State University, 1985).
    • (1985) A History of the Development of Workers' Consciousness among the Coal Miners of Enugu Government Colliery, Nigeria 1914-1920
    • Brown, C.A.1
  • 93
    • 8344248959 scopus 로고
    • Ph.D. thesis, Kent State University
    • NNAE, Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on the Nara Village Group'; Beaumont, 'Intelligence Report on Agbani-Akpugo'; A. E. Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs: Indirect Rule in Southeastern Nigeria 1891-1929 (London, 1972) ch. 4; C. A. Brown, 'A history of the development of workers' consciousness among the coal miners of Enugu Government Colliery, Nigeria 1914-1920' (Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University, 1985); Innocent F. Uzoechi, 'The social and political impact of the Eastern Nigerian Railway on Udi Division, 1914-1945' (Ph.D. thesis, Kent State University, 1985).
    • (1985) The Social and Political Impact of the Eastern Nigerian Railway on Udi Division, 1914-1945
    • Uzoechi, I.F.1
  • 95
    • 0242513652 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ch. 5
    • For a discussion of the problems created by Lugard's system see Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs, ch. 5.
    • The Warrant Chiefs
    • Afigbo1
  • 98
    • 8344287689 scopus 로고
    • The background to the Enugu shooting incident in 1949
    • A clan-based job stratification emerged in the colliery with important implications for the coal industry's workers' movement. Agwu Akpala, 'The background to the Enugu shooting incident in 1949', J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria III (1965), 335-64; Brown, 'History of worker consciousness'.
    • (1965) J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria , vol.3 , pp. 335-364
    • Akpala, A.1
  • 99
    • 8344233670 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A clan-based job stratification emerged in the colliery with important implications for the coal industry's workers' movement. Agwu Akpala, 'The background to the Enugu shooting incident in 1949', J. Hist. Soc. Nigeria III (1965), 335-64; Brown, 'History of worker consciousness'.
    • History of Worker Consciousness
    • Brown1
  • 100
    • 84899248729 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Documentation of this resistance is in two record series. PRO, CO583, files 12, 14, 19, 20, 23, and 32; and NNAE, ONPROF 1/15/28. The revolt is discussed by Akinjide Osuntokun, 'Disaffection and revolts in Nigeria', 180. NNAE, CSE 1/48/15, 'Petition against the conduct of Chief Ezeokole and Onyeama', 16 Sept. 1919.
    • Disaffection and Revolts in Nigeria , pp. 180
    • Osuntokun, A.1
  • 101
    • 8344269656 scopus 로고
    • 16 Sept.
    • Documentation of this resistance is in two record series. PRO, CO583, files 12, 14, 19, 20, 23, and 32; and NNAE, ONPROF 1/15/28. The revolt is discussed by Akinjide Osuntokun, 'Disaffection and revolts in Nigeria', 180. NNAE, CSE 1/48/15, 'Petition against the conduct of Chief Ezeokole and Onyeama', 16 Sept. 1919.
    • (1919) Petition Against the Conduct of Chief Ezeokole and Onyeama
  • 103
    • 8344237720 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • After crushing the revolt with 200 deaths the government was still too weak to prevent 2,000 Nkanu railway workers from deserting that February. PRO, CO583/32, Lugard to Secretary of State for the Colonies, Harcourt, 18 Dec. 1914
    • After crushing the revolt with 200 deaths the government was still too weak to prevent 2,000 Nkanu railway workers from deserting that February. PRO, CO583/32, Lugard to Secretary of State for the Colonies, Harcourt, 18 Dec. 1914.
  • 104
    • 8344260904 scopus 로고
    • 18 Feb.
    • One Colonial Office official noted: 'The ordinary system, I believe, is to ask the chief to furnish so many labourers, explaining the conditions of service. The chief furnishes them, and if they run away he provides some more. No doubt he deals with the men who run away. But so long as he acts in accordance with the law, that is a matter between the chief and the native labourers'. PRO, CO583/9, 'Baynes Minute', 18 Feb. 1914.
    • (1914) Baynes Minute
  • 106
    • 8344227117 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview with Anyionovo Nwodo, in Uhuona, Ugbawka, 18 Aug. 1988
    • Interview with Anyionovo Nwodo, in Uhuona, Ugbawka, 18 Aug. 1988.
  • 107
    • 8344250445 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ch. 3
    • Brown, 'Workers' consciousness among coal miners', ch. 3; NNAE, OP45/21, S.S.P. to Res. Onitsha, 2 Sept. 1921; D.O. Enugu to Sr. Res. Onitsha, 30 June 1921; Akpala, 'Background to the Enugu shooting incident', 341-2.
    • Workers' Consciousness among Coal Miners
    • Brown1
  • 108
    • 8344287181 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Brown, 'Workers' consciousness among coal miners', ch. 3; NNAE, OP45/21, S.S.P. to Res. Onitsha, 2 Sept. 1921; D.O. Enugu to Sr. Res. Onitsha, 30 June 1921; Akpala, 'Background to the Enugu shooting incident', 341-2.
    • Background to the Enugu Shooting Incident , pp. 341-342
    • Akpala1
  • 109
    • 8344252230 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview with Anyionovo Nwodo, Ukhuona, Ugbawka, 18 Aug. 1988. A group of former miners replied to an inquiry on the treatment of slaves in the colliery by saying that to the Europeans, 'We were all Awbia' (another name for slaves, to be explained below). Interview at Obiofia, Akegbe-Ugwu, 5 Aug. 1986
    • Interview with Anyionovo Nwodo, Ukhuona, Ugbawka, 18 Aug. 1988. A group of former miners replied to an inquiry on the treatment of slaves in the colliery by saying that to the Europeans, 'We were all Awbia' (another name for slaves, to be explained below). Interview at Obiofia, Akegbe-Ugwu, 5 Aug. 1986.
  • 111
    • 8344252231 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Despite superficially cordial relations with the Chief, Richardson found he persisted in supplying slave women for sacrifice to the Aro and occasionally traded in slaves himself: 'Pioneer work in Agbani', 140.
    • Pioneer Work in Agbani , pp. 140
  • 112
    • 8344263327 scopus 로고
    • The missionary scramble for spheres of influence in Southeastern Nigeria, 1900-1952
    • For a discussion of the conflicts between contending missionary organizations see Edet A. Udo, 'The missionary scramble for spheres of influence in Southeastern Nigeria, 1900-1952', Ikenga, (1972), 22-36.
    • (1972) Ikenga , pp. 22-36
    • Udo, E.A.1
  • 114
    • 8344287180 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Revd F. W. Dodds, Invasion for God: The Story of Methodism in Eastern Nigeria 1893-1943, 13; Richardson, 'Pioneer work in Agbani', 95, 134.
    • Pioneer Work in Agbani , pp. 95
    • Richardson1
  • 117
    • 8344265527 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Several years later a district officer claimed that continuing slave unrest was related to 'Erroneous ideas . . . possibly acquired from missions or Colliery Camps as to their being entitled to absolute freedom with all property rights'. NNAE, OP82/1924, ONPROF 7/11/10, D.O. Awgu to Resident, 1 Sept. 1924
    • Several years later a district officer claimed that continuing slave unrest was related to 'Erroneous ideas . . . possibly acquired from missions or Colliery Camps as to their being entitled to absolute freedom with all property rights'. NNAE, OP82/1924, ONPROF 7/11/10, D.O. Awgu to Resident, 1 Sept. 1924.
  • 118
    • 8344268850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview with Anyionovo Nwodo
    • Interview with Anyionovo Nwodo.
  • 124
    • 8344223984 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • They received £10 per 100 month for surface and £15 for underground. NNAE, ONDIST 12/1/1562, H. C. Moorhouse to Res. Onitsha, 24 Mar. 1920
    • They received £10 per 100 month for surface and £15 for underground. NNAE, ONDIST 12/1/1562, H. C. Moorhouse to Res. Onitsha, 24 Mar. 1920.
  • 125
    • 8344239119 scopus 로고
    • 26 Aug.
    • NNAE, OP45/21, S.S.P. to Res. Onitsha, 2 Sept. 1921; Interview, Obiofa, Akegbe-Ugwu; ONDIST 12/1/1562, E. M. Bland, 'Railway minutes', 26 Aug. 1920.
    • (1920) Railway Minutes
    • Bland, E.M.1
  • 126
    • 8344247247 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview with Anyionovo Nwodo, Uhuona, Ugbawka, 18 Aug. 1988
    • Interview with Anyionovo Nwodo, Uhuona, Ugbawka, 18 Aug. 1988.
  • 127
    • 8344281627 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview in Obiofa, Akegbe-Ugwu, 5 Aug. 1986; NNAE, OP45/21, D.O. Enugu to Sr. Res. Onitsha, 30 June 1921. Frank Hives, Resident, recommended Chukwuani's removal. Afigbo, Warrant Chiefs, 172
    • Interview in Obiofa, Akegbe-Ugwu, 5 Aug. 1986; NNAE, OP45/21, D.O. Enugu to Sr. Res. Onitsha, 30 June 1921. Frank Hives, Resident, recommended Chukwuani's removal. Afigbo, Warrant Chiefs, 172.
  • 131
    • 8344240673 scopus 로고
    • Growth and influence of tribal unions
    • August
    • There is a considerable literature of these unions. See Oyeaka Offodile, 'Growth and influence of tribal unions', The West African Review (August 1947), 937-41; P. E. H. Hair, 'Enugu: an industrial urban community in Nigeria, 1914-1953', Report of the Annual Conference Sociology Sections, West African Institute of Social and Economic Research (Ibadan, March 1953), 162-6; Thomas Hodgkin, Nationalism in Colonial Africa (New York, 1957), 85-7.
    • (1947) The West African Review , pp. 937-941
    • Offodile, O.1
  • 132
    • 8344237722 scopus 로고
    • Enugu: An industrial urban community in Nigeria, 1914-1953
    • Ibadan, March
    • There is a considerable literature of these unions. See Oyeaka Offodile, 'Growth and influence of tribal unions', The West African Review (August 1947), 937-41; P. E. H. Hair, 'Enugu: an industrial urban community in Nigeria, 1914-1953', Report of the Annual Conference Sociology Sections, West African Institute of Social and Economic Research (Ibadan, March 1953), 162-6; Thomas Hodgkin, Nationalism in Colonial Africa (New York, 1957), 85-7.
    • (1953) Report of the Annual Conference Sociology Sections, West African Institute of Social and Economic Research , pp. 162-166
    • Hair, P.E.H.1
  • 133
    • 0003725339 scopus 로고
    • New York
    • There is a considerable literature of these unions. See Oyeaka Offodile, 'Growth and influence of tribal unions', The West African Review (August 1947), 937-41; P. E. H. Hair, 'Enugu: an industrial urban community in Nigeria, 1914-1953', Report of the Annual Conference Sociology Sections, West African Institute of Social and Economic Research (Ibadan, March 1953), 162-6; Thomas Hodgkin, Nationalism in Colonial Africa (New York, 1957), 85-7.
    • (1957) Nationalism in Colonial Africa , pp. 85-87
    • Hodgkin, T.1
  • 135
    • 8344263328 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP268/1921 28 Nov. 1923, D.O. Enugu to Resident
    • NNAE, OP268/1921 28 Nov. 1923, D.O. Enugu to Resident.
  • 137
    • 8344236225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview with Raymond Agwu, Ndiagu Egbeagu, Ihuokpara, 15 Aug. 1988
    • Interview with Raymond Agwu, Ndiagu Egbeagu, Ihuokpara, 15 Aug. 1988.
  • 138
    • 8344235229 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, Dew, 11 Oct. 1921
    • NNAE, Dew, 11 Oct. 1921.
  • 139
    • 8344255985 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview with Godwin Ede, Amafor, Ihuokpara, 18 Sept. 1988
    • Interview with Godwin Ede, Amafor, Ihuokpara, 18 Sept. 1988.
  • 140
    • 8344266302 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview with Raymond Agwu
    • Interview with Raymond Agwu.
  • 141
    • 8344248051 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dew, 11 Oct. 1921
    • Dew, 11 Oct. 1921.
  • 142
    • 8344227118 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP268/1921, Res. Onitsha to S.S.P., 25 Apr. 1922; Chief Chukwuani and other slaveholders notified the government of their plans to evict them unless they continued to work. NNAE, L. T. Dew, D.O. Enugu, 18 Oct. 1921; Interview with Godwin Ede, Amafor, Ihuokpara, 18 Sept. 1988
    • NNAE, OP268/1921, Res. Onitsha to S.S.P., 25 Apr. 1922; Chief Chukwuani and other slaveholders notified the government of their plans to evict them unless they continued to work. NNAE, L. T. Dew, D.O. Enugu, 18 Oct. 1921; Interview with Godwin Ede, Amafor, Ihuokpara, 18 Sept. 1988.
  • 144
    • 8344289856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Richardson arrived in Nara in 1916. Richardson, 'An Account of the Pioneer Work in Agbani'; Udo, 'The missionary scramble', 28.
    • The Missionary Scramble , pp. 28
    • Udo1
  • 147
    • 8344256746 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP268/1921 18 Dec. 1922, D.O. Enugu to Sr. Resident
    • NNAE, OP268/1921 18 Dec. 1922, D.O. Enugu to Sr. Resident.
  • 148
    • 8344223156 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Later that year an Ugbawka slave woman was murdered for funeral purposes; NNAE, OP168/1921, Res. Onitsha to S.S.P., 29 Mar. 1923; OP268/1921, 'Agbani Outstanding Case No. 21, April-30 November 1922'
    • Later that year an Ugbawka slave woman was murdered for funeral purposes; NNAE, OP168/1921, Res. Onitsha to S.S.P., 29 Mar. 1923; OP268/1921, 'Agbani Outstanding Case No. 21, April-30 November 1922'.
  • 149
    • 8344274584 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dew, the D.O. Enugu, noted that slavery was so widespread in Nkanu that aggressive enforcement of anti-slavery laws would lead to the arrest of most Nkanu free patriarchs. NNAE, OW301/1922, enclosure in Moorhouse, 23 Dec. 1921
    • Dew, the D.O. Enugu, noted that slavery was so widespread in Nkanu that aggressive enforcement of anti-slavery laws would lead to the arrest of most Nkanu free patriarchs. NNAE, OW301/1922, enclosure in Moorhouse, 23 Dec. 1921.
  • 150
    • 8344228744 scopus 로고
    • enclosure in S.S.P. to Res. Onitsha, 11 Dec.
    • NNAE, ONPROF 7/8/20, G. J. F. Tomlinson, 'Alleged slaves in Onitsha Province', enclosure in S.S.P. to Res. Onitsha, 11 Dec. 1922. The ambiguity of state policy was revealed by S. M. Grier who noted that 'No attempt should be made to evade the fact that in the eyes of the law [emphasis mine] these people are slaves'. NNAE, OW301/1922, RIVPROF 8/10/244, S. M. Grier for the Governor, 23 Dec. 1921.
    • (1922) Alleged Slaves in Onitsha Province
    • Tomlinson, G.J.F.1
  • 151
    • 8344268065 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In November Moorhouse noted, 'What they want is what no Ordinance can give them, and that is to enjoy in their own villages equal rights with the freeborn'. NNAE, OW301/1922, H. O. Moorhouse, 25 Nov. 1921
    • In November Moorhouse noted, 'What they want is what no Ordinance can give them, and that is to enjoy in their own villages equal rights with the freeborn'. NNAE, OW301/1922, H. O. Moorhouse, 25 Nov. 1921.
  • 155
    • 84958440216 scopus 로고
    • Ibo land tenure
    • G. I. Jones, 'Ibo land tenure', Africa, XIX (1949), 318.
    • (1949) Africa , vol.19 , pp. 318
    • Jones, G.I.1
  • 156
    • 8344220716 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The latter claim challenged Igbo land law which gave 'outsiders' access to land through a token or 'kola' rent or market rent. NNAE, OW301/1922, W. H. Cooke, 18 Oct. 1921
    • The latter claim challenged Igbo land law which gave 'outsiders' access to land through a token or 'kola' rent or market rent. NNAE, OW301/1922, W. H. Cooke, 18 Oct. 1921.
  • 157
    • 84972113801 scopus 로고
    • The bondsman's new clothes: The contradictory consciousness of slave resistance on the Swahili Coast
    • Jonathon Glassman, 'The bondsman's new clothes: the contradictory consciousness of slave resistance on the Swahili Coast', J. Afr. Hist., XXXII (1991), 277-312.
    • (1991) J. Afr. Hist. , vol.32 , pp. 277-312
    • Glassman, J.1
  • 158
    • 8344245684 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 20 Jan.
    • NNAE, OP208/1921, J. G. Lawton, 'Nkanu Escort Progress Report No. 3', 20 Jan. 1923; A. G. J. Owen, Asst. D.O., 'Memorandum', 4 Sept. 1923. Owen gives a good summary of the genesis of the escort and patrol.
    • (1923) Nkanu Escort Progress Report No. 3
    • Lawton, J.G.1
  • 159
    • 8344276174 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP268/1921, S.S.P. to Res. Onitsha, 11 Dec. 1922; Owen, 'Memorandum'
    • NNAE, OP268/1921, S.S.P. to Res. Onitsha, 11 Dec. 1922; Owen, 'Memorandum'.
  • 166
    • 8344245683 scopus 로고
    • 18 June
    • NNAE, OP268/1921 D.O. to Res. 6 Sept. 1923; D.O. Enugu to Res., 24 Sept. 1923; OP268/1922, A. G. Wood, 'Final Report on the Nkanu Patrol', 18 June 1923; Res. Onitsha to S.S.P., 9 July 1923.
    • (1923) Final Report on the Nkanu Patrol
    • Wood, A.G.1
  • 167
    • 8344249689 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. to Resident, 7 Nov. 1924; OP208/1921, Lt. Governor Moorhouse to Resident, 1 May 1923
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. to Resident, 7 Nov. 1924; OP208/1921, Lt. Governor Moorhouse to Resident, 1 May 1923.
  • 168
  • 169
    • 8344252232 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Agbani slaves killed a horse and flaunted tradition by refusing to share the first meat with their owner. Predictably the Secretary was inundated with petitions protesting this use of the courts to usurp freeborn privileges. NNAE, OP 82/1924, S.S.P. to Sr. Res., 23 Dec. 1924
    • In Agbani slaves killed a horse and flaunted tradition by refusing to share the first meat with their owner. Predictably the Secretary was inundated with petitions protesting this use of the courts to usurp freeborn privileges. NNAE, OP 82/1924, S.S.P. to Sr. Res., 23 Dec. 1924.
  • 170
    • 8344260103 scopus 로고
    • 21 Apr.
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. Awgu to Res. Onitsha, 1 Sept. 1924; 'Awbia Petition to Res. Onitsha', 21 Apr. 1924.
    • (1924) Awbia Petition to Res. Onitsha
  • 171
    • 8344233671 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP29, ONDIST 12/1/102, Vol. II, D.O. Enugu to Res. Onitsha, 7 Mar. 1925
    • NNAE, OP29, ONDIST 12/1/102, Vol. II, D.O. Enugu to Res. Onitsha, 7 Mar. 1925.
  • 172
    • 8344253885 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP268/1921, Confidential, Resident to S.S.P., 26 Nov. 1923
    • NNAE, OP268/1921, Confidential, Resident to S.S.P., 26 Nov. 1923.
  • 173
    • 8344279845 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP245/25, 2 July 1924, Assistant D.O. Nkanu to D.O. Enugu
    • NNAE, OP245/25, 2 July 1924, Assistant D.O. Nkanu to D.O. Enugu.
  • 174
    • 8344270467 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The fee was not considered exorbitant because it approximated the daily wage of men in the mines or on the railway. NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. Enugu to Res., 12 Mar. 1924; OPROF 1/26/99, 'Annual Report for Onitsha Province - 1925'.
    • Annual Report for Onitsha Province - 1925
  • 175
    • 8344262571 scopus 로고
    • 21 Apr.
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, Asst. D.O. Nkanu to D.O. Enugu, 26 July 1925; 'Petition from Agbani Town Chiefs', 21 Apr. 1924.
    • (1924) Petition from Agbani Town Chiefs
  • 176
    • 8344272296 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. Enugu to Res. Onitsha, 7 Mar. 1925
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, D.O. Enugu to Res. Onitsha, 7 Mar. 1925.
  • 177
    • 8344234446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, Political Officer Grey to D.O. Enugu, 7 Nov. 1931
    • NNAE, OP82/1924, Political Officer Grey to D.O. Enugu, 7 Nov. 1931.
  • 178
    • 8344226372 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interview at Akwuke, Nigeria with Benson A. Ugwu, 21 Aug. 1986
    • Interview at Akwuke, Nigeria with Benson A. Ugwu, 21 Aug. 1986.
  • 179
    • 7644244401 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In an interview in Akwuke several Awbia spoke proudly of their parents' decision to leave the freeborn and establish their own home. They considered themselves superior to those who chose to remain behind and live under freeborn harassment. Interview with Benson A. Ugwu, 21 Aug. 1986; Geoffrey Nwaka, 'The civil rights movement in Igboland'.
    • The Civil Rights Movement in Igboland
    • Nwaka, G.1
  • 180
    • 8344279064 scopus 로고
    • 21 Jan.
    • After World War II they protested their exclusion from some of the development programs. NNAE, ONDIST 12/1/103, 'Petition to the Res. Onitsha from Ndiobias', 21 Jan. 1946.
    • (1946) Petition to the Res. Onitsha from Ndiobias


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