Proposal of a four-dimensional model of social response

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 126, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 454-470

  Nail, Paul R ^b   MacDonald, Geoff ^a   Levy, David A ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

^b SOUTHWESTERN OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACTING OUT; ARTICLE; CONTROL; CROWDING; GROUP PROCESS; HUMAN; MINORITY GROUP; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ACTING OUT; GROUP PROCESSES; HUMANS; INTERNAL-EXTERNAL CONTROL; MASS BEHAVIOR; MINORITY GROUPS; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; SOCIAL CONFORMITY;

EID: 0034183897     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.454     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. Abrams, D., Wetherell, M., Cochrane, S., Hogg, M. A., & Turner, J. C. (1990). Knowing what to think by knowing who you are: Self-categorization and the nature of norm formation, conformity and group polarization. British Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 97-119.
2. Allen, V. L. (1965). Situational factors in conformity. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 133-175). New York: Academic Press.
3. Allen, V. L., & Wilder, D. L. (1979). Social support in absentia: The effect of an absentee partner on conformity. Human Relations, 32, 103-111.
4. Allen, V. L., & Wilder, D. L. (1980). Impact of group consensus and social support on stimulus meaning: Mediation of conformity by cognitive restructuring. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1116-1124.
5. Allport, G. W. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 1-46). New York: Random House.
6. Argyle, M. (1957). Social pressure in public and private situations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 54, 172-175.
7. Aronson, E. (1999). Dissonance, hypocrisy, and the self-concept. In E. Harmon-Jones & J. Mills (Eds.), Cognitive dissonance: Progress on a pivotal theory in social psychology (pp. 103-126). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
8. Asch, S. (1940). Studies in the principles of judgments and attitudes: II. Determinations of judgments by group and ego standards. Journal of Social Psychology, 12, 433-465.
9. Asch, S. (1951). Effects of group pressure upon the modification and distortion of judgments. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership, and men (pp. 177-190). Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Press.
10. Asch, S. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs, 70(9, Whole No. 416).
11. Asimov, I. (1982). Asimov's biographical encyclopedia of science and technology (2nd rev. ed.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
12. Back, K. W., & Bogdonoff, M. D. (1964). Plasma lipid responses to leadership, conformity, and deviation. In P. H. Leiderman & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Psychobiological approaches to social behavior (pp. 24-42). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
13. Baer, R., Hinkle, S., Smith, K., & Fenton, M. (1980). Reactance as a function of actual versus projected autonomy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 416-422.
14. Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
15. Baron, R. A., & Kepner, C. R. (1970). Model's behavior and attraction to the model as determinants of adult aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14, 335-344.
16. Baron, R. S., Vandello, J. A., & Brunsman, B. (1996). The forgotten variable in conformity research: Impact of task importance on social influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 915-927.
17. Berger, P. L., & Luckman, T. (1967). The social construction of knowledge: A treatise on the sociology of knowledge. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press.
18. Boyanowsky, E, O., & Allen, V. L. (1973). Ingroup norms and self-identity as determinants of discriminatory behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 408-418.
19. Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Academic Press.
20. Brehm, J. W., & Mann, M. (1975). Effect of importance of freedom and attraction to group members on influence produced by group pressure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 816-824.
21. Brehm, S. S., & Brehm, J. W. (1981). Psychological reactance: A theory of freedom and control. New York: Academic Press.
22. Brokaw, T. (Managing Editor). (1994, December). NBC Nightly News. New York: National Broadcasting Company.
23. Burn, S. W. (1991). Social psychology and the stimulation of recycling behaviors: The block leader approach. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 611-629.
24. Chua-Eoan, H. G. (1989, November 27). An irresistible tide. Time, 36-41.
25. Cialdini, R. B. (1993). Influence: Science and practice (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
26. Cialdini, R. B., Kallgren, C. A., & Reno, R. R. (1991). A focus theory of normative conduct: A theoretical refinement and reevaluation of the role of norms in human behavior. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 201-234). New York: Academic Press.
27. Cialdini, R. B., & Trost, M. R. (1998). Social influence: Social norms, conformity, and compliance. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 151-192). New York: McGraw-Hill.
28. Cooper, J., & Jones, E. E. (1969). Opinion divergence as a strategy to avoid being miscast. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 23-30.
29. Deutsch, M., & Gerard, H. B. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629-636.
30. Doms, M., & Van Avermaet, E. (1980). Majority influence, minority influence and conversion behavior: A replication. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16, 283-292.
31. Donaldson, S. I., Graham, J. W., & Hansen, W. B. (1994). Testing the generalizability of intervening mechanism theories. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 17, 195-216.
32. Donaldson, S. I., Graham, J. W., Piccinin, A. M., & Hansen, W. B. (1995). Resistance-skills training and onset of alcohol use. Health Psychology, 14, 291-300.
33. Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
34. Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Fishbaugh, L. (1981). Sex differences in conformity: Surveillance by the group as a determinant of male nonconformity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 384-394.
35. Festinger, L. (1950). Informal social communication. Psychological Review, 57, 271-282.
36. Festinger, L. (1953). An analysis of compliant behavior. In M. Sherif & M. O. Wilson (Eds.), Group relations at the crossroads (pp. 232-256). New York: Harper.
37. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.
38. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
39. Festinger, L., & Aronson, E. (1968). Arousal and reduction of dissonance in social contexts. In D. Cartwright & A. Zander (Eds.), Group dynamics: Research and theory (3rd ed., pp. 125-136). New York: Harper & Row.
40. Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 203-210.
41. Frager, R. (1970). Conformity and anticonformity in Japan. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 203-210.
42. Freedman, J. L., & Fraser, S. C. (1966). Compliance without pressure: The foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 195-203.
43. Gerard, H. B. (1965). Deviation, conformity, and commitment. In I. D. Steiner & M. Fishbein (Eds.), Current studies in social psychology (pp. 263-277). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
44. Goethals, G. R., & Perlstein, A. L. (1978). Level of instigation and model similarity as determinants of aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 4, 115-124.
45. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
46. Heilman, M. E., & Toffler, B. L. (1976). Reacting to reactance: An interpersonal interpretation of the need for freedom. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 519-521.
47. Hogg, M. A., & Turner, J. C. (1987). Social identity and conformity: A theory of referent information influence. In W. Doise & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Current issues in European social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 139-182). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
48. Hollander, E. P. (1975). Independence, conformity, and civil liberties: Some implications from social psychological research. Journal of Social Issues, 31, 55-67.
49. Hollander, E. P., & Willis, R. H. (1967). Some current issues in the psychology of conformity and nonconformity. Psychological Bulletin, 68, 62-76.
50. Hornstein, H. A., Fisch, E., & Holmes, M. (1968). Influence of a model's feeling about his behavior and his relevance as a comparison other on observers' helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 222-226.
51. Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. New York: Basic Books.
52. Jahoda, M. (1956). Psychological issues in civil liberties. American Psychologist, 11, 234-240.
53. Jahoda, M. (1959). Conformity and independence. Human Relations, 12, 99-120.
54. Janis, I. L. (1982). Groupthink (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
55. Jones, E. E. (1985). Major developments in social psychology during the past five decades. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 47-107). New York: Random House.
56. Jones, E. E., & Wortman, C. (1973). Ingratiation: An attributional approach. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
57. Kaplan, M. (Ed.). (1966). Essential works of Pavlov. New York: Bantam Books.
58. Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 192-238). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
59. Kelman, H. C. (1958). Compliance, identification and internalization: Three processes of attitude change. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 51-60.
60. Kiesler, C. A. (1969). Group pressure and conformity. In J. Mills (Ed.), Experimental social psychology (pp. 233-306). New York: Macmillan.
61. Kiesler, C. A., & Kiesler, S. B. (1969). Conformity. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
62. Krech, D., Crutchfield, R. S., & Ballachey, E. L. (1962). Individual in society. New York: McGraw-Hill.
63. Latané, B. (1981). The psychology of social impact. American Psychologist, 36, 343-356.
64. Levine, J. M., & Russo, E. M. (1987). Majority and minority influence. In C. Hendrick (Ed.), Group processes. Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 13-54). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
65. Levy, D. A. (1992). The liberating effects of interpersonal influence: An empirical investigation of disinhibitory contagion. Journal of Social Psychology, 132, 469-473.
66. Levy, D. A. (1997). Tools of critical thinking: Metathoughts for psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
67. Levy, D. A., Collins, B. E., & Nail, P. R. (1998). A new model of interpersonal influence characteristics. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 13, 715-733.
68. Levy, D. A., & Nail, P. R. (1993). Contagion: A theoretical and empirical review and reconceptualization. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 119, 233-284.
69. Maass, A., & Clark, R. D. (1984). Hidden impact of minorities: Fifteen years of minority influence research. Psychological Bulletin 95 428-450.
70. Mann, T., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. K., Burgard, D., Huang, K., Wright, A., & Hansen, K. (1997). Are two interventions worse than none? Joint primary and secondary prevention of eating disorders in college females. Health Psychology, 16, 215-225.
71. March, J. G. (1954). Group norms and the active minority. American Sociological Review, 19, 733-741.
72. Merton, R. K. (1968). Social theory and social structure (Rev. ed.). New York: Free Press.
73. Milgram, S. (1974). Obedience to authority: An experimental view. New York: Harper & Row.
74. Montgomery, R. L. (1992). Social influence and conformity: A transorientational model. In D. Granberg & G. Sarup (Eds.), Social judgment and intergroup relations: Essays in honor of Muzafer Sherif (pp. 175-200). New York: Springer-Verlag.
75. Moscovici, S. (1976). Social influence and social change. New York: Academic Press.
76. Moscovici, S. (1980). Toward a theory of conversion behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 209-239). New York: Academic Press.
77. Moscovici, S., Lage, E., & Naffrechoux, M. (1969). Influence of a consistent minority on the response of a majority in a color perception task. Sociometry, 32, 365-379.
78. Murray, D. A., Leupker, R. V., Johnson, C. A., & Mittlemark, M. B. (1984). The prevention of cigarette smoking in children: A comparison of four strategies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 274-288.
79. Nail, P. R. (1986). Toward an integration of some models and theories of social response. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 190-206.
80. Nail, P. R., & Ruch, G. L. (1990). A demonstration of the reformulated diamond model of social response. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 711-724.
81. Nail, P. R., & Ruch, G. L. (1992). Social influence and the diamond model of social response: Toward an extended theory of informational influence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 171-187.
82. Nail, P. R., & Van Leeuwen, M. D. (1993). An analysis and restructuring of the diamond model of social response. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 106-116.
83. Nail, P. R., Van Leeuwen, M. D., & Powell, A. B. (1996). The effectance versus the self-presentational view of reactance: Are importance ratings influenced by anticipated surveillance? Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11, 573-584.
84. Nemeth, C. J. (1986). Differential contributions of majority and minority influence. Psychological Review, 93, 1-10.
85. Nemeth, C. J., Mayseless, O., Sherman, J., & Brown, Y. (1990). Exposure to dissent and recall of information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 429-437.
86. Nemeth, C. J., & Wachtler, J. (1974). Creating the perceptions of consistency and confidence: A necessary condition for minority influence. Sociometry, 37, 529-540.
87. Nemeth, C. J., & Wachtler, J. (1983). Creative problem solving as a result of majority vs. minority influence. European Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 45-55.
88. Newcomb, T. M. (1943). Personality and social change. New York: Dryden.
89. Nord, W. R. (1969). Social exchange theory: An integrative approach to social conformity. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 174-208.
90. Phillips, D. P. (1974). The influence of suggestion on suicide: Substantive and theoretical implications of the Werther effect. American Sociological Review, 39, 340-354.
91. Phillips, D. P. (1980). Airplane accidents, murder, and the mass media: Towards a theory of imitation and suggestion. Social Forces, 58 1001-1024.
92. Phillips, D. P. (1989). Recent advances in suicidology: The study of imitative suicide. In R. F. W. Diekstra, R. Maris, S. Platt, A. Schmidtke, & G. Sonneck (Eds.), Suicide and its prevention: The role of attitude and imitation (pp. 299-312). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
93. Pool, G. J., Wood, W., & Leck, K. (1998). The self-esteem motive in social influence: Agreement with valued majorities and disagreement with derogated minorities. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 967-975.
94. Raven, B. H. (1993). The bases of power: Origins and recent developments. Journal of Social Issues, 49, 227-251
95. Redl, F. (1949). The phenomenon of contagion and "shock effect" in group therapy. In K. R. Eissler (Ed.), Searchlight on delinquency (pp. 315-328). New York: International Universities Press.
96. Russell, J. C., Wilson, D. O., & Jenkins, J. F. (1976). Informational properties of jaywalking models as determinants of imitated jaywalking: An extension to model sex, race and number. Sociometry, 39, 270-273
97. Schlenker, B. R. (1980). Impression management: The self-concept, social identity, and interpersonal relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
98. Schmidtke, A., & Hafner, H. (1988). The Werther effect after television films: New evidence for an old hypothesis. Psychological Medicine, 18 665-676.
99. Schwartz, S. H. (1975). The justice of need and the activation of humanitarian norms. Journal of Social Issues, 31, 111-136.
100. Shaffer, D., Garland, A., Vieland, V., Underwood, M., & Busner, C. (1991). The impact of curriculum-based suicide prevention programs for teenagers. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 588-596.
101. Shaw, M. E. (1981). Group dynamics: The psychology of small group behavior (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
102. Sherif, M. (1951). A preliminary study of inter-group relations. In J. R. Rohrer & M. Sherif (Eds.), Social psychology at the crossroads (pp. 388-424). New York: Harper.
103. Smith, S., Murphy, D. B., & Wheeler, L. (1964). Relation of intelligence and authoritarianism to behavioral contagion and conformity. Psychological Reports, 14, 248.
104. Snyder, C. R., & Fromkin, H. L. (1980). Uniqueness: The human pursuit of difference. New York: Plenum.
105. Sorrels, J. P., & Kelley, J. (1984). Conformity by omission. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 302-305.
106. Stack, S. (1987). Celebrities and suicide: A taxonomy and analysis, 1948-1983. American Sociological Review, 52, 401-412.
107. Staub, E. (1972). Instigation to goodness: The role of social norms and interpersonal influence. Journal of Social Issues, 28, 131-150.
108. Swann, W. B. (1983). Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self. In J. Suls & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Social psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 2, pp. 33-66). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
109. Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley.
110. Turner, J. C. (1991). Social influence. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
111. Turner, R. H., & Killian, L. M. (1987). Collective behavior (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
112. Weir, H. B. (1971). Deprivation of the need for uniqueness and some variables moderating its effects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia.
113. Wheeler, L. (1966). Toward a theory of behavioral contagion. Psychological Review, 73, 179-192.
114. Wheeler, L., & Caggiula, A. R. (1966). The contagion of aggression. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 1-10.
115. Wheeler, L., Deci, E. L., Reis, H. T., & Zuckerman, M. (1978). Interpersonal influence. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
116. Wheeler, L., & Levine, L. (1967). Observer-model similarity in the contagion of aggression. Sociometry, 30, 41-49.
117. Wheeler, L., & Smith, S. (1967). Censure of the model in the contagion of aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 93-98.
118. Wilder, D. A. (1990). Some determinants of the persuasive power of in-groups and out-groups: Organization of information and attribution of independence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1202-1213.
119. Willis, R. H. (1963). Two dimensions of conformity-nonconformity. Sociometry, 26, 499-513.
120. Willis, R. H. (1965a). Conformity, independence, and anticonformity. Human Relations, 18, 373-388.
121. Willis, R. H. (1965b, September). Descriptive models of social response. Paper presented at the 73rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, IL.
122. Willis, R. H., & Levine, J. M. (1976). Interpersonal influence and conformity. In B. Seidenberg & A. Snadowsky (Eds.), Social psychology: An introduction (pp. 309-341). New York: Free Press.
123. Wood, W., Lundgren, S., Ouellette, J. A., Busceme, S., & Blackstone, T. (1994). Minority influence: A metaanalytic review of social influence processes. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 323-345.
124. Wood, W., Pool, G. J., Leck, K., & Purvis, D. (1996). Self-definition, defensive processing, and influence: The normative impact of majority and minority groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1181-1193.
125. Wright, R. A. (1986). Attitude change as a function of threat to attitudinal freedom and extent of agreement with a communicator. European Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 43-50.
126. Wright, R. A., & Brehm, S. S. (1982). Reactance as impression management: A critical review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 608-618.