The politics of educational borrowing: Reopening the case of Achimota in British Ghana

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 44, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 272-298

  Steiner Khamsi, Gita ^a   Quist, Hubert O ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034338385     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447615     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. See, e.g., Philip Foster, Education and Social Change in Ghana (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Kenneth King, "James E. K. Aggrev: Collaborator, Nationalist, Pan-African," Canadian Journal of African Studies 3, no. 3 (1969): 511-30; Edward H. Berman, "American Influence on African Education: The Role of the Phelps-Stokes Fund's Education Commissions," Comparative Education Review 15, no. 2 (1971): 132-45, and "Tuskegee-in-Africa," Journal of Negro Education 48, no. 2 (1972): 99-112; Udo Bude, "The Adaptation Concept in British Colonial Education," Comparative Education Review 19, no. 3 (1983): 341-55; Bob White, "Talk about School: Education and the Colonial Project in French and British Africa, 1860-1960," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 9-25; Panayiotis Persianis, "The British Colonial Education 'Lending' Policy in Cyprus, 1878-1960: An Intriguing Example of an Elusive 'Adapted Education' Policy," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 45-68.
2. See, e.g., Philip Foster, Education and Social Change in Ghana (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Kenneth King, "James E. K. Aggrev: Collaborator, Nationalist, Pan-African," Canadian Journal of African Studies 3, no. 3 (1969): 511-30; Edward H. Berman, "American Influence on African Education: The Role of the Phelps-Stokes Fund's Education Commissions," Comparative Education Review 15, no. 2 (1971): 132-45, and "Tuskegee-in-Africa," Journal of Negro Education 48, no. 2 (1972): 99-112; Udo Bude, "The Adaptation Concept in British Colonial Education," Comparative Education Review 19, no. 3 (1983): 341-55; Bob White, "Talk about School: Education and the Colonial Project in French and British Africa, 1860-1960," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 9-25; Panayiotis Persianis, "The British Colonial Education 'Lending' Policy in Cyprus, 1878-1960: An Intriguing Example of an Elusive 'Adapted Education' Policy," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 45-68.
3. See, e.g., Philip Foster, Education and Social Change in Ghana (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Kenneth King, "James E. K. Aggrev: Collaborator, Nationalist, Pan-African," Canadian Journal of African Studies 3, no. 3 (1969): 511-30; Edward H. Berman, "American Influence on African Education: The Role of the Phelps-Stokes Fund's Education Commissions," Comparative Education Review 15, no. 2 (1971): 132-45, and "Tuskegee-in-Africa," Journal of Negro Education 48, no. 2 (1972): 99-112; Udo Bude, "The Adaptation Concept in British Colonial Education," Comparative Education Review 19, no. 3 (1983): 341-55; Bob White, "Talk about School: Education and the Colonial Project in French and British Africa, 1860-1960," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 9-25; Panayiotis Persianis, "The British Colonial Education 'Lending' Policy in Cyprus, 1878-1960: An Intriguing Example of an Elusive 'Adapted Education' Policy," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 45-68.
4. See, e.g., Philip Foster, Education and Social Change in Ghana (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Kenneth King, "James E. K. Aggrev: Collaborator, Nationalist, Pan-African," Canadian Journal of African Studies 3, no. 3 (1969): 511-30; Edward H. Berman, "American Influence on African Education: The Role of the Phelps-Stokes Fund's Education Commissions," Comparative Education Review 15, no. 2 (1971): 132-45, and "Tuskegee-in-Africa," Journal of Negro Education 48, no. 2 (1972): 99-112; Udo Bude, "The Adaptation Concept in British Colonial Education," Comparative Education Review 19, no. 3 (1983): 341-55; Bob White, "Talk about School: Education and the Colonial Project in French and British Africa, 1860-1960," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 9-25; Panayiotis Persianis, "The British Colonial Education 'Lending' Policy in Cyprus, 1878-1960: An Intriguing Example of an Elusive 'Adapted Education' Policy," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 45-68.
5. See, e.g., Philip Foster, Education and Social Change in Ghana (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Kenneth King, "James E. K. Aggrev: Collaborator, Nationalist, Pan-African," Canadian Journal of African Studies 3, no. 3 (1969): 511-30; Edward H. Berman, "American Influence on African Education: The Role of the Phelps-Stokes Fund's Education Commissions," Comparative Education Review 15, no. 2 (1971): 132-45, and "Tuskegee-in-Africa," Journal of Negro Education 48, no. 2 (1972): 99-112; Udo Bude, "The Adaptation Concept in British Colonial Education," Comparative Education Review 19, no. 3 (1983): 341-55; Bob White, "Talk about School: Education and the Colonial Project in French and British Africa, 1860-1960," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 9-25; Panayiotis Persianis, "The British Colonial Education 'Lending' Policy in Cyprus, 1878-1960: An Intriguing Example of an Elusive 'Adapted Education' Policy," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 45-68.
6. See, e.g., Philip Foster, Education and Social Change in Ghana (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Kenneth King, "James E. K. Aggrev: Collaborator, Nationalist, Pan-African," Canadian Journal of African Studies 3, no. 3 (1969): 511-30; Edward H. Berman, "American Influence on African Education: The Role of the Phelps-Stokes Fund's Education Commissions," Comparative Education Review 15, no. 2 (1971): 132-45, and "Tuskegee-in-Africa," Journal of Negro Education 48, no. 2 (1972): 99-112; Udo Bude, "The Adaptation Concept in British Colonial Education," Comparative Education Review 19, no. 3 (1983): 341-55; Bob White, "Talk about School: Education and the Colonial Project in French and British Africa, 1860-1960," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 9-25; Panayiotis Persianis, "The British Colonial Education 'Lending' Policy in Cyprus, 1878-1960: An Intriguing Example of an Elusive 'Adapted Education' Policy," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 45-68.
7. See, e.g., Philip Foster, Education and Social Change in Ghana (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Kenneth King, "James E. K. Aggrev: Collaborator, Nationalist, Pan-African," Canadian Journal of African Studies 3, no. 3 (1969): 511-30; Edward H. Berman, "American Influence on African Education: The Role of the Phelps-Stokes Fund's Education Commissions," Comparative Education Review 15, no. 2 (1971): 132-45, and "Tuskegee-in-Africa," Journal of Negro Education 48, no. 2 (1972): 99-112; Udo Bude, "The Adaptation Concept in British Colonial Education," Comparative Education Review 19, no. 3 (1983): 341-55; Bob White, "Talk about School: Education and the Colonial Project in French and British Africa, 1860-1960," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 9-25; Panayiotis Persianis, "The British Colonial Education 'Lending' Policy in Cyprus, 1878-1960: An Intriguing Example of an Elusive 'Adapted Education' Policy," Comparative Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 45-68.
8. Advisory Committee on Native Education in the British Tropical African Dependencies, Education Policy in British Tropical Africa (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1925).
9. Jesse Thomas Jones, Education in Africa: A Study of West, South and Equatorial Africa by the African Education Commission (New York: Phelps-StokesFund, 1922), p. 141.
10. The similarities between the two reports have been noted by other authors; Philip Foster (p. 156) notes the following: "So completely were the principles underlying the Phelps-Stokes report accepted by the British colonial authorities that the policy statement of the Advisory Committee paralleled in large degree the conclusions of the American organization." Edward H. Berman ("Christian Missions in Africa," in African Reactions to Missionary Educations, ed. Edward H. Berman [New York: Teachers College Press, 1975], pp. 1-53, quote on p. 17) comments on the White Paper ("Education Policy in British Tropical Africa") issued in 1925: "To a large extent, this White Paper represented a reworking of the earlier Phelps-Stokes Fund's reports. These reports, in turn, had been greatly influenced by the Hampton-Tuskegee philosophy of education." Finally, William E. F. Ward, author of the official report, which was funded by the Nuffield Foundation and the Colonial Office, acknowledged that the British colonial government was influenced by Phelps-Stokes; see William E. F. Ward, African Education: A Study of Educational Policy and Practice in British Tropical Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, produced for the Nuffield Foundation and the Colonial Office, 1953). Ward states: "In accepting and interpreting their responsibility for education, Colonial Governments were powerfully influenced by the two reports of the commission which the Phelps-Stokes sent to West Africa in 1920-21 and East and Central Africa in 1924. By that time, African exports were beginning to bring in some revenue, and under stimulus of this new though modest prosperity and of the Phelps-Stokes reports, the Governments of the Gold Coast and of Uganda established Achimota and Makerere colleges" (Ward, pp. 2-3).
11. The similarities between the two reports have been noted by other authors; Philip Foster (p. 156) notes the following: "So completely were the principles underlying the Phelps-Stokes report accepted by the British colonial authorities that the policy statement of the Advisory Committee paralleled in large degree the conclusions of the American organization." Edward H. Berman ("Christian Missions in Africa," in African Reactions to Missionary Educations, ed. Edward H. Berman [New York: Teachers College Press, 1975], pp. 1-53, quote on p. 17) comments on the White Paper ("Education Policy in British Tropical Africa") issued in 1925: "To a large extent, this White Paper represented a reworking of the earlier Phelps-Stokes Fund's reports. These reports, in turn, had been greatly influenced by the Hampton-Tuskegee philosophy of education." Finally, William E. F. Ward, author of the official report, which was funded by the Nuffield Foundation and the Colonial Office, acknowledged that the British colonial government was influenced by Phelps-Stokes; see William E. F. Ward, African Education: A Study of Educational Policy and Practice in British Tropical Africa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, produced for the Nuffield Foundation and the Colonial Office, 1953). Ward states: "In accepting and interpreting their responsibility for education, Colonial Governments were powerfully influenced by the two reports of the commission which the Phelps-Stokes sent to West Africa in 1920-21 and East and Central Africa in 1924. By that time, African exports were beginning to bring in some revenue, and under stimulus of this new though modest prosperity and of the Phelps-Stokes reports, the Governments of the Gold Coast and of Uganda established Achimota and Makerere colleges" (Ward, pp. 2-3).
12. Advisory Committee on Native Education in the British Tropical African Dependencies, p. 3.
13. See a detailed description of the philosophy of accommodation formulated by Booker T. Washington, director of the Tuskegee Institute, in Booker T. Washington, Character-Building (New York: Double-day, Page & Co., 1902); see also Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901-15 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), and Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan, ed. Raymond W. Smock (Jackson and London: University Press of Mississippi, 1988); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "'Up from Slavery': The Age of Accommodation," in their From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York: Hill & Wang, 1966), pp. 156-88; Ralph E. Luker, "Education for Service," in his The Social Gospel in Black and White: American Racial Reform, 1885-1912 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), pp. 125-58.
14. See a detailed description of the philosophy of accommodation formulated by Booker T. Washington, director of the Tuskegee Institute, in Booker T. Washington, Character-Building (New York: Double-day, Page & Co., 1902); see also Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901-15 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), and Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan, ed. Raymond W. Smock (Jackson and London: University Press of Mississippi, 1988); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "'Up from Slavery': The Age of Accommodation," in their From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York: Hill & Wang, 1966), pp. 156-88; Ralph E. Luker, "Education for Service," in his The Social Gospel in Black and White: American Racial Reform, 1885-1912 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), pp. 125-58.
15. See a detailed description of the philosophy of accommodation formulated by Booker T. Washington, director of the Tuskegee Institute, in Booker T. Washington, Character-Building (New York: Double-day, Page & Co., 1902); see also Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901-15 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), and Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan, ed. Raymond W. Smock (Jackson and London: University Press of Mississippi, 1988); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "'Up from Slavery': The Age of Accommodation," in their From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York: Hill & Wang, 1966), pp. 156-88; Ralph E. Luker, "Education for Service," in his The Social Gospel in Black and White: American Racial Reform, 1885-1912 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), pp. 125-58.
16. See a detailed description of the philosophy of accommodation formulated by Booker T. Washington, director of the Tuskegee Institute, in Booker T. Washington, Character-Building (New York: Double-day, Page & Co., 1902); see also Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901-15 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), and Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan, ed. Raymond W. Smock (Jackson and London: University Press of Mississippi, 1988); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "'Up from Slavery': The Age of Accommodation," in their From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York: Hill & Wang, 1966), pp. 156-88; Ralph E. Luker, "Education for Service," in his The Social Gospel in Black and White: American Racial Reform, 1885-1912 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), pp. 125-58.
17. See a detailed description of the philosophy of accommodation formulated by Booker T. Washington, director of the Tuskegee Institute, in Booker T. Washington, Character-Building (New York: Double-day, Page & Co., 1902); see also Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901-15 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), and Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan, ed. Raymond W. Smock (Jackson and London: University Press of Mississippi, 1988); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "'Up from Slavery': The Age of Accommodation," in their From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York: Hill & Wang, 1966), pp. 156-88; Ralph E. Luker, "Education for Service," in his The Social Gospel in Black and White: American Racial Reform, 1885-1912 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), pp. 125-58.
18. See a detailed description of the philosophy of accommodation formulated by Booker T. Washington, director of the Tuskegee Institute, in Booker T. Washington, Character-Building (New York: Double-day, Page & Co., 1902); see also Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901-15 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), and Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan, ed. Raymond W. Smock (Jackson and London: University Press of Mississippi, 1988); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "'Up from Slavery': The Age of Accommodation," in their From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York: Hill & Wang, 1966), pp. 156-88; Ralph E. Luker, "Education for Service," in his The Social Gospel in Black and White: American Racial Reform, 1885-1912 (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), pp. 125-58.
19. The most comprehensive history of Achimota has been written by Francis Agbodeka, Achimota in the National Setting (Accra: Afram, 1977).
20. Gita Steiner-Khamsi, "Transferring Education, Displacing Reforms," in Discourse Formations in Comparative Education, ed. Jürgen Schriewer (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2000), pp. 153-87.
21. Ibid.
22. See, e.g., Robert F. Arnove and Carlos A. Torres, eds., Comparative Education: The Dialectic of the Global and the Local (Lanham: Roman & Littlefield, 1999).
23. In previous studies using the same method of inquiry, Steiner-Khamsi analyzed, e.g., why German educational researchers selectively borrowed certain arguments from the American academic debates on multiculturalism of the early nineties and dropped other arguments that did not suit their local context; see Gita Steiner-Khamsi, "Universalismus vor Partikularismus? Gleichheit vor Differenz?" in Das Fremde in der Gesellschaft: Migration, Ethnizität und Staat, ed. H. Wicker, J. Alber, C. Bolzman, R. Fibbi, K. Imhof, and A. Wimmer (Zürich: Seismo, 1996), pp. 353-72, and "Transnationalität und kulturelle Staatsbürgerschaft," in Jahrbuch für Pädagogik 1996: Pädagogik in multikulturellen Gesellschaften, ed.,G. Auernheimer and P. Gstettner (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1996), pp. 263-84; Gita Steiner-Khamsi and Carol A. Spreen, "Oppositional and Relational Identity: A Comparative Perspective," in Anti-Racist Work with Young People, ed. Anna Aluffi-Pentini and Walter Lorenz (Lyme Regis: Russell House, 1996), pp. 26-46.
24. In previous studies using the same method of inquiry, Steiner-Khamsi analyzed, e.g., why German educational researchers selectively borrowed certain arguments from the American academic debates on multiculturalism of the early nineties and dropped other arguments that did not suit their local context; see Gita Steiner-Khamsi, "Universalismus vor Partikularismus? Gleichheit vor Differenz?" in Das Fremde in der Gesellschaft: Migration, Ethnizität und Staat, ed. H. Wicker, J. Alber, C. Bolzman, R. Fibbi, K. Imhof, and A. Wimmer (Zürich: Seismo, 1996), pp. 353-72, and "Transnationalität und kulturelle Staatsbürgerschaft," in Jahrbuch für Pädagogik 1996: Pädagogik in multikulturellen Gesellschaften, ed.,G. Auernheimer and P. Gstettner (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1996), pp. 263-84; Gita Steiner-Khamsi and Carol A. Spreen, "Oppositional and Relational Identity: A Comparative Perspective," in Anti-Racist Work with Young People, ed. Anna Aluffi-Pentini and Walter Lorenz (Lyme Regis: Russell House, 1996), pp. 26-46.
25. In previous studies using the same method of inquiry, Steiner-Khamsi analyzed, e.g., why German educational researchers selectively borrowed certain arguments from the American academic debates on multiculturalism of the early nineties and dropped other arguments that did not suit their local context; see Gita Steiner-Khamsi, "Universalismus vor Partikularismus? Gleichheit vor Differenz?" in Das Fremde in der Gesellschaft: Migration, Ethnizität und Staat, ed. H. Wicker, J. Alber, C. Bolzman, R. Fibbi, K. Imhof, and A. Wimmer (Zürich: Seismo, 1996), pp. 353-72, and "Transnationalität und kulturelle Staatsbürgerschaft," in Jahrbuch für Pädagogik 1996: Pädagogik in multikulturellen Gesellschaften, ed.,G. Auernheimer and P. Gstettner (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1996), pp. 263-84; Gita Steiner-Khamsi and Carol A. Spreen, "Oppositional and Relational Identity: A Comparative Perspective," in Anti-Racist Work with Young People, ed. Anna Aluffi-Pentini and Walter Lorenz (Lyme Regis: Russell House, 1996), pp. 26-46.
26. David Halpin and Barry Troyna, "The Politics of Educational Borrowing," Comparative Education 31, no. 3 (1995): 303-10; David Philips, "Borrowing Educational Policy," in Something Borrowed? Something Learned? The Transatlantic Market in Education and Training Reform, ed. D. Finegold, L. McFarland, and W. Richardson (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993), pp. 13-19. See David B. Robertson and Jerold L. Waltman, "The Politics of Policy Borrowing," in Finegold, McFarland, and Richardson, eds. For a historical analysis, see Barbara A. Yates, "Comparative Education and the Third World: The Nineteenth Century Revisited," Comparative Education Review 28, no. 4 (1984): 533-49.
27. David Halpin and Barry Troyna, "The Politics of Educational Borrowing," Comparative Education 31, no. 3 (1995): 303-10; David Philips, "Borrowing Educational Policy," in Something Borrowed? Something Learned? The Transatlantic Market in Education and Training Reform, ed. D. Finegold, L. McFarland, and W. Richardson (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993), pp. 13-19. See David B. Robertson and Jerold L. Waltman, "The Politics of Policy Borrowing," in Finegold, McFarland, and Richardson, eds. For a historical analysis, see Barbara A. Yates, "Comparative Education and the Third World: The Nineteenth Century Revisited," Comparative Education Review 28, no. 4 (1984): 533-49.
28. David Halpin and Barry Troyna, "The Politics of Educational Borrowing," Comparative Education 31, no. 3 (1995): 303-10; David Philips, "Borrowing Educational Policy," in Something Borrowed? Something Learned? The Transatlantic Market in Education and Training Reform, ed. D. Finegold, L. McFarland, and W. Richardson (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993), pp. 13-19. See David B. Robertson and Jerold L. Waltman, "The Politics of Policy Borrowing," in Finegold, McFarland, and Richardson, eds. For a historical analysis, see Barbara A. Yates, "Comparative Education and the Third World: The Nineteenth Century Revisited," Comparative Education Review 28, no. 4 (1984): 533-49.
29. David Halpin and Barry Troyna, "The Politics of Educational Borrowing," Comparative Education 31, no. 3 (1995): 303-10; David Philips, "Borrowing Educational Policy," in Something Borrowed? Something Learned? The Transatlantic Market in Education and Training Reform, ed. D. Finegold, L. McFarland, and W. Richardson (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993), pp. 13-19. See David B. Robertson and Jerold L. Waltman, "The Politics of Policy Borrowing," in Finegold, McFarland, and Richardson, eds. For a historical analysis, see Barbara A. Yates, "Comparative Education and the Third World: The Nineteenth Century Revisited," Comparative Education Review 28, no. 4 (1984): 533-49.
30. Halpin and Troyna.
31. Philips, p. 16.
32. For a description of the theory of externalization, see Jürgen Schriewer, "The Method of Comparison and the Need for Externalization: Methodological Criteria and Sociological Concepts," in Theories and Methods in Comparative Education, ed. Jürgen Schriewer in cooperation with Brian Holmes (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1990), pp. 25-83; Jürgen Schriewer, Jürgen Henze, Jürgen Wichmann, Peter Knost, Susanna Barucha, and Jörn Taubert, "Konstruktion von Internationalität: Referenzhorizonte pädagogischen Wissens im Wandel gesellschaftlicher Systeme (Spanien, Sowjetunion/ Russland, China)," in Gesellschaft im Vergleich, ed. H. Kaelble and J. Schriewer (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1988), pp. 151-258. For a description of the theory of self-referential systems, see Niklas Luhmann, Essays on Self-Reference (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Niklas Luhmann and Klaus E. Schorr, Reflexionsprobleme im Erziehungs-system (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979) ; Karl Eberhard Schorr, "Das Verstehensdefizit der Erziehung und die Pädagogik," in Zwischen Intransparenz und Verstehen: Fragen an die Pädagogik, ed. N. Luhmann and K. E. Schorr (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1986), pp. 11-39.
33. For a description of the theory of externalization, see Jürgen Schriewer, "The Method of Comparison and the Need for Externalization: Methodological Criteria and Sociological Concepts," in Theories and Methods in Comparative Education, ed. Jürgen Schriewer in cooperation with Brian Holmes (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1990), pp. 25-83; Jürgen Schriewer, Jürgen Henze, Jürgen Wichmann, Peter Knost, Susanna Barucha, and Jörn Taubert, "Konstruktion von Internationalität: Referenzhorizonte pädagogischen Wissens im Wandel gesellschaftlicher Systeme (Spanien, Sowjetunion/ Russland, China)," in Gesellschaft im Vergleich, ed. H. Kaelble and J. Schriewer (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1988), pp. 151-258. For a description of the theory of self-referential systems, see Niklas Luhmann, Essays on Self-Reference (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Niklas Luhmann and Klaus E. Schorr, Reflexionsprobleme im Erziehungs-system (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979) ; Karl Eberhard Schorr, "Das Verstehensdefizit der Erziehung und die Pädagogik," in Zwischen Intransparenz und Verstehen: Fragen an die Pädagogik, ed. N. Luhmann and K. E. Schorr (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1986), pp. 11-39.
34. For a description of the theory of externalization, see Jürgen Schriewer, "The Method of Comparison and the Need for Externalization: Methodological Criteria and Sociological Concepts," in Theories and Methods in Comparative Education, ed. Jürgen Schriewer in cooperation with Brian Holmes (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1990), pp. 25-83; Jürgen Schriewer, Jürgen Henze, Jürgen Wichmann, Peter Knost, Susanna Barucha, and Jörn Taubert, "Konstruktion von Internationalität: Referenzhorizonte pädagogischen Wissens im Wandel gesellschaftlicher Systeme (Spanien, Sowjetunion/ Russland, China)," in Gesellschaft im Vergleich, ed. H. Kaelble and J. Schriewer (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1988), pp. 151-258. For a description of the theory of self-referential systems, see Niklas Luhmann, Essays on Self-Reference (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Niklas Luhmann and Klaus E. Schorr, Reflexionsprobleme im Erziehungs-system (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979) ; Karl Eberhard Schorr, "Das Verstehensdefizit der Erziehung und die Pädagogik," in Zwischen Intransparenz und Verstehen: Fragen an die Pädagogik, ed. N. Luhmann and K. E. Schorr (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1986), pp. 11-39.
35. For a description of the theory of externalization, see Jürgen Schriewer, "The Method of Comparison and the Need for Externalization: Methodological Criteria and Sociological Concepts," in Theories and Methods in Comparative Education, ed. Jürgen Schriewer in cooperation with Brian Holmes (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1990), pp. 25-83; Jürgen Schriewer, Jürgen Henze, Jürgen Wichmann, Peter Knost, Susanna Barucha, and Jörn Taubert, "Konstruktion von Internationalität: Referenzhorizonte pädagogischen Wissens im Wandel gesellschaftlicher Systeme (Spanien, Sowjetunion/ Russland, China)," in Gesellschaft im Vergleich, ed. H. Kaelble and J. Schriewer (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1988), pp. 151-258. For a description of the theory of self-referential systems, see Niklas Luhmann, Essays on Self-Reference (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Niklas Luhmann and Klaus E. Schorr, Reflexionsprobleme im Erziehungs-system (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979) ; Karl Eberhard Schorr, "Das Verstehensdefizit der Erziehung und die Pädagogik," in Zwischen Intransparenz und Verstehen: Fragen an die Pädagogik, ed. N. Luhmann and K. E. Schorr (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1986), pp. 11-39.
36. For a description of the theory of externalization, see Jürgen Schriewer, "The Method of Comparison and the Need for Externalization: Methodological Criteria and Sociological Concepts," in Theories and Methods in Comparative Education, ed. Jürgen Schriewer in cooperation with Brian Holmes (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1990), pp. 25-83; Jürgen Schriewer, Jürgen Henze, Jürgen Wichmann, Peter Knost, Susanna Barucha, and Jörn Taubert, "Konstruktion von Internationalität: Referenzhorizonte pädagogischen Wissens im Wandel gesellschaftlicher Systeme (Spanien, Sowjetunion/ Russland, China)," in Gesellschaft im Vergleich, ed. H. Kaelble and J. Schriewer (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1988), pp. 151-258. For a description of the theory of self-referential systems, see Niklas Luhmann, Essays on Self-Reference (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990); Niklas Luhmann and Klaus E. Schorr, Reflexionsprobleme im Erziehungs-system (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1979) ; Karl Eberhard Schorr, "Das Verstehensdefizit der Erziehung und die Pädagogik," in Zwischen Intransparenz und Verstehen: Fragen an die Pädagogik, ed. N. Luhmann and K. E. Schorr (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1986), pp. 11-39.
37. In 1975, e.g., Bern Zymek analyzed how German journals of education used, in the period 1871-1952, comparison to other educational systems as a means to defend and gain support for their own version of Progressive Education reform in Germany. In 1998, Philip Gonon used a similar framework for explaining why Swiss reformers of postsecondary schools have frequently referred to British reforms. See Bernhard Zymek, Das Ausland als Argument in der pädagogischen Reformdiskussion: Schulpolitische Rechtfertigung, Auslandspropaganda, internationale Verständigung und Ansätze zu einer Vergleichenden Erziehungswissenschaft in der internationalen Berichterstattung deutscher pädagogischer Zeitschriften, 1871-1952 (Ratingen: Henn, 1975) ; Philip Gonon, Das internationale Argument in der Bildungsreform: Die Rolle internationaler Bezüge in den bildungspolischen Debatten zur schweizerischen Berufsbildung und zur englischen Reform der Sekundarstufe II (Bern: Peter Lang, 1998).
38. In 1975, e.g., Bern Zymek analyzed how German journals of education used, in the period 1871-1952, comparison to other educational systems as a means to defend and gain support for their own version of Progressive Education reform in Germany. In 1998, Philip Gonon used a similar framework for explaining why Swiss reformers of postsecondary schools have frequently referred to British reforms. See Bernhard Zymek, Das Ausland als Argument in der pädagogischen Reformdiskussion: Schulpolitische Rechtfertigung, Auslandspropaganda, internationale Verständigung und Ansätze zu einer Vergleichenden Erziehungswissenschaft in der internationalen Berichterstattung deutscher pädagogischer Zeitschriften, 1871-1952 (Ratingen: Henn, 1975) ; Philip Gonon, Das internationale Argument in der Bildungsreform: Die Rolle internationaler Bezüge in den bildungspolischen Debatten zur schweizerischen Berufsbildung und zur englischen Reform der Sekundarstufe II (Bern: Peter Lang, 1998).
39. Achimota is a word from the Ga, an African ethnic and linguistic group, that means "do not speak the unspeakable." It may also be translated as "do not utter the unpardonable oath." According to Agbodeka (n. 7 above), p. 1, it translates literally as "speak no name."l
40. Foster (n. 1 above), p. 166.
41. Cited in William E. F. Ward, "The Early Days of Achimota," West African Journal of Education 9, no. 3 (1965) : 125-26. The National Congress of British West Africa was a protonationalist movement that was composed of the educated elite in British colonial West Africa. Its leadership included well-known Gold Coast intellectuals, such as John Mensah Sarbah and J. E. Casely-Hayford, who were also founders of Mfantsipim School at Cape Coast in the Gold Coast.
42. See Agbodeka, p. 138.
43. Mabel Carney, "The West Coast of Africa," in African Letters (New York: privately printed, 1924), in Special Collections, Columbia University, Teachers College, Milbank Memorial Library.
44. See Agbodeka, pp. 32-33.
45. See Foster, pp. 166-67; Agbodeka, pp. 57-62; 66-73; and Hubert O. Quist, "Secondary Education and Nation-Building: A Study of Ghana, 1951-91" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999), pp. 89-90.
46. See Foster, pp. 166-67; Agbodeka, pp. 57-62; 66-73; and Hubert O. Quist, "Secondary Education and Nation-Building: A Study of Ghana, 1951-91" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1999), pp. 89-90.
47. Raymond Buell, The Native Problem in Africa (New York: Macmillan, 1928), 2:848; this quotation also appears in Foster, p. 166.
48. Agbodeka (n. 7 above), p. 55.
49. Ibid., p. 177.
50. Gold Coast Leader, February 16, 1924.
51. Ibid.
52. Agbodeka, p. 60, points out that Achimota, starting in 1934, also succeeded in having agriculture count toward the foreign language requirements at British universities.
53. Ibid., p. 113.
54. Agbodeka, p. 71, specifies the further development: "By December 1930, there were only nine African junior staff members (mostly in the administration) and one senior staff member out of a total staff strength of 50."
55. Foster (n. 1 above), p. 168.
56. Ibid., p. 168.
57. Cited in M. E. Sinclair, "Education, Relevance and the Community: A First Look at the History of Attempts to Introduce Productive Work into the Primary School Curriculum," in Education and Community in Africa, ed. Kenneth King (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, Centre of African Studies, 1976), p. 69.
58. In 1921, Guggisberg established the first Educationalist Committee a year after he took office, with the mandate "to investigate educational efforts in the Gold Coast, their success and failure, with reasons therefor[e]" (see E. E. Ekuban, "Half a Century of Education in Ghana, 1920-70," Faculty of Education Bulletin 4, no. 1 [1973]: 22-27; also cited in Agbodeka [n. 7 above], p. 15).
59. "Guggisberg's Annual Address, 3 February 1925," in Minutes of the Legislative Council and Sessional Paper, Session 1925-26, Accra, 3 April 1925, Archival Documents and Manuscripts 14/1/122, Ghana National Archives, George Padmore Research Library, Accra, Ghana; this is cited in Agbodeka, p. 18.
60. Only Sinclair (p. 69) refers to Guggisberg's travels back by boat with members of the First Phelps-Stokes Commission; see Sinclair, p. 69. We have also found a reference in the Tuskegee Messenger ("British Colonial Governor to Study Tuskegee Method" [15 October 1927]) to Guggisberg's visit to Tuskegee, which was scheduled for October 18-20, 1927.
61. Jesse Jones to Governor Gordon Guggisberg, November 2, 1920, Archives of the Conference of Missionary Societies in Great Britain and Ireland, West Africa General file, box 219, Edinburgh House, London; this is cited in Forster, p. 159, and in Agbodeka, p. 15.
62. The list of countries visited during the first visit included Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo, Angola, and South Africa. The second commission visited Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Mozambique, Rhodesia, and South Africa.
63. See Sinclair. For the first commission, the American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society paid for travel expenses, while the Phelps-Stokes Fund covered all other incidental expenses. The expenses for the second commission were shared by the Phelps-Stokes Fund, the Church Missionary Society, and the Colonial Office; see Sinclair; Edwin W. Smith, Aggrey of Africa: A Study in Black and White (1929; reprint, Freeport and New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1971).
64. Carney (n. 21 above), p. 3.
65. Cited in E. Smith, p. 237.
66. James E. K. Aggrey to C. G. Wooson, 13 July 1927; Wooson Papers, box 6. acc. 3579, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; cited in Kenneth King, "James E. K. Aggrey: Collaborator, Nationalist, Pan-African," Canadian Journal of African Studies 3, no. 3 (1969): 521.
67. James E. K. Aggrey, quoted in Agbodeka, p. 29.
68. King, p. 521.
69. East African Standard, 1 March 1924, Weekly edition, quoted in King, p. 521.
70. Governor Robert Coryndon, quoted in Jesse Thomas Jones, "Solving the Race Problem in Africa," B.B.C. Address of 19 July 1931; this quotation is cited in King, pp. 521-22.
71. For example, Kwegyir Aggrey and his wife Abna Azalea named their fourth child, born in 1926, after the governor, Orison Rudolf Guggisberg; see E. Smith, p. 72.
72. Philip Foster (n. 1 above) is to be credited for repeatedly pointing at this fundamental contradiction that the Phelps-Stokes Commissions and the Advisory Board on Native Education in the British Tropical African Dependencies consistently overlooked. What was good for the colonial economy (having a regiment of content farmers and manual laborers) was not beneficial to the individual's social mobility and was, therefore, resisted.
73. E. Smith (n. 40 above), pp. 150-51
74. W. E. B. DuBois, The Education of Black People: Ten Critiques, 1906-1960, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1973); see also August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963), esp. Meier's chapter "The Paradox of W. E. B. DuBois" (pp. 190-206) that deals with DuBois's critique of Hampton and Tuskegee.
75. W. E. B. DuBois, The Education of Black People: Ten Critiques, 1906-1960, ed. Herbert Aptheker (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1973); see also August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963), esp. Meier's chapter "The Paradox of W. E. B. DuBois" (pp. 190-206) that deals with DuBois's critique of Hampton and Tuskegee.
76. Quoted in E. Smith, p. 255.
77. Louis R. Harlan, "Booker T. Washington and the White Man's Burden," American Historical Review 61 (1966) : 442, reprinted in Harlan, Booker T. Washington, pp. 68-97.
78. Louis R. Harlan, "Booker T. Washington and the White Man's Burden," American Historical Review 61 (1966) : 442, reprinted in Harlan, Booker T. Washington, pp. 68-97.
79. Booker T. Washington to Olivia Egleston Phelps-Stokes, December 3, 1909, Phelps-Stokes Fund, New York, file S-0; this is cited in Berman, "Tuskegee in Africa" (n. 1 above), p. 99. A detailed account of Washington's diplomatic initiatives to foster ties between the United States and African countries (especially between the United States and Liberia) can be found in Elliott P. Skinner, African Americans and U.S. Policy toward Africa, 1850-1924 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1992). pp. 291-347.
80. Edwin Barclay to Anson Phelps-Stokes, July 8, 1943, Phelps-Stokes Fund, New York, file S-2 (1); this is cited in Berman, "Tuskegee-in-Africa," p. 111.
81. Bude (n. 1 above).
82. David Ruddell, "(Class and Race: Neglected Determinants of Colonial 'Adapted Education' Policies," Comparative Education 18, no. 3 (1982): 293-303.
83. John Wilson, Education and Changing West African Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), p. 41.
84. DuBois, p. 5.
85. Ibid., p. 15.
86. See, e.g., Marcia Wright, German Missions in Tanganyika, 1891-1941: Lutherans and Moravians in Southern Highlands (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), where the Moravian philosophy of evangelization and the role of the African Weltanschauung within the body of Christian doctrine are discussed; see also Foster (n. 1 above); Sinclair (n. 34 above); Herman, "Christian Missions in Africa" (n. 4 above); Henry O. A. McWilliam and Michael A. Kwamena-Poh, The Development of Education in Ghana, 2d ed. (London: Longmans, 1975); C. K. Graham, The History of Education in Ghana (Tema, Ghana: Ghana Publishing, 1976).
87. See, e.g., Marcia Wright, German Missions in Tanganyika, 1891-1941: Lutherans and Moravians in Southern Highlands (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), where the Moravian philosophy of evangelization and the role of the African Weltanschauung within the body of Christian doctrine are discussed; see also Foster (n. 1 above); Sinclair (n. 34 above); Herman, "Christian Missions in Africa" (n. 4 above); Henry O. A. McWilliam and Michael A. Kwamena-Poh, The Development of Education in Ghana, 2d ed. (London: Longmans, 1975); C. K. Graham, The History of Education in Ghana (Tema, Ghana: Ghana Publishing, 1976).
88. See, e.g., Marcia Wright, German Missions in Tanganyika, 1891-1941: Lutherans and Moravians in Southern Highlands (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), where the Moravian philosophy of evangelization and the role of the African Weltanschauung within the body of Christian doctrine are discussed; see also Foster (n. 1 above); Sinclair (n. 34 above); Herman, "Christian Missions in Africa" (n. 4 above); Henry O. A. McWilliam and Michael A. Kwamena-Poh, The Development of Education in Ghana, 2d ed. (London: Longmans, 1975); C. K. Graham, The History of Education in Ghana (Tema, Ghana: Ghana Publishing, 1976).
89. Berman, "Christian Missions in ,Africa," p. 10.
90. J. F. Ade Ajayi, Christian Missions in Nigeria, 1841-1891: The Making of a New Elite (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1965), p. 144; also cited in Berman, "Christian Missions in Africa," p. 10.
91. J. F. Ade Ajayi, Christian Missions in Nigeria, 1841-1891: The Making of a New Elite (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1965), p. 144; also cited in Berman, "Christian Missions in Africa," p. 10.
92. Ajayi, p. 144;
93. also cited in Berman, "Christian Missions in Africa," p. 10.
94. See Graham; Foster; McWilliam and Kwamena-Poh.
95. Foster, p. 88.
96. W. J. Rottmann, The Educational Work of the Basel Mission on the Gold Coast, vol. 13, pt. 2, Special Reports on Educational Subjects (London: His Majesty's Stationary Office, 1905), app. A. 1, p. 301; this is also cited in Foster, p. 107.
97. Sinclair, p. 53.
98. Stephen Tenkorang, "The Founding of Mfantsipim 1905-1908" (Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana 15, no. 2 [1974]: 165-75), argues that the cultural adaptationist movement was referred to as the "Gone Fantee Movement," meaning the combination of what is culturally Ghanaian and African with what is good in foreign culture and civilization; see also Quist (n. 23 above), pp. 64-65, and Albert A. Boahen, Mfantsipim and the Making of Ghana: A Centenary History, 1876-1976 (Accra: Sankofa Educational Publishers, 1996).
99. Stephen Tenkorang, "The Founding of Mfantsipim 1905-1908" (Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana 15, no. 2 [1974]: 165-75), argues that the cultural adaptationist movement was referred to as the "Gone Fantee Movement," meaning the combination of what is culturally Ghanaian and African with what is good in foreign culture and civilization; see also Quist (n. 23 above), pp. 64-65, and Albert A. Boahen, Mfantsipim and the Making of Ghana: A Centenary History, 1876-1976 (Accra: Sankofa Educational Publishers, 1996).
100. Rudolf von Albertini, Decolonialization: The Administration and Future of the Colonies, 1919-1960 (1966; reprint, New York: Africana Publishing Company, Holmes & Meier, 1982), p. 80.
101. Ibid., 78.
102. Regarding the reputation of the Portuguese, see von Albertini's comments (pp. 514-23) that the Portuguese policy of "multi-racial community" was seen as hypocritical since Portugal, self-proclaimed "the land of the four Empires . . . with provinces in the four parts of the world" ("o país dos quatro Imperios . . . com provincias em quatro partes do mundo") enforced an even more rigid assimilation policy than the French colonial empire, and in their colonial educational policy under Salazar's administration strictly distinguished between whites, mulattos, "assimilados," and "não assimilados."
103. For evidence of the close link between British colonial government and missionaries, see Yates, Comparative Education and the Third World (n. 12 above), and Barbara A. Yates, "Church, State and Education in Belgian Africa: Implications for Contemporary Third World Women," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliott (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982), pp. 127-53.
104. For evidence of the close link between British colonial government and missionaries, see Yates, Comparative Education and the Third World (n. 12 above), and Barbara A. Yates, "Church, State and Education in Belgian Africa: Implications for Contemporary Third World Women," in Women's Education in the Third World: Comparative Perspectives, ed. Gail P. Kelly and Carolyn M. Elliott (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1982), pp. 127-53.
105. The two opposing German colonial policies toward the protectorates were heatedly debated at the German Colonial Congress of 1905; see Charles Pike, "History and Imagination: Swahili Literature and Resistance to German Language Imperialism in Tanzania, 1885-1910," International Journal of African Historical Studies 19, no. 2 (1986): 201-33; Wolfgang Mehnert, "The Language Question in the Colonial Policy of German Imperialism," in African Studies, Afrika-Studien, ed. T. Büttner, G. Brehme, R. Salt, and C. Salt (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1973), pp. 383-97.
106. The two opposing German colonial policies toward the protectorates were heatedly debated at the German Colonial Congress of 1905; see Charles Pike, "History and Imagination: Swahili Literature and Resistance to German Language Imperialism in Tanzania, 1885-1910," International Journal of African Historical Studies 19, no. 2 (1986): 201-33; Wolfgang Mehnert, "The Language Question in the Colonial Policy of German Imperialism," in African Studies, Afrika-Studien, ed. T. Büttner, G. Brehme, R. Salt, and C. Salt (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1973), pp. 383-97.
107. Schriewer (n. 15 above); Schriewer et al. (n. 15 above). See also Luhmann (n. 15 above); Luhmann and Schorr (n. 15 above).
108. Luhmann and Schorr.
109. In the past decade, several scholars in history, anthropology, literature, cultural studies, and post-colonial studies have examined imperial constructions of race, class, and sexuality in dependent territories and colonies; see, e.g., Ann Laura Stoler. "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule." in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), pp. 319-52; Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1993); Andrea L. Smith, "Colonialism and the Poisoning of Europe: Towards an Anthropology of Colonists," Journal of Anthropological Research 50 (1994): 383-93; Ann Laura Stoler. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1990); Anne McClintock, Imperial leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York and London: Routledge, 1995); Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
110. In the past decade, several scholars in history, anthropology, literature, cultural studies, and post-colonial studies have examined imperial constructions of race, class, and sexuality in dependent territories and colonies; see, e.g., Ann Laura Stoler. "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule." in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), pp. 319-52; Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1993); Andrea L. Smith, "Colonialism and the Poisoning of Europe: Towards an Anthropology of Colonists," Journal of Anthropological Research 50 (1994): 383-93; Ann Laura Stoler. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1990); Anne McClintock, Imperial leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York and London: Routledge, 1995); Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
111. In the past decade, several scholars in history, anthropology, literature, cultural studies, and post-colonial studies have examined imperial constructions of race, class, and sexuality in dependent territories and colonies; see, e.g., Ann Laura Stoler. "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule." in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), pp. 319-52; Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1993); Andrea L. Smith, "Colonialism and the Poisoning of Europe: Towards an Anthropology of Colonists," Journal of Anthropological Research 50 (1994): 383-93; Ann
112. In the past decade, several scholars in history, anthropology, literature, cultural studies, and post-colonial studies have examined imperial constructions of race, class, and sexuality in dependent territories and colonies; see, e.g., Ann Laura Stoler. "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule." in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), pp. 319-52; Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1993); Andrea L. Smith, "Colonialism and the Poisoning of Europe: Towards an Anthropology of Colonists," Journal of Anthropological Research 50 (1994): 383-93; Ann Laura Stoler. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1990); Anne McClintock, Imperial leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York and London: Routledge, 1995); Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
113. In the past decade, several scholars in history, anthropology, literature, cultural studies, and post-colonial studies have examined imperial constructions of race, class, and sexuality in dependent territories and colonies; see, e.g., Ann Laura Stoler. "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule." in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), pp. 319-52; Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1993); Andrea L. Smith, "Colonialism and the Poisoning of Europe: Towards an Anthropology of Colonists," Journal of Anthropological Research 50 (1994): 383-93; Ann Laura Stoler. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1990); Anne McClintock, Imperial leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York and London: Routledge, 1995); Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
114. In the past decade, several scholars in history, anthropology, literature, cultural studies, and post-colonial studies have examined imperial constructions of race, class, and sexuality in dependent territories and colonies; see, e.g., Ann Laura Stoler. "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule." in Colonialism and Culture, ed. Nicholas B. Dirks (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), pp. 319-52; Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1993); Andrea L. Smith, "Colonialism and the Poisoning of Europe: Towards an Anthropology of Colonists," Journal of Anthropological Research 50 (1994): 383-93; Ann Laura Stoler. Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1990); Anne McClintock, Imperial leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York and London: Routledge, 1995); Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
115. "Technology" is used here in the Foucauldian sense, in which there is a mechanism in place that ensures that knowledge and power are intertwined; see Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Random House, Panetheon Books, 1977).
116. Alexander G. Fraser to Colonial Secretary, 20 August 1931, Victoriaborg, National Archives of Ghana, Colonial Secretary's Office, no. 1140/31, George Padmore Research Library, Accra, Ghana; this is cited in Quist (n. 23 above), pp. 84-85.
117. Agbodeka (n. 7 above), p. 83.
118. Ibid., p. 84.
119. Michael E. Sadler to Booker T. Washington, September 23, 1901, Washington Papers, box 209, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.: this is cited in Berman, "Tuskegee-in-Africa" (n. 1 above), p. 99.
120. Sadler explained that selective borrowing was predisposed to fail because "the things outside the schools matter even more than the things inside the schools, and govern and interpret the things inside the schools;" cited in George Z. F. Bereday, "Sir Michael Sadler's 'Study of Foreign Systems of Education': Reprint of the Notes of an Address Given at the Guildford Educational Conference, on Saturday. October 20, 1900, by M. E. Sadler, Christ Church. Oxford," Comparative Education Review 7, no. 3 (February 1964): 310.
121. See, e.g., how Aggrey describes his encounter with Paul Monroe: "Prof. Monroe had me to talk to the class on Primitive Methods of Education - emphasizing [sic] my native country. He will tell you about it himself. I may add that it was so discussed that another teacher had me to talk to his class in Macy Building the following week on the same subject. . . . Prof. Monroe asked me in his office to put my knowledge along those lines in book form. He made me feel real humble in the compliment he paid me before the whole class and its reiteration with emphasis in his office. He was even so kind as to say that if I would write it he would see that it was published." See letter of James E. K. Aggrey to Jesse T. Jones, August 18, 1919, supplied by Jones and given to Smith, reprinted in E. Smith (n. 40 above), pp. 108-9.
122. Brahm David Flesich, "The Teachers College Club: American Educational Discourse and the Origins of Bantu Education in South Africa, 1914-1951" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1995), describes in detail how the adaptionist concept later, in 1954, became the foundation for educational apartheid, the Bantu Education Act; see also Richard Glotzer, "The Career of Mabel Carney: The Study of Race and Rural Development in the United States and South Africa," International Journal of African Historical Studies 29, no. 2 (1996): 309-36; R. H. Davis, "Charles T. Loram and the American Model for African Education in South Africa," African Studies Review 19, no. 2 (1976): 87-100.
123. Brahm David Flesich, "The Teachers College Club: American Educational Discourse and the Origins of Bantu Education in South Africa, 1914-1951" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1995), describes in detail how the adaptionist concept later, in 1954, became the foundation for educational apartheid, the Bantu Education Act; see also Richard Glotzer, "The Career of Mabel Carney: The Study of Race and Rural Development in the United States and South Africa," International Journal of African Historical Studies 29, no. 2 (1996): 309-36; R. H. Davis, "Charles T. Loram and the American Model for African Education in South Africa," African Studies Review 19, no. 2 (1976): 87-100.
124. Brahm David Flesich, "The Teachers College Club: American Educational Discourse and the Origins of Bantu Education in South Africa, 1914-1951" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1995), describes in detail how the adaptionist concept later, in 1954, became the foundation for educational apartheid, the Bantu Education Act; see also Richard Glotzer, "The Career of Mabel Carney: The Study of Race and Rural Development in the United States and South Africa," International Journal of African Historical Studies 29, no. 2 (1996): 309-36; R. H. Davis, "Charles T. Loram and the American Model for African Education in South Africa," African Studies Review 19, no. 2 (1976): 87-100.
125. Agbodeka, p. 138.
126. See, in particular, Quist's chapter (pp. 147-93) on the Ghana Educational Trust and "National" Schools.