Tradition, modernity, and the development of education in Cambodia

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 44, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 440-462

  Ayres, David M ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0034344542     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447629     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. The collective works of David Chandler, Ben Kiernan, Milton Osborne, and Michael Vickery would be the major exceptions to this neglect. Other important contributors to the narrow field of Cambodia studies would include Timothy Carney, Kate Frieson, Stephen Heder, Judy Ledgerwood, Michael Leifer, and Serge Thion. On the state of Cambodia studies, see Serge Thion, Explaining Cambodia: A Review Essay (Canberra: Australian National University, Department of Political and Social Change, 1994).
2. Ben Kiernan has written the two most influential works on the Khmer Rouge. See Ben Kiernan, How Pol Pot Came to Power: A History of Communism in Kampuchea, 1930-1975 (London: Verso, 1986), and The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996). See also David Chandler, Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot, rev. ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1999), and Voices from S-21: Terror and History in Pol Pot's Secret Prison (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
3. Ben Kiernan has written the two most influential works on the Khmer Rouge. See Ben Kiernan, How Pol Pot Came to Power: A History of Communism in Kampuchea, 1930-1975 (London: Verso, 1986), and The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996). See also David Chandler, Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot, rev. ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1999), and Voices from S-21: Terror and History in Pol Pot's Secret Prison (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
4. Ben Kiernan has written the two most influential works on the Khmer Rouge. See Ben Kiernan, How Pol Pot Came to Power: A History of Communism in Kampuchea, 1930-1975 (London: Verso, 1986), and The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996). See also David Chandler, Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot, rev. ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1999), and Voices from S-21: Terror and History in Pol Pot's Secret Prison (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
5. Ben Kiernan has written the two most influential works on the Khmer Rouge. See Ben Kiernan, How Pol Pot Came to Power: A History of Communism in Kampuchea, 1930-1975 (London: Verso, 1986), and The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996). See also David Chandler, Brother Number One: A Political Biography of Pol Pot, rev. ed. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1999), and Voices from S-21: Terror and History in Pol Pot's Secret Prison (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000).
6. The first published scholarly review of the development of Cambodian education was undertaken by Jacques Népote in 1970. While several thematic articles have appeared in recent years, none has sought to address broader questions of educational development, including Cambodia's response to the educational crisis alluded to in this article. See Jacques Népote, "Education et développement dans le Cambodge moderne," Mondes en developpement 28 (1979): 767-92. For more recent thematic articles, see David Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education: Beyond the Discourse of Destruction," History of Education 28 (1999): 205-18; Thomas Clayton, "Building the New Cambodia: Educational Destruction and Construction under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979," History of Education Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1998): 1-16; Geoffrey Coyne, "Education and Socio-political Transitions in Asia," in Higher Education in Cambodia: Perspectives of an Australian Aid Project, ed. P. Denham (Canberra: University of Canberra, 1997); Stephen Duggan, "Education, Teacher Training and Prospects for Economic Recovery in Cambodia," Comparative Education 32, no. 3 (1996): 361-75; and L. Fergusson and G. Le Masson, "A Culture under Siege: Post-colonial Higher Education and Teacher Training in Cambodia from 1953 to 1979," History of Education 26 (1997): 91-112. A history of Cambodian education, elaborating on many of the themes addressed in this article, can be found in David Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Development and the State in Cambodia, 1953-1998 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000).
7. The first published scholarly review of the development of Cambodian education was undertaken by Jacques Népote in 1970. While several thematic articles have appeared in recent years, none has sought to address broader questions of educational development, including Cambodia's response to the educational crisis alluded to in this article. See Jacques Népote, "Education et développement dans le Cambodge moderne," Mondes en developpement 28 (1979): 767-92. For more recent thematic articles, see David Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education: Beyond the Discourse of Destruction," History of Education 28 (1999): 205-18; Thomas Clayton, "Building the New Cambodia: Educational Destruction and Construction under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979," History of Education Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1998): 1-16; Geoffrey Coyne, "Education and Socio-political Transitions in Asia," in Higher Education in Cambodia: Perspectives of an Australian Aid Project, ed. P. Denham (Canberra: University of Canberra, 1997); Stephen Duggan, "Education, Teacher Training and Prospects for Economic Recovery in Cambodia," Comparative Education 32, no. 3 (1996): 361-75; and L. Fergusson and G. Le Masson, "A Culture under Siege: Post-colonial Higher Education and Teacher Training in Cambodia from 1953 to 1979," History of Education 26 (1997): 91-112. A history of Cambodian education, elaborating on many of the themes addressed in this article, can be found in David Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Development and the State in Cambodia, 1953-1998 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000).
8. The first published scholarly review of the development of Cambodian education was undertaken by Jacques Népote in 1970. While several thematic articles have appeared in recent years, none has sought to address broader questions of educational development, including Cambodia's response to the educational crisis alluded to in this article. See Jacques Népote, "Education et développement dans le Cambodge moderne," Mondes en developpement 28 (1979): 767-92. For more recent thematic articles, see David Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education: Beyond the Discourse of Destruction," History of Education 28 (1999): 205-18; Thomas Clayton, "Building the New Cambodia: Educational Destruction and Construction under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979," History of Education Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1998): 1-16; Geoffrey Coyne, "Education and Socio-political Transitions in Asia," in Higher Education in Cambodia: Perspectives of an Australian Aid Project, ed. P. Denham (Canberra: University of Canberra, 1997); Stephen Duggan, "Education, Teacher Training and Prospects for Economic Recovery in Cambodia," Comparative Education 32, no. 3 (1996): 361-75; and L. Fergusson and G. Le Masson, "A Culture under Siege: Post-colonial Higher Education and Teacher Training in Cambodia from 1953 to 1979," History of Education 26 (1997): 91-112. A history of Cambodian education, elaborating on many of the themes addressed in this article, can be found in David Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Development and the State in Cambodia, 1953-1998 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000).
9. The first published scholarly review of the development of Cambodian education was undertaken by Jacques Népote in 1970. While several thematic articles have appeared in recent years, none has sought to address broader questions of educational development, including Cambodia's response to the educational crisis alluded to in this article. See Jacques Népote, "Education et développement dans le Cambodge moderne," Mondes en developpement 28 (1979): 767-92. For more recent thematic articles, see David Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education: Beyond the Discourse of Destruction," History of Education 28 (1999): 205-18; Thomas Clayton, "Building the New Cambodia: Educational Destruction and Construction under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979," History of Education Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1998): 1-16; Geoffrey Coyne, "Education and Socio-political Transitions in Asia," in Higher Education in Cambodia: Perspectives of an Australian Aid Project, ed. P. Denham (Canberra: University of Canberra, 1997); Stephen Duggan, "Education, Teacher Training and Prospects for Economic Recovery in Cambodia," Comparative Education 32, no. 3 (1996): 361-75; and L. Fergusson and G. Le Masson, "A Culture under Siege: Post-colonial Higher Education and Teacher Training in Cambodia from 1953 to 1979," History of Education 26 (1997): 91-112. A history of Cambodian education, elaborating on many of the themes addressed in this article, can be found in David Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Development and the State in Cambodia, 1953-1998 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000).
10. The first published scholarly review of the development of Cambodian education was undertaken by Jacques Népote in 1970. While several thematic articles have appeared in recent years, none has sought to address broader questions of educational development, including Cambodia's response to the educational crisis alluded to in this article. See Jacques Népote, "Education et développement dans le Cambodge moderne," Mondes en developpement 28 (1979): 767-92. For more recent thematic articles, see David Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education: Beyond the Discourse of Destruction," History of Education 28 (1999): 205-18; Thomas Clayton, "Building the New Cambodia: Educational Destruction and Construction under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979," History of Education Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1998): 1-16; Geoffrey Coyne, "Education and Socio-political Transitions in Asia," in Higher Education in Cambodia: Perspectives of an Australian Aid Project, ed. P. Denham (Canberra: University of Canberra, 1997); Stephen Duggan, "Education, Teacher Training and Prospects for Economic Recovery in Cambodia," Comparative Education 32, no. 3 (1996): 361-75; and L. Fergusson and G. Le Masson, "A Culture under Siege: Post-colonial Higher Education and Teacher Training in Cambodia from 1953 to 1979," History of Education 26 (1997): 91-112. A history of Cambodian education, elaborating on many of the themes addressed in this article, can be found in David Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Development and the State in Cambodia, 1953-1998 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000).
11. The first published scholarly review of the development of Cambodian education was undertaken by Jacques Népote in 1970. While several thematic articles have appeared in recent years, none has sought to address broader questions of educational development, including Cambodia's response to the educational crisis alluded to in this article. See Jacques Népote, "Education et développement dans le Cambodge moderne," Mondes en developpement 28 (1979): 767-92. For more recent thematic articles, see David Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education: Beyond the Discourse of Destruction," History of Education 28 (1999): 205-18; Thomas Clayton, "Building the New Cambodia: Educational Destruction and Construction under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979," History of Education Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1998): 1-16; Geoffrey Coyne, "Education and Socio-political Transitions in Asia," in Higher Education in Cambodia: Perspectives of an Australian Aid Project, ed. P. Denham (Canberra: University of Canberra, 1997); Stephen Duggan, "Education, Teacher Training and Prospects for Economic Recovery in Cambodia," Comparative Education 32, no. 3 (1996): 361-75; and L. Fergusson and G. Le Masson, "A Culture under Siege: Post-colonial Higher Education and Teacher Training in Cambodia from 1953 to 1979," History of Education 26 (1997): 91-112. A history of Cambodian education, elaborating on many of the themes addressed in this article, can be found in David Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Development and the State in Cambodia, 1953-1998 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000).
12. The first published scholarly review of the development of Cambodian education was undertaken by Jacques Népote in 1970. While several thematic articles have appeared in recent years, none has sought to address broader questions of educational development, including Cambodia's response to the educational crisis alluded to in this article. See Jacques Népote, "Education et développement dans le Cambodge moderne," Mondes en developpement 28 (1979): 767-92. For more recent thematic articles, see David Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education: Beyond the Discourse of Destruction," History of Education 28 (1999): 205-18; Thomas Clayton, "Building the New Cambodia: Educational Destruction and Construction under the Khmer Rouge, 1975-1979," History of Education Quarterly 38, no. 1 (1998): 1-16; Geoffrey Coyne, "Education and Socio-political Transitions in Asia," in Higher Education in Cambodia: Perspectives of an Australian Aid Project, ed. P. Denham (Canberra: University of Canberra, 1997); Stephen Duggan, "Education, Teacher Training and Prospects for Economic Recovery in Cambodia," Comparative Education 32, no. 3 (1996): 361-75; and L. Fergusson and G. Le Masson, "A Culture under Siege: Post-colonial Higher Education and Teacher Training in Cambodia from 1953 to 1979," History of Education 26 (1997): 91-112. A history of Cambodian education, elaborating on many of the themes addressed in this article, can be found in David Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis: Education, Development and the State in Cambodia, 1953-1998 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000).
13. Vincent McNamara, "The Education System of Cambodia: National Context and Development Issues," in Higher Education in Cambodia: The Social and Educational Context for Reconstruction, ed. D. Sloper (Bangkok: Unesco Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 2000), p. 100.
14. Philip Coombs, The World Crisis in Education: A Systems Analysis (London: Oxford University Press 1969).
15. See Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education," p. 207, where it is argued that the "discourse of destruction" lias been used by Cambodia's current administration in order to justify requests for substantial development assistance.
16. On the effects of the denial of development assistance to Cambodia during the 1980s, see Eva Mysliweic, Punishing the Poor: The International Isolation of Kampuchea (Oxford: Oxfam, 1988); see also Irwin Silber, Kampuchea: The Revolution Rescued (Oakland, Calif.: Line of March, 1986).
17. On the effects of the denial of development assistance to Cambodia during the 1980s, see Eva Mysliweic, Punishing the Poor: The International Isolation of Kampuchea (Oxford: Oxfam, 1988); see also Irwin Silber, Kampuchea: The Revolution Rescued (Oakland, Calif.: Line of March, 1986).
18. Fine examples of this reliance on inadequate information can be found in the introductory paragraphs and situational analyses of the plethora of needs assessments and reports written by international organizations in the aftermath of the 1991 agreements and the 1993 United Nations-sponsored elections. See, e.g., Elizabeth Galasso, Education in Cambodia: Notes and Suggestions (Phnom Penh: Redd Barna, 1990) p. 4; United Nations Children's Fund, Cambodia: The Situation of Women and Children (Phnom Penh: United Nations Children's Fund, 1990); Tony Reed, Cambodia Book Sector Study: Specialist Report on the Education System, Authorship, Copyright and the Publishing Industry (Ottawa: Canadian Organization for Development through Education, 1992), p. 4; United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia, United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (Phnom Penh: United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia, 1992), p. 19.
19. Fine examples of this reliance on inadequate information can be found in the introductory paragraphs and situational analyses of the plethora of needs assessments and reports written by international organizations in the aftermath of the 1991 agreements and the 1993 United Nations-sponsored elections. See, e.g., Elizabeth Galasso, Education in Cambodia: Notes and Suggestions (Phnom Penh: Redd Barna, 1990) p. 4; United Nations Children's Fund, Cambodia: The Situation of Women and Children (Phnom Penh: United Nations Children's Fund, 1990); Tony Reed, Cambodia Book Sector Study: Specialist Report on the Education System, Authorship, Copyright and the Publishing Industry (Ottawa: Canadian Organization for Development through Education, 1992), p. 4; United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia, United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (Phnom Penh: United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia, 1992), p. 19.
20. Fine examples of this reliance on inadequate information can be found in the introductory paragraphs and situational analyses of the plethora of needs assessments and reports written by international organizations in the aftermath of the 1991 agreements and the 1993 United Nations-sponsored elections. See, e.g., Elizabeth Galasso, Education in Cambodia: Notes and Suggestions (Phnom Penh: Redd Barna, 1990) p. 4; United Nations Children's Fund, Cambodia: The Situation of Women and Children (Phnom Penh: United Nations Children's Fund, 1990); Tony Reed, Cambodia Book Sector Study: Specialist Report on the Education System, Authorship, Copyright and the Publishing Industry (Ottawa: Canadian Organization for Development through Education, 1992), p. 4; United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia, United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (Phnom Penh: United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia, 1992), p. 19.
21. Fine examples of this reliance on inadequate information can be found in the introductory paragraphs and situational analyses of the plethora of needs assessments and reports written by international organizations in the aftermath of the 1991 agreements and the 1993 United Nations-sponsored elections. See, e.g., Elizabeth Galasso, Education in Cambodia: Notes and Suggestions (Phnom Penh: Redd Barna, 1990) p. 4; United Nations Children's Fund, Cambodia: The Situation of Women and Children (Phnom Penh: United Nations Children's Fund, 1990); Tony Reed, Cambodia Book Sector Study: Specialist Report on the Education System, Authorship, Copyright and the Publishing Industry (Ottawa: Canadian Organization for Development through Education, 1992), p. 4; United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia, United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (Phnom Penh: United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia, 1992), p. 19.
22. Cited in David Steinberg, Cambodia: Its Society, Its People, Its Culture (New Haven, Conn.: Human Relations Area Files Press, 1959), p. 251.
23. Benedict Anderson was the first to define nationalism in terms of an imagined community. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, 2d ed. (London: Verso, 1991).
24. Frederick Harbison and Charles Myers, Education, Manpower and Economic Growth (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), p. 184.
25. Coombs, p. 3. Coombs was not the only analyst of the period to question the efficacy of education. His warning of an educational crisis merely signaled a paradigm shift in comparative and international studies of education, with educational problems, and their possible solutions, emerging as a domain for concerted emphasis. See, e.g., Ronald Dore, The Diploma Disease: Education, Qualification and Development (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); Seymour Lipset, ed., Student Politics (New York: Basic, 1967); and Seymour Lipset and Phillip Altbach, eds., Students in Revolt (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969).
26. Coombs, p. 3. Coombs was not the only analyst of the period to question the efficacy of education. His warning of an educational crisis merely signaled a paradigm shift in comparative and international studies of education, with educational problems, and their possible solutions, emerging as a domain for concerted emphasis. See, e.g., Ronald Dore, The Diploma Disease: Education, Qualification and Development (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); Seymour Lipset, ed., Student Politics (New York: Basic, 1967); and Seymour Lipset and Phillip Altbach, eds., Students in Revolt (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969).
27. Coombs, p. 3. Coombs was not the only analyst of the period to question the efficacy of education. His warning of an educational crisis merely signaled a paradigm shift in comparative and international studies of education, with educational problems, and their possible solutions, emerging as a domain for concerted emphasis. See, e.g., Ronald Dore, The Diploma Disease: Education, Qualification and Development (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976); Seymour Lipset, ed., Student Politics (New York: Basic, 1967); and Seymour Lipset and Phillip Altbach, eds., Students in Revolt (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969).
28. There was a mass of literature, written from many perspectives, to justify modernization theory. See, e.g., C. Arnold Anderson, "The Modernization of Education," in Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth, ed. M. Weiner (New York: Bay, 1966), pp. 68-79; Adam Curle, "Education, Politics and Development," Comparative Education Review 7, no. 1 (1964): 226-45; Harbison and Myers; A. Inkeles and D. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); Theodore Schultz, "Investment in Human Capital," American Economic Review 51, no. 1 (1961): 1-17. Unesco, the international organization most intimately connected with education during the period, actively promoted, and continues to promote, an ideal of social progress whose roots are grounded in modernization theory. See Unesco, International Commission on the Development of Education. Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow, ed. E. Faure (Paris: Unesco, 1972); Unesco, Learning: The Treasure Within (Paris: Unesco, 1996).
29. There was a mass of literature, written from many perspectives, to justify modernization theory. See, e.g., C. Arnold Anderson, "The Modernization of Education," in Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth, ed. M. Weiner (New York: Bay, 1966), pp. 68-79; Adam Curle, "Education, Politics and Development," Comparative Education Review 7, no. 1 (1964): 226-45; Harbison and Myers; A. Inkeles and D. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); Theodore Schultz, "Investment in Human Capital," American Economic Review 51, no. 1 (1961): 1-17. Unesco, the international organization most intimately connected with education during the period, actively promoted, and continues to promote, an ideal of social progress whose roots are grounded in modernization theory. See Unesco, International Commission on the Development of Education. Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow, ed. E. Faure (Paris: Unesco, 1972); Unesco, Learning: The Treasure Within (Paris: Unesco, 1996).
30. There was a mass of literature, written from many perspectives, to justify modernization theory. See, e.g., C. Arnold Anderson, "The Modernization of Education," in Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth, ed. M. Weiner (New York: Bay, 1966), pp. 68-79; Adam Curle, "Education, Politics and Development," Comparative Education Review 7, no. 1 (1964): 226-45; Harbison and Myers; A. Inkeles and D. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); Theodore Schultz, "Investment in Human Capital," American Economic Review 51, no. 1 (1961): 1-17. Unesco, the international organization most intimately connected with education during the period, actively promoted, and continues to promote, an ideal of social progress whose roots are grounded in modernization theory. See Unesco, International Commission on the Development of Education. Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow, ed. E. Faure (Paris: Unesco, 1972); Unesco, Learning: The Treasure Within (Paris: Unesco, 1996).
31. There was a mass of literature, written from many perspectives, to justify modernization theory. See, e.g., C. Arnold Anderson, "The Modernization of Education," in Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth, ed. M. Weiner (New York: Bay, 1966), pp. 68-79; Adam Curle, "Education, Politics and Development," Comparative Education Review 7, no. 1 (1964): 226-45; Harbison and Myers; A. Inkeles and D. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); Theodore Schultz, "Investment in Human Capital," American Economic Review 51, no. 1 (1961): 1-17. Unesco, the international organization most intimately connected with education during the period, actively promoted, and continues to promote, an ideal of social progress whose roots are grounded in modernization theory. See Unesco, International Commission on the Development of Education. Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow, ed. E. Faure (Paris: Unesco, 1972); Unesco, Learning: The Treasure Within (Paris: Unesco, 1996).
32. There was a mass of literature, written from many perspectives, to justify modernization theory. See, e.g., C. Arnold Anderson, "The Modernization of Education," in Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth, ed. M. Weiner (New York: Bay, 1966), pp. 68-79; Adam Curle, "Education, Politics and Development," Comparative Education Review 7, no. 1 (1964): 226-45; Harbison and Myers; A. Inkeles and D. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); Theodore Schultz, "Investment in Human Capital," American Economic Review 51, no. 1 (1961): 1-17. Unesco, the international organization most intimately connected with education during the period, actively promoted, and continues to promote, an ideal of social progress whose roots are grounded in modernization theory. See Unesco, International Commission on the Development of Education. Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow, ed. E. Faure (Paris: Unesco, 1972); Unesco, Learning: The Treasure Within (Paris: Unesco, 1996).
33. There was a mass of literature, written from many perspectives, to justify modernization theory. See, e.g., C. Arnold Anderson, "The Modernization of Education," in Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth, ed. M. Weiner (New York: Bay, 1966), pp. 68-79; Adam Curle, "Education, Politics and Development," Comparative Education Review 7, no. 1 (1964): 226-45; Harbison and Myers; A. Inkeles and D. Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974); Theodore Schultz, "Investment in Human Capital," American Economic Review 51, no. 1 (1961): 1-17. Unesco, the international organization most intimately connected with education during the period, actively promoted, and continues to promote, an ideal of social progress whose roots are grounded in modernization theory. See Unesco, International Commission on the Development of Education. Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow, ed. E. Faure (Paris: Unesco, 1972); Unesco, Learning: The Treasure Within (Paris: Unesco, 1996).
34. Coombs (n. 5 above), p. 109.
35. Ibid., pp. 168-69.
36. For a critique, see Roger Dale, "Nation State and International System: The World System Perspective," in The Idea of the Modern State, ed. G. McLennan, D. Held, and S. Hall (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1984), p. 184.
37. For an influential study of underdevelopment, see Andre Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America (New York: Monthly Review, 1909); see also Martin McLean, "Educational Dependency: A Critique," Compare 13, no. 1 (1983): 25-42.
38. For an influential study of underdevelopment, see Andre Frank, Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America (New York: Monthly Review, 1909); see also Martin McLean, "Educational Dependency: A Critique," Compare 13, no. 1 (1983): 25-42.
39. McLean, p. 25.
40. See Immanuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System: Capitalism, Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century (New York: Academic Press, 1974).
41. Dale, p. 185.
42. Ibid.
43. McLean, p. 28.
44. Joel Samoff asserted that the ideological climate of the 1980s reinforced the precepts of modernization theory to the point where "modernization was rejuvenated." See Joel Samoff, Coping with Crisis: Austerity, Adjustment and Human Resources (London: Cassell, 1994), p. 246.
45. Ibid., p. 248.
46. Phillip Jones, World Bank Financing of Education: Lending, Learning and Development (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 233. For an educational critique of human capital theory, see Simon Marginson, "Are Students Human Capital? The Free Market View of Education," in Education as an International Commodity: Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand Comparative and International Education Society, ed. R. Gillespie and C. Collins (St. Lucia: Queensland University, 1986): pp. 89-132. Also see Simon Marginson, Education and Public Policy in Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
47. Phillip Jones, World Bank Financing of Education: Lending, Learning and Development (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 233. For an educational critique of human capital theory, see Simon Marginson, "Are Students Human Capital? The Free Market View of Education," in Education as an International Commodity: Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand Comparative and International Education Society, ed. R. Gillespie and C. Collins (St. Lucia: Queensland University, 1986): pp. 89-132. Also see Simon Marginson, Education and Public Policy in Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
48. Phillip Jones, World Bank Financing of Education: Lending, Learning and Development (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 233. For an educational critique of human capital theory, see Simon Marginson, "Are Students Human Capital? The Free Market View of Education," in Education as an International Commodity: Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Conference of the Australian and New Zealand Comparative and International Education Society, ed. R. Gillespie and C. Collins (St. Lucia: Queensland University, 1986): pp. 89-132. Also see Simon Marginson, Education and Public Policy in Australia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
49. The Education for All conference at Jomtien, Thailand was a joint initiative of Unesco, Unicef, and the United Nations Development Plan (UNDP) program.
50. Cambodia's latest socioeconomic development plan, implemented in 1996, argues that the key to reducing poverty in the country is the development of human resources. See Royal Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Planning, First Socioeconoinic Development Plan, 1996-2000 (Phnom Penh: Ministry of Planning, 1996), pp. 2-4.
51. For a critical examination of the relationship between education and the market (in the context of a First-World country), see David Bridges and Terence McLaughlin, eds., Education and the Market Place (London: Falmer, 1994).
52. On the World Bank's educational policy formula, based on cost-benefit analysis, see Jones, p. 127. See also Paul Bennell, "Using and Abusing Rates of Return: A Critique of the World Bank's 1995 Education Sector Review," International Journal of Educational Development 16, no. 3 (1996): 235-48; and Joel Sam off, "The Reconstruction of Schooling in Africa," Comparative Education Review 37, no. 2 (1993): 215-16.
53. On the World Bank's educational policy formula, based on cost-benefit analysis, see Jones, p. 127. See also Paul Bennell, "Using and Abusing Rates of Return: A Critique of the World Bank's 1995 Education Sector Review," International Journal of Educational Development 16, no. 3 (1996): 235-48; and Joel Sam off, "The Reconstruction of Schooling in Africa," Comparative Education Review 37, no. 2 (1993): 215-16.
54. On the World Bank's educational policy formula, based on cost-benefit analysis, see Jones, p. 127. See also Paul Bennell, "Using and Abusing Rates of Return: A Critique of the World Bank's 1995 Education Sector Review," International Journal of Educational Development 16, no. 3 (1996): 235-48; and Joel Sam off, "The Reconstruction of Schooling in Africa," Comparative Education Review 37, no. 2 (1993): 215-16.
55. J. N. Pîeterse, "Dilemmas of Development Discourse: The Crisis of Developmentalism and the Comparative Method," Development and Change 22 (1991): 5-29
56. Ibid., p. 6.
57. Ibid., pp. 12-13.
58. Colin Hindson, "Education and Developing Countries: A Framework for Analysis," in Contemporary Perspectives in Comparative Education, ed. R. Burns and A. Welch (New York: Garland 1992), p. 161.
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid.
61. Recent social theorizing, attempting to move beyond the naive notions of uncontested global economic integration and cultural convergence promoted by entrenched conceptions of development, has recognized the global-local interaction. Stuart Hall has argued, for example, that globalization does not represent "the final triumph [or] the closure of history by the West." Rather, globalization has seen a "return to the local." It is a twofold or dual phenomenon, which Roland Robertson has argued involves "the interpenetration of the universalization of particularism and the particularization of universalism." See Stuart Hall, "The Local and the Global: Globalization and Ethnicity," pp. 32-33; and Roland Robertson, "Social Theory, Cultural Relativity and the Problem of Globality," p. 73, both in Culture, Globalization and the World System, ed. A. D. King (Binghamton, N.Y.: SUNY Department of Art and Art History, 1991).
62. Recent social theorizing, attempting to move beyond the naive notions of uncontested global economic integration and cultural convergence promoted by entrenched conceptions of development, has recognized the global-local interaction. Stuart Hall has argued, for example, that globalization does not represent "the final triumph [or] the closure of history by the West." Rather, globalization has seen a "return to the local." It is a twofold or dual phenomenon, which Roland Robertson has argued involves "the interpenetration of the universalization of particularism and the particularization of universalism." See Stuart Hall, "The Local and the Global: Globalization and Ethnicity," pp. 32-33; and Roland Robertson, "Social Theory, Cultural Relativity and the Problem of Globality," p. 73, both in Culture, Globalization and the World System, ed. A. D. King (Binghamton, N.Y.: SUNY Department of Art and Art History, 1991).
63. Recent social theorizing, attempting to move beyond the naive notions of uncontested global economic integration and cultural convergence promoted by entrenched conceptions of development, has recognized the global-local interaction. Stuart Hall has argued, for example, that globalization does not represent "the final triumph [or] the closure of history by the West." Rather, globalization has seen a "return to the local." It is a twofold or dual phenomenon, which Roland Robertson has argued involves "the interpenetration of the universalization of particularism and the particularization of universalism." See Stuart Hall, "The Local and the Global: Globalization and Ethnicity," pp. 32-33; and Roland Robertson, "Social Theory, Cultural Relativity and the Problem of Globality," p. 73, both in Culture, Globalization and the World System, ed. A. D. King (Binghamton, N.Y.: SUNY Department of Art and Art History, 1991).
64. Hindson identified four arenas of tension: (1) concerns about the possible adverse effects of growth on the quality of education; (2) moves to a more local form of education and pressures to retain the Western model; (3) unease with the academic nature of schooling and desires to see a more practical/ vocational emphasis; and (4) attempts to establish a balance between economic and social aims in education (Hindson, p. 167).
65. Bruce Fuller, Growing Up Modern: The Western State Builds Third World Schools (New York: Routledge, 1991).
66. Ibid., pp. 1-5, quote on p. 5.
67. Hans Biaise, "The Process and Strategy of Institution Building: A Case Study in Cambodia" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1964), p. 34.
68. On the "crusade" and its aftermath, see David Chandler, The Tragedy of Cambodian History: Politics, War and Revolution since 1945 (Bangkok: Silkworm, 1991), pp. 61-65.
69. Norodom Sihanouk, Souvenirs doux et amers (Paris: Hachette, 1981), p. 262.
70. Sihanouk's views at the time were no doubt influenced by the works of those such as Harbison and Myers, who proclaimed that "education is the key that unlocks the door to modernization" (Harbison and Myers [n. 11 above], p. 184).
71. e Congres National (Phnom Penh: Ministère de l'Information, 1963), p. 104.
72. On the coup, sec Justin Corfield, Khmers Stand Up! A History of the Cambodian Government, 1970-1975 (Clayton, Australia: Monash University Center of Southeast Asian Studies, 1994), chap. 3.
73. On neo-Khmerism, see Lon Nol, Neo-Khm̀risme (Phnom Penh: Ministère de l'Information, 1970).
74. Réalités Cambodgiennes, December 18, 1970, p. 14
75. Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis (n. 3 above), pp. 76-79.
76. David Chandler, A History of Cambodia, 2d ed. (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1993), p. 209.
77. United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (n. 8 above), p. 19.
78. Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education" (n. 3 above), p. 207.
79. "Preliminary Explanation before Reading the Plan, by the Party Secretary," in Pol Pot Plans the Future: Confidential Leadership Documents from Democratic Kampuchea, 1976-1977, ed. D. P. Chandler, B. Kiernan, and C. Boua (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies Program, 1988), pp. 159-60.
80. Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education," pp. 214-15.
81. On the collapse of Democratic Kampuchea and the formation of the People's Republic of Kampuchea (later renamed the State of Cambodia), see Nayan Chanda, Brother Enemy, the War after the War: A History of Indochina since the Fall of Saigon (Bangkok: Asia Books, 1988).
82. Mysliweic (n. 7 above), p. 11.
83. On the death toll, see Ayres, "The Khmer Rouge and Education," p. 31.
84. See Justin Corfield, A History of the Cambodian Non-Communist Resistance, 1975-1983 (Clayton, Australia: Monash University Center of Southeast Asian Studies, 1991).
85. Mysliweic, pp. 72-76.
86. People's Republic of Kampuchea, Ministry of Education, Education in the People's Republic of Kampuchea, 7.1.84 (Phnom Penh: Ministry of Education, 1984), p. 4.
87. On the extent of Vietnamese support to the People's Republic of Kampuchea regime, see Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis (n. 3 above), pp. 127-29: see also Thomas Clayton, "Education and Language in Education in Relation to External Intervention in Cambodia, 1620-1989" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1995), p. 243.
88. On the extent of Vietnamese support to the People's Republic of Kampuchea regime, see Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis (n. 3 above), pp. 127-29: see also Thomas Clayton, "Education and Language in Education in Relation to External Intervention in Cambodia, 1620-1989" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh, 1995), p. 243.
89. Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis, p. 157.
90. Pen Navuth, "Rapport sur le rôle de l'école dans la lutte idéologique contemporaine" (paper presented at the sixth conference of ministers of education from socialist countries. République Populaire de Pologne, Varsovie, November 17-23, 1985), p. 2.
91. The decree on the establishment of the Cabinet of the Minister of Education stated that the "Ministry of Education is an organization . . . to protect and build the People's Republic of Cambodia [sic] into a socialist country" (People's Republic of Kampuchea, People's Revolutionary Council, "Decree on the Establishment of the Cabinet of the Minister of Education" (unpublished unofficial translation, Phnom Penh, 1980). A later education report noted that "a new and progressive" education system had been created that would serve "to defend and firmly build the country on the way to socialism" State of Cambodia, Ministry of Education, Education: State of Cambodia (Phnom Penh: Ministry of Education 1990), p. 5.
92. The decree on the establishment of the Cabinet of the Minister of Education stated that the "Ministry of Education is an organization . . . to protect and build the People's Republic of Cambodia [sic] into a socialist country" (People's Republic of Kampuchea, People's Revolutionary Council, "Decree on the Establishment of the Cabinet of the Minister of Education" (unpublished unofficial translation, Phnom Penh, 1980). A later education report noted that "a new and progressive" education system had been created that would serve "to defend and firmly build the country on the way to socialism" State of Cambodia, Ministry of Education, Education: State of Cambodia (Phnom Penh: Ministry of Education 1990), p. 5.
93. On the Paris peace agreements and the elections, see United Nations, The United Nations and Cambodia, 1991-1995 (New York: United Nations, 1995); see also William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment Publication, 1995), pp. 37-68; and MacAlister Brown and Joseph Zasloff, Cambodia Confounds the Peacemakers, 1979-1998 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998), chaps. 3 and 4.
94. On the Paris peace agreements and the elections, see United Nations, The United Nations and Cambodia, 1991-1995 (New York: United Nations, 1995); see also William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment Publication, 1995), pp. 37-68; and MacAlister Brown and Joseph Zasloff, Cambodia Confounds the Peacemakers, 1979-1998 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998), chaps. 3 and 4.
95. On the Paris peace agreements and the elections, see United Nations, The United Nations and Cambodia, 1991-1995 (New York: United Nations, 1995); see also William Shawcross, Cambodia's New Deal (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment Publication, 1995), pp. 37-68; and MacAlister Brown and Joseph Zasloff, Cambodia Confounds the Peacemakers, 1979-1998 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998), chaps. 3 and 4.
96. The FUNCINPEC won the most votes at the elections. The CPP, representing the incumbent People's Republic - which had changed its name to the State of Cambodia in 1989 - was second, followed by the BLDP. A fourth party, Moulinaka, also won enough votes to claim one seat in the constituent assembly formed following the elections.
97. The coalition made up a power-sharing arrangement between FUNCINPEC, who had won the most votes in the 1993 elections, and the CPP, who controlled the police, the armed forces, and most of the bureaucracy, and who refused to cede control after losing the elections. The leader of FUNCINPEC, Prince Norodom Ranariddh, was given the title of "First Prime Minister" and the CPP's leader, Hun Sen, became the "Second Prime Minister." Tensions between the two coalition partners escalated through 1996 and reached the boiling point in 1997. The July coup was orchestrated by Hun Sen, who ousted Ranariddh on the grounds that he and other members of his party were guilty of illegal acts that were "dangerous to the nation." The 1998 elections were held after international pressure was placed on Hun Sen (especially from ASEAN countries).
98. Keat Chhon, "Opening Remarks," in Cambodia: Challenges and Options of Regional Economic Integration, Conference Papers, ed. Chan Sophal et al. (Phnom Penh: Cambodia Development Resource Institute, 1998), p. viii. See also Royal Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Planning (n. 27 above), pp. 2-4.
99. Keat Chhon, "Opening Remarks," in Cambodia: Challenges and Options of Regional Economic Integration, Conference Papers, ed. Chan Sophal et al. (Phnom Penh: Cambodia Development Resource Institute, 1998), p. viii. See also Royal Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Planning (n. 27 above), pp. 2-4.
100. Royal Government of Cambodia, The National Program to Rehabilitate and Develop Cambodia (Phnom Penh: Royal Government of Cambodia, 1994).
101. State of Cambodia, National Conference on Education for All: Final Report (Phnom Penh: Unesco, UNICEF and UNDP, 1991); and Unesco, Inter-sectoral Basic Needs Assessment Mission to Cambodia (Bangkok: Unesco, 1991).
102. State of Cambodia, National Conference on Education for All: Final Report (Phnom Penh: Unesco, UNICEF and UNDP, 1991); and Unesco, Inter-sectoral Basic Needs Assessment Mission to Cambodia (Bangkok: Unesco, 1991).
103. Royal Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, ed., Rebuilding Quality Education and Training in Cambodia (Phnom Penh: Unesco, UNDP, and Australian International Development Assistance Bureau, 1994).
104. Ung Huot, "Education Policy Statement" in Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, ed., Rebuilding Quality Education and Training in Cambodia, p. iii.
105. See Raoul Jennar, The Cambodian Constitutions (1953-1993) (Bangkok: White Lotus, 1995).
106. Asian Development Bank, Cambodian Education Sector Strategy Study (Manila: Asian Development Bank, 1996).
107. Royal Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, Investment Framework Education Sector: 1995-2000 (Phnom Penh: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports; Council for the Development of Cambodia, 1994).
108. Royal Government of Cambodia, Ministry of Planning, p. 215.
109. Serge Thion, "The Pattern of Cambodian Politics," in Watching Cambodia: Ten Paths to Enter the Cambodian Tangle, ed. S. Thion (Bangkok: White Lotus, 1993), p. 119.
110. See Nidhi Aeusrivagnse, "The Devaraja Cult and Khmer Kingship at Angkor," in Explorations in Early Southeast Asian History: The Origin of Southeast Asian Statecraft, Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 11, ed. K. Hall and J. Whitmore (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, 1976), pp. 107-48; and Ian Mabbett, "Devaraja," Journal of Southeast Asian History 10, no. 2 (1969): 202-23.
111. See Nidhi Aeusrivagnse, "The Devaraja Cult and Khmer Kingship at Angkor," in Explorations in Early Southeast Asian History: The Origin of Southeast Asian Statecraft, Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 11, ed. K. Hall and J. Whitmore (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, 1976), pp. 107-48; and Ian Mabbett, "Devaraja," Journal of Southeast Asian History 10, no. 2 (1969): 202-23.
112. On Cambodia's social system, and particularly patron-clientism, see Marie Martin, Cambodia: A Shattered Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), chap. 1.
113. Ian Mabbett and David Chandler, The Khmers (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), pp. 61-65; see also Ian Mabbett, "The Indianization of Southeast Asia," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 8, no. 1 (1977): 1-14; R. Choudhary Some Aspects of the Social and Economic History of Ancient India and Cambodia (Varanasi: Chuakhamba Orientalia, 1984); and Georges Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, 3d ed. (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1908).
114. Ian Mabbett and David Chandler, The Khmers (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), pp. 61-65; see also Ian Mabbett, "The Indianization of Southeast Asia," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 8, no. 1 (1977): 1-14; R. Choudhary Some Aspects of the Social and Economic History of Ancient India and Cambodia (Varanasi: Chuakhamba Orientalia, 1984); and Georges Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, 3d ed. (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1908).
115. Ian Mabbett and David Chandler, The Khmers (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), pp. 61-65; see also Ian Mabbett, "The Indianization of Southeast Asia," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 8, no. 1 (1977): 1-14; R. Choudhary Some Aspects of the Social and Economic History of Ancient India and Cambodia (Varanasi: Chuakhamba Orientalia, 1984); and Georges Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, 3d ed. (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1908).
116. Ian Mabbett and David Chandler, The Khmers (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), pp. 61-65; see also Ian Mabbett, "The Indianization of Southeast Asia," Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 8, no. 1 (1977): 1-14; R. Choudhary Some Aspects of the Social and Economic History of Ancient India and Cambodia (Varanasi: Chuakhamba Orientalia, 1984); and Georges Coedès, The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, 3d ed. (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1908).
117. Cambodia's social hierarchy was typical of hierarchical social systems evident in other Asiatic kingdoms - Thailand, Burma, the Indonesian archipelago, and the Malay peninsula being obvious examples See R. Heine-Geldern, "Conceptions of State and Kingship in Southeast Asia," working paper (Cornell University, Southeast Asia Program, Ithaca, N.Y., 1956).
118. David Chandler, "Cambodia before the French: Politics in a Tributary Kingdom" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1974), p. 41.
119. Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis (n. 3 above), pp. 11-12.
120. The French protectorate was established in Cambodia in 1863. Independence from France was granted in November 1953.
121. On the Japanese occupation of Cambodia during World War II, see Donald Lancaster, The Emancipation of French Indochina (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), pp. 91-108.
122. The French attempt to identify with the monarchy was reflected in the naming of a secondary school opened in Kompong Cham province in 1942 - the Collège Norodom Sihanouk, after the recently crowned monarch. David Chandler cites the change in the format of Cambodia's Royal Chronicles as further evidence of the manner in which World War II forced changes in the French approach to Cambodian kingship. See David Chandler, "Cambodian Palace Chronicles: Kingship and Historiography at the End of the Colonial Era," in Perceptions of the Past in Southeast Asia, ed. A. Reid and D. Marr (Singapore: Heinemann, 1979), p. 207.
123. Vincent McNamara, "The Education System of Cambodia: Framework and Characteristics," in Sloper, ed. (n. 4 above), p. 88.
124. In 1978, as their rule was coming to an end, the Khmer Rouge did attempt to present more of a human face" by making several announcements regarding the provision of education. Pol Pot announced the opening of a new higher education facility, while plans were being made for a primary education teacher training facility. See Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis, pp. 116-17.
125. Ibid., chap. 2.
126. A critical article written after Sihanouk's ouster highlighted this lack of interest. Commenting on Sihanouk's lack of concern with the specific details of educational policy, Phuong Ton wrote that "neither the cost of construction, nor the plans, . . . nor the availability of the necessary teaching materials mattered to him." Phuong cited the prince's inclination, "whilst touring a province, as a reward, he said, for the welcome he received, to decide suddenly to transform a junior high school into a senior
127. In 1994 Cambodia's co-prime ministers, Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen, promised that by the year 2000 the country would devote at least 15 percent of budget expenditure to the education sector. By 1996, a government official had conceded that this commitment "will not be achieved." On the commitment, see Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen, "Foreword," in Royal Government of Cambodia Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, p. i. On not achieving the commitment, see Keat Chhon, "Keynote Address Given at National Higher Education Taskforce Seminar" (unpublished paper, Phnom Penh, December 19-20, 1996), p. 3.
128. In 1994 Cambodia's co-prime ministers, Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen, promised that by the year 2000 the country would devote at least 15 percent of budget expenditure to the education sector. By 1996, a government official had conceded that this commitment "will not be achieved." On the commitment, see Norodom Ranariddh and Hun Sen, "Foreword," in Royal Government of Cambodia Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, p. i. On not achieving the commitment, see Keat Chhon, "Keynote Address Given at National Higher Education Taskforce Seminar" (unpublished paper, Phnom Penh, December 19-20, 1996), p. 3.
129. Vincent McNamara, personal communication, April 2000. Parents and local communities have picked up the tab for the government's negligence. One study has estimated that while the government spent (in 1997) an estimated US$9.68 per primary school child per year on salaries, administration, textbooks, and furniture, households and communities contributed more than US$45 per student during the same period See Mark Bray, The Private Costs of Public Schooling: Household and Community Financing of Primary Education in Cambodia (Paris: Unesco International Institute for Educational Planning, 1999), pp. 126-27.
130. See Anthony Welch, Quality and Equality in Third World Education (New York: Garland, 1999).
131. On the educational endeavors of the French in Cambodia, see Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis (n. 3 above), pp. 23-27; Thomas Clayton, "Restriction or Resistance? French Colonial Educational Development in Cambodia," Education Policy Analysis Archives 3 (December 1995), at http//www.asuvm.mre .asu.edu; and John Tully, Cambodia under the Tricolour: King Sisowath and the 'Mission Civilisatrice,' 1904-1927 (Clayton, Australia: Monash Asia Institute, 1996), chap. 7.
132. On the educational endeavors of the French in Cambodia, see Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis (n. 3 above), pp. 23-27; Thomas Clayton, "Restriction or Resistance? French Colonial Educational Development in Cambodia," Education Policy Analysis Archives 3 (December 1995), at http//www.asuvm.mre .asu.edu; and John Tully, Cambodia under the Tricolour: King Sisowath and the 'Mission Civilisatrice,' 1904-1927 (Clayton, Australia: Monash Asia Institute, 1996), chap. 7.
133. On the educational endeavors of the French in Cambodia, see Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis (n. 3 above), pp. 23-27; Thomas Clayton, "Restriction or Resistance? French Colonial Educational Development in Cambodia," Education Policy Analysis Archives 3 (December 1995), at http//www.asuvm.mre .asu.edu; and John Tully, Cambodia under the Tricolour: King Sisowath and the 'Mission Civilisatrice,' 1904-1927 (Clayton, Australia: Monash Asia Institute, 1996), chap. 7.
134. Anil Deolalikar, "Socioeconomic Development in Cambodia," in Sloper, ed. (n. 4 above), p. 42.
135. An estimated 80-85 percent of the Cambodian population is involved in work in the agricultural sector. See Asian Development Bank (n. 73 above), pp. 22-23.
136. See U.S. Embassy Phnom Penh Foreign Service Despatch 851H.00/12-2954, December 29, 1954. In a report of December 11, 1954, it was noted that "while there is no present problem in placing educated young people, the current emphasis on purely academic education could lead eventually to overproduction of white collar professionals." Little had changed by 1995, with the Cambodian prime minister, Prince Norodom Ranariddh, noting before a university graduation ceremony that "all the new graduates want to be officers of other status [sic] in government positions." See Norodom Ranariddh, "Speech of the First Prime Minister," in Ceremony to Award Bachelor Degrees to the Twelfth Graduating Class, 7 October 1995 (Phnom Penh, 1995).
137. See U.S. Embassy Phnom Penh Foreign Service Despatch 851H.00/12-2954, December 29, 1954. In a report of December 11, 1954, it was noted that "while there is no present problem in placing educated young people, the current emphasis on purely academic education could lead eventually to overproduction of white collar professionals." Little had changed by 1995, with the Cambodian prime minister, Prince Norodom Ranariddh, noting before a university graduation ceremony that "all the new graduates want to be officers of other status [sic] in government positions." See Norodom Ranariddh, "Speech of the First Prime Minister," in Ceremony to Award Bachelor Degrees to the Twelfth Graduating Class, 7 October 1995 (Phnom Penh, 1995).
138. Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge would be the exception here, as they did commit themselves to dismantling the educational structures of the regimes they had preceded.
139. In 1995, although Cambodia already had an oversupply of upper secondary school teachers and had agreed with the International Monetary Fund that university graduates would not be guaranteed employment with the government, the prime ministers announced that recent University of Phnom Penh graduates would be trained and deployed to work as upper secondary school teachers. The cautious and professionally viable alternatives proposed by the Minister of Education, Tol Lah, who made the prime ministers aware of the teacher oversupply, were steadfastly ignored. The minister finally capitulated to force majeure, recruiting the unneeded future teachers. See Ayres, Anatomy of a Crisis, pp. 174-78.
140. On not acceding to the wishes of Cambodia's leaders, the case of Phlek Phoeun is illuminating. Following the 1956 elections, the favored prime ministerial candidate, Phlek Phoeun, began negotiating the formation of a cabinet without consulting Sihanouk. When the prince became aware of what was happening, Phoeun's candidature for the prime minister's post was immediately withdrawn. See Chandler, The Tragedy of Cambodian History (n. 41 above), pp. 91-92.