The regional sources of power-sharing failure: The case of Lebanon

Political Science Quarterly

Volumn 115, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 247-271

  Seaver, Brenda M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034196358     PISSN: 00323195     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2657902     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. 1 Harry Eckstein, Division and Cohesion in Democracy: A Study of Norway (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), 34.
2. 2 Ibid., 228-29.
3. 3 For more information on the democratic peace literature, which focuses on the absence of war between democracies, see Michael Doyle, "Liberalism and World Politics," American Political Science Review 80 (December 1986): 1151-61; and Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
4. 3 For more information on the democratic peace literature, which focuses on the absence of war between democracies, see Michael Doyle, "Liberalism and World Politics," American Political Science Review 80 (December 1986): 1151-61; and Bruce Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
5. 4 Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Arend Lijphart, "The Power-Sharing Approach" in Joseph V. Montville, ed., Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (New York: Lexington Books, 1991), 491-509; Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985); Arend Lijphart, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); Arend Lijphart, "Consociational Democracy," World Politics 21 (January 1969): 207-25; Arend Lijphart, "Typologies of Democratic Systems," Comparative Political Studies 1 (April 1968): 3-44.
6. 4 Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Arend Lijphart, "The Power-Sharing Approach" in Joseph V. Montville, ed., Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (New York: Lexington Books, 1991), 491-509; Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985); Arend Lijphart, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); Arend Lijphart, "Consociational Democracy," World Politics 21 (January 1969): 207-25; Arend Lijphart, "Typologies of Democratic Systems," Comparative Political Studies 1 (April 1968): 3-44.
7. 4 Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Arend Lijphart, "The Power-Sharing Approach" in Joseph V. Montville, ed., Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (New York: Lexington Books, 1991), 491-509; Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985); Arend Lijphart, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); Arend Lijphart, "Consociational Democracy," World Politics 21 (January 1969): 207-25; Arend Lijphart, "Typologies of Democratic Systems," Comparative Political Studies 1 (April 1968): 3-44.
8. 4 Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Arend Lijphart, "The Power-Sharing Approach" in Joseph V. Montville, ed., Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (New York: Lexington Books, 1991), 491-509; Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985); Arend Lijphart, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); Arend Lijphart, "Consociational Democracy," World Politics 21 (January 1969): 207-25; Arend Lijphart, "Typologies of Democratic Systems," Comparative Political Studies 1 (April 1968): 3-44.
9. 4 Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Arend Lijphart, "The Power-Sharing Approach" in Joseph V. Montville, ed., Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (New York: Lexington Books, 1991), 491-509; Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985); Arend Lijphart, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); Arend Lijphart, "Consociational Democracy," World Politics 21 (January 1969): 207-25; Arend Lijphart, "Typologies of Democratic Systems," Comparative Political Studies 1 (April 1968): 3-44.
10. 4 Arend Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977); Arend Lijphart, "The Power-Sharing Approach" in Joseph V. Montville, ed., Conflict and Peacemaking in Multiethnic Societies (New York: Lexington Books, 1991), 491-509; Arend Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1985); Arend Lijphart, The Politics of Accommodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975); Arend Lijphart, "Consociational Democracy," World Politics 21 (January 1969): 207-25; Arend Lijphart, "Typologies of Democratic Systems," Comparative Political Studies 1 (April 1968): 3-44.
11. 5 Harry Eckstein, "Case Study and Theory in Political Science" in F. I. Greenstein and N. W. Polsby, eds., Handbook of Political Science (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 108-13.
12. 6 Stanley Kyriakides, Cyprus: Constitutionalism and Crisis Government (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1968).
13. 7 John P. Mackintosh, Nigerian Government and Politics (London: Allen and Unwin, 1966).
14. 8 Karl von Vorys, Democracy Without Consensus: Communalism and Political Stability in Malaysia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 15 and 386-422.
15. 9 Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, eds. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Dankwart Rustow, "Transitions To Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics 2 (April 1970): 337-63; Guiseppe di Palma. To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
16. 9 Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, eds. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Dankwart Rustow, "Transitions To Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics 2 (April 1970): 337-63; Guiseppe di Palma. To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
17. 9 Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, eds. Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Dankwart Rustow, "Transitions To Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics 2 (April 1970): 337-63; Guiseppe di Palma. To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
18. 10 For an excellent interpretation of Karl Popper's definition of theoretical depth, see John Watkins, Science and Scepticism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
19. 11 David A. Lake and Patrick M. Morgan, eds., Regional Orders: Building Security in a New World (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997); Andrew Hurrell and Louise Fawcett, The Resurgence of Regionalism in World Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Edward Mansfield and Helen V. Milner, The Political Economy of Regionalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Etel Solingen, "The Domestic Sources of Regional Regimes: The Evolution of Nuclear Ambiguity in the Middle East," International Studies Quarterly 38 (June 1994): 305-38.
20. 11 David A. Lake and Patrick M. Morgan, eds., Regional Orders: Building Security in a New World (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997); Andrew Hurrell and Louise Fawcett, The Resurgence of Regionalism in World Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Edward Mansfield and Helen V. Milner, The Political Economy of Regionalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Etel Solingen, "The Domestic Sources of Regional Regimes: The Evolution of Nuclear Ambiguity in the Middle East," International Studies Quarterly 38 (June 1994): 305-38.
21. 11 David A. Lake and Patrick M. Morgan, eds., Regional Orders: Building Security in a New World (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997); Andrew Hurrell and Louise Fawcett, The Resurgence of Regionalism in World Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Edward Mansfield and Helen V. Milner, The Political Economy of Regionalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Etel Solingen, "The Domestic Sources of Regional Regimes: The Evolution of Nuclear Ambiguity in the Middle East," International Studies Quarterly 38 (June 1994): 305-38.
22. 11 David A. Lake and Patrick M. Morgan, eds., Regional Orders: Building Security in a New World (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997); Andrew Hurrell and Louise Fawcett, The Resurgence of Regionalism in World Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Edward Mansfield and Helen V. Milner, The Political Economy of Regionalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997); Etel Solingen, "The Domestic Sources of Regional Regimes: The Evolution of Nuclear Ambiguity in the Middle East," International Studies Quarterly 38 (June 1994): 305-38.
23. 12 Leonard Binder, "The Middle East as a Subordinate International System," World Politics 10 (April 1958): 408-29; Richard A. Falk and Saul H. Mendlovitz, eds., Regional Politics and World Order (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1973). Excellent reviews of the regional subsystem literature are provided by Kay Boals, "The Concept 'Subordinate International System': A Critique" in ibid., 399-411; and William R. Thompson, "The Regional Subsystem: A Conceptual Explication and a Propositional Inventory," International Studies Quarterly 17 (March 1973): 89-117.
24. 12 Leonard Binder, "The Middle East as a Subordinate International System," World Politics 10 (April 1958): 408-29; Richard A. Falk and Saul H. Mendlovitz, eds., Regional Politics and World Order (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1973). Excellent reviews of the regional subsystem literature are provided by Kay Boals, "The Concept 'Subordinate International System': A Critique" in ibid., 399-411; and William R. Thompson, "The Regional Subsystem: A Conceptual Explication and a Propositional Inventory," International Studies Quarterly 17 (March 1973): 89-117.
25. 12 Leonard Binder, "The Middle East as a Subordinate International System," World Politics 10 (April 1958): 408-29; Richard A. Falk and Saul H. Mendlovitz, eds., Regional Politics and World Order (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1973). Excellent reviews of the regional subsystem literature are provided by Kay Boals, "The Concept 'Subordinate International System': A Critique" in ibid., 399-411; and William R. Thompson, "The Regional Subsystem: A Conceptual Explication and a Propositional Inventory," International Studies Quarterly 17 (March 1973): 89-117.
26. 12 Leonard Binder, "The Middle East as a Subordinate International System," World Politics 10 (April 1958): 408-29; Richard A. Falk and Saul H. Mendlovitz, eds., Regional Politics and World Order (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1973). Excellent reviews of the regional subsystem literature are provided by Kay Boals, "The Concept 'Subordinate International System': A Critique" in ibid., 399-411; and William R. Thompson, "The Regional Subsystem: A Conceptual Explication and a Propositional Inventory," International Studies Quarterly 17 (March 1973): 89-117.
27. 13 Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies, 25-52.
28. 14 Seymour M. Lipset, ed., The Encyclopedia of Democracy, Vol. 3 (Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly. Inc., 1995), 853-65.
29. 15 Lijphart, "Typologies of Democratic Systems," 22-25.
30. 16 Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies, 53-103.
31. 17 Lijphart, "Typologies of Democratic Systems," 25-30.
32. 18 Lijphart, "The Power-Sharing Approach," 54-55. (Emphasis added.)
33. 19 The importance of cultural homogeneity is emphasized in John Stuart Mill, Considerations on Representative Government (New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1958).
34. 20 Brian Barry, "Political Accommodation and Consociational Democracy," British Journal of Political Science 5 (October 1975): 481-90.
35. 21 Jeffrey Obler, Jurg Steiner, and Guido Dierickx, Decision Making in Smaller Democracies: The Consociational 'Burden' (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, vol. 6, Comparative Politics Series No. 01-064, 1977), 328-29.
36. 22 Barry, "Political Accommodation," 493-95; Obler et al., Decision Making, 337.
37. 22 Barry, "Political Accommodation," 493-95; Obler et al., Decision Making, 337.
38. 23 Hans Daalder, "The Consociational Democracy Theme," World Politics 26 (July 1974): 604-21; Judith Nagata, "Review of Lijphart 1977," International Journal 34 (Summer 1979): 505-06.
39. 23 Hans Daalder, "The Consociational Democracy Theme," World Politics 26 (July 1974): 604-21; Judith Nagata, "Review of Lijphart 1977," International Journal 34 (Summer 1979): 505-06.
40. 24 Daalder, "The Consociational Democracy Theme," 612-18.
41. 25 Hudson, "The Lebanese Crisis," 114; N. Kliot, "The Collapse of the Lebanese State," Middle Eastern Studies 23 (January 1987): 54-74.
42. 25 Hudson, "The Lebanese Crisis," 114; N. Kliot, "The Collapse of the Lebanese State," Middle Eastern Studies 23 (January 1987): 54-74.
43. 26 Samuel P. Huntington, "Reform and Stability in a Modernizing, Multi-Ethnic Society," Politikon 8 (1981): 14.
44. 27 Lijphart, Power-Sharing in South Africa, 110.
45. 28 Adriano Pappalardo, "The Conditions for Consociational Democracy: A Logical and Empirical Critique," European Journal of Political Research 9 (December 1981): 365-90; M. P. C. M. van Schendelen, "The Views of Arend Lijphart and Collected Criticisms," Acta Politica 19 (January 1984): 19-55.
46. 28 Adriano Pappalardo, "The Conditions for Consociational Democracy: A Logical and Empirical Critique," European Journal of Political Research 9 (December 1981): 365-90; M. P. C. M. van Schendelen, "The Views of Arend Lijphart and Collected Criticisms," Acta Politica 19 (January 1984): 19-55.
47. 29 For more information on falisifiability and Karl Popper's philosophy of science, see Watkins, Science and Scepticism.
48. 30 Ian S. Lustick, "Lijphart, Lakatos, and Consociationalism," World Politics 50 (October 1997): 88-117.
49. 31 David D. Laitin, "South Africa: Violence, Myths, and Democratic Reform," World Politics 39 (January 1987): 265.
50. 32 Barry, "Political Accommodation," 500.
51. 33 Lijphart, Democracy in Plural Societies, 54.
52. 34 William W. Harris, Faces of Lebanon: Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 152.
53. 35 Elie A. Salem, Modernization Without Revolution: Lebanon's Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973); Leonard Binder, ed., Politics in Lebanon (New York: Wiley, 1966); David R. and Audrey C. Smock, The Politics of Pluralism (New York: Elsevier, 1975).
54. 35 Elie A. Salem, Modernization Without Revolution: Lebanon's Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973); Leonard Binder, ed., Politics in Lebanon (New York: Wiley, 1966); David R. and Audrey C. Smock, The Politics of Pluralism (New York: Elsevier, 1975).
55. 35 Elie A. Salem, Modernization Without Revolution: Lebanon's Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973); Leonard Binder, ed., Politics in Lebanon (New York: Wiley, 1966); David R. and Audrey C. Smock, The Politics of Pluralism (New York: Elsevier, 1975).
56. 36 Michael C. Hudson, The Precarious Republic: Modernization in Lebanon (New York: Random House, 1968); Michael C. Hudson, "Democracy and Social Mobilization in Lebanese Politics," Comparative Politics 1 (January 1969): 245-63.
57. 36 Michael C. Hudson, The Precarious Republic: Modernization in Lebanon (New York: Random House, 1968); Michael C. Hudson, "Democracy and Social Mobilization in Lebanese Politics," Comparative Politics 1 (January 1969): 245-63.
58. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
59. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
60. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
61. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
62. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
63. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
64. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
65. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
66. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
67. 37 Harris, Faces of Lebanon; Tabitha Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987); Charles Winslow, Lebanon: War and Politics in a Fragmented Society (London: Routledge, 1996); Elizabeth Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1996); Walid Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, Center for International Affairs, 1979); Iliya F. Harik, Lebanon: Anatomy of a Conflict (Hanover, NH: American Universities Field Staff, 1981); Kamal S. Salibi, Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon, 1958-1976 (Delmar, NY: Caravan Books, 1976); Itamar Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 1970-1983 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984); Marius K. Deeb, The Lebanese Civil War (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1980); and Harald Vocke, The Lebanese War (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1978).
68. 38 Harris, Faces of Lebanon, 161.
69. 39 Ibid.; Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon; Elie A. Salem, "Lebanon's Political Maze: The Search For Peace in a Turbulent Land," Middle East Journal 33 (Autumn 1979): 444-63.
70. 39 Ibid.; Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon; Elie A. Salem, "Lebanon's Political Maze: The Search For Peace in a Turbulent Land," Middle East Journal 33 (Autumn 1979): 444-63.
71. 39 Ibid.; Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon; Elie A. Salem, "Lebanon's Political Maze: The Search For Peace in a Turbulent Land," Middle East Journal 33 (Autumn 1979): 444-63.
72. 40 Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon, 126-30.
73. 41 Hudson, "The Lebanese Crisis"; Dekmejian, "Consociational Democracy in Crisis."
74. 41 Hudson, "The Lebanese Crisis"; Dekmejian, "Consociational Democracy in Crisis."
75. 42 Khalidi, Conflict and Violence, 101; Harik, "Economic and Social Factors," 209-41.
76. 42 Khalidi, Conflict and Violence, 101; Harik, "Economic and Social Factors," 209-41.
77. 43 Arnon Soffer, "Lebanon - Where Demography Is the Core of Politics and Life," Middle Eastern Studies 22 (April 1986): 197-205; and Muhammad Faour, "The Demography of Lebanon: A Reappraisal," Middle Eastern Studies 27 (October 1991): 631-41.
78. 43 Arnon Soffer, "Lebanon - Where Demography Is the Core of Politics and Life," Middle Eastern Studies 22 (April 1986): 197-205; and Muhammad Faour, "The Demography of Lebanon: A Reappraisal," Middle Eastern Studies 27 (October 1991): 631-41.
79. 44 Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon, 71.
80. 45 Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country 79-81.
81. 46 For details on Syria's interests in Lebanon, see Reuven Avi-Ran, The Syrian Involvement in Lebanon Since 1975 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991); Adeed Dawisha, Syria and the Lebanese Crisis (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980); and As'ad AbuKhalil, "Determinants and Characteristics of Syrian Policy in Lebanon" in Deirdre Collins, ed., Peace for Lebanon? From War to Reconstruction (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), 123-36.
82. 46 For details on Syria's interests in Lebanon, see Reuven Avi-Ran, The Syrian Involvement in Lebanon Since 1975 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991); Adeed Dawisha, Syria and the Lebanese Crisis (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980); and As'ad AbuKhalil, "Determinants and Characteristics of Syrian Policy in Lebanon" in Deirdre Collins, ed., Peace for Lebanon? From War to Reconstruction (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), 123-36.
83. 46 For details on Syria's interests in Lebanon, see Reuven Avi-Ran, The Syrian Involvement in Lebanon Since 1975 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991); Adeed Dawisha, Syria and the Lebanese Crisis (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980); and As'ad AbuKhalil, "Determinants and Characteristics of Syrian Policy in Lebanon" in Deirdre Collins, ed., Peace for Lebanon? From War to Reconstruction (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994), 123-36.
84. 47 Picard, Lebanon: A Shattered Country, 81.
85. 48 Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon, 95.
86. 49 Michael Hudson, Arab Politics: The Search for Legitimacy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), 256.
87. 50 Ibid., 373.
88. 51 Ibid., 375.
89. 52 William B. Quandt, Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1993), 182-222 and 239-43; Henry Kissinger. Years of Upheaval (Boston: Littie Brown and Co., 1982), 614-66.
90. 52 William B. Quandt, Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict Since 1967 (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1993), 182-222 and 239-43; Henry Kissinger. Years of Upheaval (Boston: Littie Brown and Co., 1982), 614-66.
91. 53 Avi-Ran, Syrian Involvement in Lebanon, 21; Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 36-37.
92. 53 Avi-Ran, Syrian Involvement in Lebanon, 21; Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 36-37.
93. 54 Dekmejian, "Consociational Democracy in Crisis," 258-59.
94. 55 Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon, 99-103.
95. 56 Ibid., 142.
96. 57 Ze'ev Schiff, "Lebanon: Motivations and Interests in Israel's Policy," Middle East Journal 38 (Spring 1984): 220-27.
97. 58 Khalidi, Conflict and Violence in Lebanon, 70-71.
98. 59 Ibid., 71.
99. 60 Petran, The Struggle Over Lebanon, 152-53.
100. 61 Ibid., 152.
101. 62 Rabinovich, The War for Lebanon, 72-74.
102. 63 Maila, "The Ta'if Accord," 40-42.
103. 64 "Israel Willing to Talk with Syria despite Hezbollah Attacks," CNN World, 1 February 2000.