What risk factors tell us about the causes of schizophrenia and related psychoses

Current Psychiatry Reports

Volumn 2, Issue 5, 2000, Pages 378-385

  Kelly, Jane ^a   Murray, Robin M ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Affective Psychosis; Birth Complication; Environmental Risk Factor; Influenza; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

ADDICTION; BRAIN; CLIMATE; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CONGENITAL MALFORMATION; ENVIRONMENT; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOSIS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; STATISTICS; URBAN POPULATION;

BRAIN; CLIMATE; COGNITION DISORDERS; ENVIRONMENT; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS; PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS; RISK FACTORS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; URBAN POPULATION;

EID: 0034302198     PISSN: 15233812     EISSN: 15351645     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11920-000-0019-1     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. McDonald C, Murray R: Early and late environmental risk factors for schizophrenia. Brain Res Rev 2000, 31:130–137.
2. Murray R, Fearon P: The developmental ‘risk factor’ model of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 1999, 33:497–499.
3. Jones P, Cannon M: The new epidemiology of schizophrenia. Psychiatr Clin N Am 1998, 21:1–25.
4. Andreasen NC: Understanding the causes of schizophrenia. New Engl J Med 1999, 340:645–647.
5. Cannon T, Kaprio J, Lonnqvist J, et al.: The genetic epidemiology of schizophrenia in a Finnish twin cohort. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998, 55:67–74.
6. Cardno A, Marshall J, Coid B, et al.: Heritability estimates for psychotic disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999, 56:162–168.
7. Cardno AG, Jones LA, Murphy KL, et al.: Dimensions of psychosis in affected sibling pairs. Schiz Bull 1999, 25:841–850.
8. Owen M: Searching for susceptibility genes in schizophrenia. In Search for the Causes of Schizophrenia IV edited by W F Gattaz WF, Hafner H. Berlin: Springer Verlag; 1999:169–180.
9. Gottesman I, Shields J: Schizophrenia and Genetics. London: Academic Press; 1972.
10. Freeman H: Schizophrenia and city residence. Br J of Psychiatry 1994, 164(supp 23):39–50.
11. Lewis G, David A, Andreasson S, et al.: Schizophrenia and city life. Lancet 1992, 340:137–140.
12. Mortensen P, Pedersen C, Westergaard T, et al.: Effects of family history and place and season of birth on the risk of schizophrenia. N Engl J Med 1999, 340:603–608. Large, comprehensive epidemiologic study able to determine relative risks, population attributable fractions and interactions between risk factors. Correspondence in N Engl J Med 1999, 341:370–372.
13. Marcelis M, Takei N, Van Os J: Urbanization and risk for schizophrenia: does the effect operate before or around the time of illness onset? Psychol Med 1999, 29:1197–1203.
14. Bradbury TN, Miller GA: Season of birth in schizophrenia: a review of the evidence, methodology and etiology. Psychol Bull 1985, 98:569–594.
15. McGrath J, Welham J, Pemberton M: Month of birth, hemisphere of birth and schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1995, 167:783–785.
16. Izumoto Y, Inoue S, Yasuda N: Schizophrenia and the influenza epidemics of 1957 in Japan. Biol Psychiatry 1999, 46:119–124.
17. Erlenmeyer-Kimling L, Folnegovic Z, Hrabak-Zerjavic V, et al.: Schizophrenia and prenatal exposure to the 1957 A2 influenza epidemic in Croatia. Am J Psychiatry 1994, 151:1496–1498.
18. Susser E, Lin S, Brown A, et al.: No relation between risk of schizophrenia and prenatal exposure to influenza in Holland. Am J Psychiatry 1994, 151:922–924.
19. Seltern J, Brown A, Moons K, et al.: Prenatal exposure to the 1957 influenza pandemic and non-affective psychosis in The Netherlands. Schizophr Res 1999, 38:85–91.
20. Wright P, Takei N, Rifkin L, et al.: Maternal Influenza, obstetric complications and schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1997, 154:292–293.
21. Westergaard T, Mortensen P, Pedersen C, et al.: Exposure to prenatal and childhood infections and the risk of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999, 56:993–998.
22. Takei N, Sham P, O’Callaghan E, et al.: Schizophrenia increased risk associated with winter and city birth. J Epidemiol Commun Health 1995, 49:106–107.
23. O’Callaghan E, Cotter D, Colgan K, et al.: Confinement of winter birth excess in schizophrenia to the urban born and its gender specificity. Br J Psychiatry 1995, 166:51–54.
24. Verdoux H, Takei N, Cassou R, et al.: Seasonality of birth in schizophrenia: the effect of regional population density. Schizophr Res 1997, 23:175–180.
25. Brown A, Cohen P, Greenwald S, et al.: Non-affective psychosis after prenatal exposure to rubella. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:438–443.
26. Susser E, Neugebauer R, Hoek H, et al.: Schizophrenia after prenatal famine: further evidence. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996, 53:25–31.
27. Susser E, Hoek H, Brown A: Neurodevelopmental disorders after prenatal famine. Am J Epidemiol 1998, 147:213–216.
28. Verdoux H, Geddes J, Takei N, et al.: Obstetric complications and age of onset in schizophrenia: an international collaborative meta-analysis of individual patient data. Am J Psychiatry 1997, 154:1220–1227.
29. Rosso I, Cannon T, Huttemen T, et al.: Obstetric risk factors for early onset schizophrenia in a Finnish birth cohort. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:801–807.
30. Geddes JR, Verdoux H, Takei N, et al.: Schizophrenia and complications of pregnancy and labor: an individual patient data meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull 1999, 25:413–423.
31. Zornberg G, Buka S, Tsuang M, et al.: Hypoxic-ischemic-related fetal/neonatal complications and risk of schizophrenia and other non-affective psychoses: a 19-year long study. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:196–202.
32. Kendell R, McInneny K, Juszczak E, et al.: Obstetric complications and schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2000, 176:516–523.
33. Kendell RE, Juszczak E, Cole SK: Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: A case-control study based on standardised obstetric records. Br J Psychiatry 1996, 168:556–561.
34. Jones P, Rantakallio P, Hartikainen A, et al.: Schizophrenia as a long-term outcome of pregnancy, delivery, and perinatal complications: a 28-year follow-up of the 1966 north Finland general population birth cohort. Am J Psychiatry 1998, 155:355–364.
35. Hultman C, Sparen P, Takei N, et al.: Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for schizophrenia, affective psychosis, and reactive psychosis of early onset: a case control study. Br Med J 1999, 318:421–426. Large study of pre- and perinatal risk factors for early-onset psychosis including interaction with gender.
36. Dalman C, Allebeck P, Cullberg J, et al.: Obstetric complications and the risk of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999, 56:234–240.
37. Jones P, Rodgers B, Murray R, Marmot M: Child developmental risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 1994, 344:1398–1402.
38. Fish B: Infants at risk of schizophrenia: sequelae of a genetic neurointegrative defect. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992, 49:221–235.
39. Marcus J, Hans SL, Auerbach JG, et al.: Children at risk for schizophrenia: the Jerusalem infant development study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993, 50:797–809.
40. Hollis C: Child and adolescent (juvenile onset) schizophrenia. A case control study of pre-morbid developmental impairments. Br J Psychiatry 1995, 166:489–495.
41. Nicholson R, Lenane M, Singaracharlu S, et al.: Premorbid speech and language impairments in childhood-onset schizophrenia: associations with risk factors. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:794–800.
42. Cannon M, Jones P, Huttunen M, et al.: School performance in Finnish children and later development of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999, l56:457–463. Large population-based case-control study pointing to developmental abnormalities in middle childhood.
43. Walker E, Lewine RJ: Prediction of adult-onset schizophrenia from childhood home movies of the patients. Am J Psychiatry 1994, 147:1052–1056.
44. Davidson M, Reichenberg A, Rabinowitz J, et al.: Behavioural and Intellectual Markers for schizophrenia in apparently healthy male adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:1328–1335. Evidence of developmental problems in preschizophrenic adolescents.
45. David A, Malberg A, Brandt L, et al.: IQ and risk for schizophrenia: a population-based cohort study. Psychol Med 1997, 27:1311–1323. Demonstrates linear relationship between IQ and risk for schizophrenia.
46. Chua SE, McKenna PJ: Schizophrenia—a brain disease? A critical review of structural and functional cerebral abnormality in the disorder. Br J of Psychiatry 1995, 166:563–582.
47. Wright IC, Rabe-Hesketh S, Woodruff P, et al.: Meta-analysis of regional brain volumes in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:16–25.
48. Jones PB, Harvey I, Lewis SW, et al.: Cerebral ventricle dimensions as risk factors for schizophrenia and affective psychosis: an epidemiological approach to analysis. Psychol Med 1994, 24:995–1011.
49. Sharma T, Lancaster E, Lewis S, et al.: Lack of normal pattern of cerebral asymmetry in familial schizophrenic patients and their relatives. Schizophr Res 1999, 40:111–120.
50. Stefanis N, Frangou S, Yakeley J, et al.: Hippocampal volume reduction in schizophrenia: effects of genetic risk and pregnancy and birth complications. Biol Psychiatry 1999, 46:607–702.
51. McNeil T, Cantor-Graae E, Weinberger D, et al.: Relationship of obstetric complications and difference in size of brain structures in monozygotic twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:208–212.
52. Leonard C, Kuldau J, Breier J, et al.: Cumulative effect of anatomical risk factors for schizophrenia: an MRI study. Biol Psychiatry 1999, 46:374–382.
53. Van Os J, Marcelis M: The ecogenetics of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1998, 32:127–135.
54. Cannon TD, Hollister JM, Bearden CE, et al.: A prospective cohort study of genetic and perinatal influences in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997, 24:248.
55. Fearon P, Cotter D, Murray R: Is the association between obstetric complications and schizophrenia mediated by glutamatergic excitotoxic damage in the fetal/ neonatal brain? In Psychopharmacology of Schizophrenia. Edited by Reveley MA, Deakin JF. London: Chapman and Hall; 1999.
56. Tienari P: Interaction between genetic vulnerability and family environment: The Finnish adoptive family study of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scand 1991, 84:460–465.
57. Tienari P, Wynne L, Laksy K, et al.: Finnish Adoptive Family Study. Acta Psychiatric Scand 2000, 101:433–443.
58. Rosenthal D, Wender P, Kety S, et al.: The adopted-away offspring of schizophrenics. Am J Psychiatry 1971, 128:307–311.
59. Mirsky AF, Silberman EK, Latz A, et al.: Adult outcomes of high-risk children: differential effects of town and kibbutz rearing. Schizophr Bull 1985, 11:150–156.
60. King M, Coker E, Leavey G, et al.: Incidence of psychotic illness in London: a comparison of ethnic groups. BMJ 1994, 309:1115–1119.
61. Thomas CS, Stone K, Osborn M, et al.: Psychiatric morbidity and compulsory admission among UK born Europeans, Afro-Caribbeans and Asians in central Manchester. Br J Psychiatry 1993, 163:91–99.
62. Seltern JP, Sijben N: First admission rate for schizophrenia in immigrants to The Netherlands: the Dutch National Register. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 1994, 29:71–72.
63. Odegaard O: Emigration and insanity: a study of mental disease among Norwegian born population in Minnesota. Acta Psychiatr. Neurol Scand 1932, (Supp 4).
64. Harrison G, Owens D, Holten A, et al.: A prospective study of severe mental disorder in Afro-Caribbean patients. Psychol Med 1988, 18:643–657.
65. Van Os J, Castle DJ, Takei N, et al.: Psychotic illness in ethnic minorities: clarification from the 1991 census. Psychol Med 1996, 26:203–208.
66. Hickling W, McKenzie K, Mullen R, et al.: A Jamaican psychiatrist evaluates diagnoses at a London hospital. Br J Psychiatry 1999, 175:283–285.
67. McGuire P, Jones P, Harvey M: Morbid risk of schizophrenia in relatives of patients with cannabis-associated psychosis. Schizophrenia Res 1995, 15:277–281.
68. Glover G: Why is there a high rate of schizophrenia in British Caribbeans? Br J Hosp Med 1989, 42:48–51.
69. Harrison G: Searching for the causes of schizophrenia: the role of migrant studies. Schizophr Bull 1990, 16:663–671.
70. Hutchinson G, Takei N, Bhugra T, et al.: Increased rate of psychosis among African-Caribbeans in Britain is not due to an excess of pregnancy and birth complications. Br J of Psychiatry 1997, 171:145–147.
71. Wessely S, Castle D, Der R, et al.: Schizophrenia and Afro-Caribbeans. A case-control study. Br J Psychiatry 1991, 159:795–801.
72. Hutchinson G, Takei N, Fahy TA, et al.: Morbid risk of schizophrenia in first-degree relatives of white and African-Caribbean patients with psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 1996, 169:776–780. Suggested cohort-specific risk factors.
73. Sugarman P, Crauford D: Schizophrenia in the Afro-Caribbean community. Br J Psychiatry 1994, 164:474–480.
74. Malmberg A, Lewis G, David A, et al.: Premorbid adjustment and personality in people with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1998, 172:308–313.
75. Van Os J, Driessen G, Gunther N, et al.: Neighbourhood variation in incidence of schizophrenia. Evidence for personenvironment interaction. Br J Psychiatry 2000, 176:243–248.
76. Jablensky A, Cole SW: Is the earlier age at onset of schizophrenia in males a confounded finding? Results from a crosscultural investigation. Br J Psychiatry 1997, 170:234–240.
77. Bebbington P, Wilkins S, Jones P, et al.: Life events and psychosis. Initial results from the Camberwell Collaborative Psychosis Study. Br J Psychiatry 1993, 162:72–79.
78. Ventura J, Nuechterlein KH, Lukoff D, Hardesty JP: A prospective study of stressful life events and schizophrenic relapse. J Abnorm Psychol 1989, 98:407–411.
79. Malla A, Cortese L, Shaw TS, et al.: Life events and relapse in schizophrenia: a one year prospective study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 1990, 25:221–224.
80. Andreasson S, Allebeck P, Engstrom A, et al.: Cannabis and schizophrenia. A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Lancet 1987, 2:1483–1486.
81. Murray RM, O’Callaghan E: The congenital and adult-onset psychoses: Kraepelin lost, Kraepelin found. In Concepts of mental disorder a continuing debate. Edited by Kerr A, McClelland H. London: Gaskell; 1991:48–65.
82. Murray RM, O’Callaghan E, Castle DJ, et al.: A neurodevelopmental approach to the classification of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1992, 18:319–332.
83. Castle DJ, Sham PC, Wessely S, et al.: The subtyping of schizophrenia in men and women: a latent class analysis. Psychol Med 1994, 24:41–51.
84. Sham PC, Castle DJ, Wessely S, et al.: Further exploration of a latent class typology of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1998, 20:105–115.
85. Done DJ, Crow TJ, Johnstone EC, et al.: Childhood antecedents of schizophrenia and affective illness: social adjustment at ages 7 and 11. BMJ 1994, 309:699–703.
86. Van Os J, Lewis G, Jones P, et al.: Developmental precursors of affective illness in a general population birth cohort. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997, 54:625–632.
87. Van Os J, Jones P, Sham P, et al.: Risk factors for onset and persistence of psychosis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 1998, 33:596–605.
88. McGorry PD, Bell RC, Dudgeon PL, et al.: The dimensional structure of first episode psychosis: an exploratory factor analysis. Psychol Med 1998, 28:935–947.
89. Kitamura T, Okazaki Y, Fujinawa A, et al.: Symptoms of psychoses. A factor-analytic study. Br J Psychiatry 1995, 166:236–240.
90. Van Os J, Fahy TA, Jones P, et al.: Psychopathological syndromes in the functional psychoses: associations with course and outcome. Psychol Med 1996, 26:161–176.
91. Van Os J, Gilvarry C, Bale R, et al.: A comparison of the utility of dimensional and categorical representations of Group. Psychol Med 1999, 29:595–606. Demonstrates the application of a dimensional model of psychosis.