Britain, Konfrontasi, and the end of empire in Southeast Asia, 1961-65

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 209-227

  Subritzky, John ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034257661     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086530008583106     Document Type: Article

References (75)

1. John Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation (London, 1988), 290.
2. The British had argued for many years that the most logical form of decolonization was a union of Britain's territories in the region, starting with Malaya and Singapore. This had been strongly opposed, however, by Malayan leaders; see A. J. Stockwell, 'Insurgency and Decolonisation during the Malayan Emergency', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 15 (1987), 71-81.
3. Memo. by Iain Macleod, Secretary of State for the Colonies, to Cabinet, 7 April 1961, DO 169/25; see also David Easter, 'British Defence Policy in South East Asia and the Confrontation, 1960-66', unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1998, 400-03, who emphasizes British concern about the future of the military bases, given the rise in popularity of the Barisan Socialis and the inevitability of formal independence for Singapore.
4. Memo., Kuala Lumpur to State Department, 8 June 1961, 790.00/6-861, Decimal Files, 1960-63, RG 59, National Archives and Record Administration, Washington.
5. Memo., Singapore to State Department, 16 June 1961, 790.00/6-1661, ibid.
6. Chin Kin Wah, The Defence of Malaysia and Singapore: The Transformation of a Security System, 1957-1971 (Cambridge, 1983), 179.
7. A. J. Stockwell, 'Malaysia: The Making of a Neo-Colony?', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 26 (1998), 138-56.
8. The Southeast Asia Collective Defence Treaty was signed in Manila on 8 Sept. 1954 by representatives of Britain, the United States, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, the Philippines and Pakistan. The crucial operative clause was Article IV: 'Each Party recognises that aggression by means of armed attack in the Treaty area against any of the Parties (or against Cambodia, Laos or the territory under the jurisdiction of the free Vietnamese government) would endanger its own peace and safety and agrees that it will in that event act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes.'
9. Minute of Chiefs of Staff meeting, 3 Aug. 1961, DEFE 4/137.
10. State Department to London, 12 Oct. 1961, John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, 'Malaya and Singapore - general', National Security File, box 140; Australian Prime Minister R. G. Menzies to Lieutenant-General Sir William Oliver, British High Commissioner to Australia, 28 Aug. 1961, PREM 11/3418; New Zealand Prime Minister K. J. Holyoake to Macmillan, 20 Oct. 1961, PREM 11/3422.
11. Selkirk to Macmillan, 30 Dec. 1961, PREM 11/3866.
12. Minute of Chiefs of Staff meeting, 3 Aug. 1961, DEFE 4/137.
13. Note by Amery, 4 Oct. 1961, D(61)66, CAB 131/2.
14. The literature on Macmillan's continued belief in Britain's status as a world power is considerable: see in particular John Turner, Macmillan (London, 1994), 272; Peter Clarke, A Question of Leadership: Gladstone to Thatcher (London, 1991), 229-31.
15. The literature on Macmillan's continued belief in Britain's status as a world power is considerable: see in particular John Turner, Macmillan (London, 1994), 272; Peter Clarke, A Question of Leadership: Gladstone to Thatcher (London, 1991), 229-31.
16. Sir James Cable, counsellor in the FO, 1961-63, head of Southeast Asia department 1963-66, interview with author, Cambridge, 16 Sept. 1994.
17. Selkirk to Macmillan, 30 Dec. 1961, PREM 11/3866.
18. John Subritzky, Confronting Sukarno: British, American, Australian and New Zealand Diplomacy in the Malaysian-Indonesian Confrontation, 1961-1965 (London, 2000), 37-8.
19. Leslie Fry, British embassy, Djakarta, to Fred Warner, head of Southeast Asia Department, FO, 11 Aug. 1961, DO 169/28.
20. For leading commentaries on Indonesian policy during Confrontation, see J. A. C. Mackie, Konfrontasi: the Malaysia-Indonesia Dispute, 1963-1966 (Kuala Lumpur, 1974); Ide Anak Agung gde Agung, Twenty Years of Indonesian Foreign Policy, 1945-1965 (The Hague, 1973), and Michael Leifer, Indonesia's Foreign Policy (London, 1983).
21. For leading commentaries on Indonesian policy during Confrontation, see J. A. C. Mackie, Konfrontasi: the Malaysia-Indonesia Dispute, 1963-1966 (Kuala Lumpur, 1974); Ide Anak Agung gde Agung, Twenty Years of Indonesian Foreign Policy, 1945-1965 (The Hague, 1973), and Michael Leifer, Indonesia's Foreign Policy (London, 1983).
22. For leading commentaries on Indonesian policy during Confrontation, see J. A. C. Mackie, Konfrontasi: the Malaysia-Indonesia Dispute, 1963-1966 (Kuala Lumpur, 1974); Ide Anak Agung gde Agung, Twenty Years of Indonesian Foreign Policy, 1945-1965 (The Hague, 1973), and Michael Leifer, Indonesia's Foreign Policy (London, 1983).
23. CC(63)6th mtg, 24 Jan. 1963, CAB 128/37; OP(63)4th mtg, 'The Future Defence of Malaysia', 24 April 1963, CAB 134/2371.
24. Macmillan to Home, 3 April 1963, PREM 11/4347.
25. Minute by de Zulueta to Macmillan, 3 April 1963, PREM 11/4189.
26. Memo., Heath to Macmillan, 23 April 1963, PREM 11/4347.
27. Memo., Macmillan to Home, 3 April 1963, ibid.
28. Mountbatten to Thorneycroft, 30 Sept. 1963, DEFE 13/387.
29. Minute by W. I. McIndoe, Cabinet Office, to T. J. Bligh, Principal Private Secretary to Macmillan, 24 Sept. 1963, PREM 11/4183.
30. Memo. by Warner, 'Four Years in South East Asia 1960-1963', 28 Nov. 1963, FO 371/169688/D 1051/41.
31. Ibid.
32. Warner to Marshall, 20 Sept. 1963, FO 371/169688/D 1051/37; memo., Lord Head, British High Commissioner to Malaysia, to Sandys, 11 Dec. 1963, FO 371/169907/DH 1062/124.
33. Thorneycroft to Douglas-Home, 7 Jan. 1964, PREM 11/4905.
34. Memcon, FO, 16 Oct. 1963, FO 371/169909/DH 1071/31/G.
35. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961-1963, vol.23, Southeast Asia (Washington DC, 1994), 742.
36. David Ormsby-Gore, British ambassador in Washington, to FO, 12 Feb. 1963, FO 371/169695/D 1071/23.
37. Minute by Home to R. A. Butler, Foreign Secretary, 19 Dec. 1963, FO 371/169894/DH 1051/102/G.
38. Memo. by Sir Burke Trend, Cabinet Secretary, to Home, 8 Jan. 1964, PREM 11/4905.
39. FO memo., 'British Policy Towards South-East Asia', 22 Sept. 1964, CAB 148/7. The memorandum was approved by the Defence and Oversea (Official) Committee on 14 October, and later by the Cabinet; DO(O)(64)21st mtg, 14 Oct. 1964, CAB 148/4; memo., Gordon Walker to Cabinet, 19 Nov. 1964, CAB 148/17.
40. Ibid.
41. Memo. by Luce to COS, 30 June 1964, DEFE 4/171.
42. FO memo., 22 Sept. 1964, CAB 148/7.
43. Ibid.
44. Report by long-term study group, 23 Oct. 1964, CAB 148/40.
45. DO(O)(64)21st mtg, minute of Defence and Oversea (Official) Committee, 14 Oct. 1964, CAB 148/4.
46. D. R. Thorpe, Alec Douglas-Home (London, 1996).
47. Memo. by Douglas-Home, 17 June 1963, CAB 131/28.
48. R. R. James, Ambitions and Realities: British Politics 1964-1970 (London, 1972), 61.
49. Austen Morgan, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 270; Chris Wrigley, 'Now you see it now you don't: Harold Wilson and Labour's foreign policy, 1964-1970', in R. Coopey, S. Fielding and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), The Wilson Governments (London, 1993), 132; Leslie Stone, 'Britain and the World', in D. McKie and C. Cook (eds.), The Decade of Disillusion: British Politics in the Sixties (London, 1972), 126; Philip Ziegler, Harold Wilson: The Authorised Life of Lord Wilson of Rievaulx (London, 1993), 210-19; Clive Ponting, Breach of Promise: Labour in Power 1964-1970 (London, 1989), 97-9; Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 383-6.
50. Austen Morgan, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 270; Chris Wrigley, 'Now you see it now you don't: Harold Wilson and Labour's foreign policy, 1964-1970', in R. Coopey, S. Fielding and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), The Wilson Governments (London, 1993), 132; Leslie Stone, 'Britain and the World', in D. McKie and C. Cook (eds.), The Decade of Disillusion: British Politics in the Sixties (London, 1972), 126; Philip Ziegler, Harold Wilson: The Authorised Life of Lord Wilson of Rievaulx (London, 1993), 210-19; Clive Ponting, Breach of Promise: Labour in Power 1964-1970 (London, 1989), 97-9; Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 383-6.
51. Austen Morgan, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 270; Chris Wrigley, 'Now you see it now you don't: Harold Wilson and Labour's foreign policy, 1964-1970', in R. Coopey, S. Fielding and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), The Wilson Governments (London, 1993), 132; Leslie Stone, 'Britain and the World', in D. McKie and C. Cook (eds.), The Decade of Disillusion: British Politics in the Sixties (London, 1972), 126; Philip Ziegler, Harold Wilson: The Authorised Life of Lord Wilson of Rievaulx (London, 1993), 210-19; Clive Ponting, Breach of Promise: Labour in Power 1964-1970 (London, 1989), 97-9; Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 383-6.
52. Austen Morgan, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 270; Chris Wrigley, 'Now you see it now you don't: Harold Wilson and Labour's foreign policy, 1964-1970', in R. Coopey, S. Fielding and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), The Wilson Governments (London, 1993), 132; Leslie Stone, 'Britain and the World', in D. McKie and C. Cook (eds.), The Decade of Disillusion: British Politics in the Sixties (London, 1972), 126; Philip Ziegler, Harold Wilson: The Authorised Life of Lord Wilson of Rievaulx (London, 1993), 210-19; Clive Ponting, Breach of Promise: Labour in Power 1964-1970 (London, 1989), 97-9; Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 383-6.
53. Austen Morgan, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 270; Chris Wrigley, 'Now you see it now you don't: Harold Wilson and Labour's foreign policy, 1964-1970', in R. Coopey, S. Fielding and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), The Wilson Governments (London, 1993), 132; Leslie Stone, 'Britain and the World', in D. McKie and C. Cook (eds.), The Decade of Disillusion: British Politics in the Sixties (London, 1972), 126; Philip Ziegler, Harold Wilson: The Authorised Life of Lord Wilson of Rievaulx (London, 1993), 210-19; Clive Ponting, Breach of Promise: Labour in Power 1964-1970 (London, 1989), 97-9; Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 383-6.
54. Austen Morgan, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 270; Chris Wrigley, 'Now you see it now you don't: Harold Wilson and Labour's foreign policy, 1964-1970', in R. Coopey, S. Fielding and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), The Wilson Governments (London, 1993), 132; Leslie Stone, 'Britain and the World', in D. McKie and C. Cook (eds.), The Decade of Disillusion: British Politics in the Sixties (London, 1972), 126; Philip Ziegler, Harold Wilson: The Authorised Life of Lord Wilson of Rievaulx (London, 1993), 210-19; Clive Ponting, Breach of Promise: Labour in Power 1964-1970 (London, 1989), 97-9; Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (London, 1992), 383-6.
55. Easter, 'Confrontation', 412-3.
56. Treasury memo., 11 Nov. 1964, CAB 148/40.
57. Callaghan to Patrick Walker, 1 Jan. 1965, FO 371/180205/D 1051/7.
58. CRO to Kuala Lumpur, 19 Jan. 1965, FO 371/180206/D 1051/25/G.
59. Trend to Wilson, 11 and 14 June 1965, PREM 13/215.
60. Minute of COS meeting, 11 June 1965, DEFE 4/185.
61. Memo., Trend to Wilson, 14 June 1965, PREM 13/215.
62. Ibid.
63. Michael Stewart, Life and Labour: An Autobiography (London, 1980), 144.
64. Healey to Wilson, 13 Aug. 1965, PREM 13/431.
65. Hughes to Wilson, 13 Aug. 1965, ibid.
66. Memo., Brown to Wilson, 26 Aug. 1965, ibid.
67. London to New Zealand Department of External Affairs (NZDEA), 2 Sept. 1965, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Head Office, Multiple-Number Subject Files, ABHS, series 950, accession W 4627, 434/8/1, pt. 9, box 4670, New Zealand National Archives, Wellington (hereafter NZNA).
68. Memcon, Stewart with Ball, 8 Sept. 1965, PREM 13/431; Canberra to Ministry of Defence, 7 Sept. 1965, FO 371/181529/IM 1193/135/G.
69. FO to Washington, 9 Sept. 1965, PREM 13/431.
70. Djakarta to State Department, 7 Sept. 1965, Lyndon Baines Johnson Library, Austin Texas, 'Indonesia country file', vol.4, National Security File, box 247.
71. OPD(65)41st mtg, 23 Sept. 1965, CAB 148/18; memo., Trend to Wilson, 21 Sept. 1965, PREM 13/431.
72. Wilson to Menzies and Holyoake, 25 Sept. 1965, FO 371/181529/IM 1193/152/G.
73. Report by NZDEA, 17 Feb. 1966, ABHS, series 950, accession W 4627, 434/8/1, pt. 10, box 4670, NZNA.
74. Report by NZDEA, 10 March 1966, ibid. pt. 11, box 4670, NZNA.
75. Harold Wilson, The Labour Government, 1964-1970: A Personal Record (London, 1971), 42.