The political economy of marine fisheries development in Peru, Chile and Mexico

Journal of Latin American Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 503-527

  Ibarra, Alonso Aguilar ^a   Reid, Chris ^a   Thorpe, Andy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FISHERY MANAGEMENT; FISHERY POLICY; OVERFISHING; POLITICAL ECONOMY;

CHILE; MEXICO; PERU;

EID: 0034119277     PISSN: 0022216X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X00005824     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. V. Bulmer-Thomas, The Economic History of Latin America Since Independence, (Basingstoke, 1994), pp. 15-18.
2. See, for example: M. Conroy et al., Fruits of the Crisis: Gambling on Nontraditienal Agriculture, (Austin, 1994); E. Silva, 'The Politics of Sustainable Development; Native Forest Policy in Chile, Venezuela, Costa Rica and Mexico', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 29 (1997), pp. 457-93.
3. See, for example: M. Conroy et al., Fruits of the Crisis: Gambling on Nontraditienal Agriculture, (Austin, 1994); E. Silva, 'The Politics of Sustainable Development; Native Forest Policy in Chile, Venezuela, Costa Rica and Mexico', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 29 (1997), pp. 457-93.
4. R. A. Schurman, 'Snails, Southern Hake and Sustainability: Neo-liberalism and Natural Resource Exports in Chile', World Development vol. 24 (1996), pp. 1695-1709; M. Vásquez León and T. R. McGuire, 'La Iniciativa Privada in the Mexican Shrimp Industry", Maritime Anthropological Studies, vol. 6 (1995), pp. 59-73; J. Pẽna-Torres, 'The Political Economy of Fishing Regulation: The Case of Chile', Marine Resource Economics, vol. 12 (1997), p. 253-280.
5. R. A. Schurman, 'Snails, Southern Hake and Sustainability: Neo-liberalism and Natural Resource Exports in Chile', World Development vol. 24 (1996), pp. 1695-1709; M. Vásquez León and T. R. McGuire, 'La Iniciativa Privada in the Mexican Shrimp Industry", Maritime Anthropological Studies, vol. 6 (1995), pp. 59-73; J. Pẽna-Torres, 'The Political Economy of Fishing Regulation: The Case of Chile', Marine Resource Economics, vol. 12 (1997), p. 253-280.
6. R. A. Schurman, 'Snails, Southern Hake and Sustainability: Neo-liberalism and Natural Resource Exports in Chile', World Development vol. 24 (1996), pp. 1695-1709; M. Vásquez León and T. R. McGuire, 'La Iniciativa Privada in the Mexican Shrimp Industry", Maritime Anthropological Studies, vol. 6 (1995), pp. 59-73; J. Pẽna-Torres, 'The Political Economy of Fishing Regulation: The Case of Chile', Marine Resource Economics, vol. 12 (1997), p. 253-280.
7. FAO, 'Review of the State of World Fishery Resources: Marine Fisheries', FAO Fisheries Circular, 920, (1997) ; F. T. Christy, 'The Development and Management of Marine Fisheries in Latin America and the Caribbean', Inter-American Development Bank Policy Research Paper, (1997); World Wildlife Fund, The Footprint of Distant Water Fleets on World Fisheries, (Godalming, 1998).
8. FAO, 'Review of the State of World Fishery Resources: Marine Fisheries', FAO Fisheries Circular, 920, (1997) ; F. T. Christy, 'The Development and Management of Marine Fisheries in Latin America and the Caribbean', Inter-American Development Bank Policy Research Paper, (1997); World Wildlife Fund, The Footprint of Distant Water Fleets on World Fisheries, (Godalming, 1998).
9. FAO, 'Review of the State of World Fishery Resources: Marine Fisheries', FAO Fisheries Circular, 920, (1997) ; F. T. Christy, 'The Development and Management of Marine Fisheries in Latin America and the Caribbean', Inter-American Development Bank Policy Research Paper, (1997); World Wildlife Fund, The Footprint of Distant Water Fleets on World Fisheries, (Godalming, 1998).
10. Peru, Chile and Mexico were respectively ranked second, third and sixteenth among world fish producers in 1995. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics for 1995, vol. 80 (1997), p. 95. All figures are those reported by the FAO, unless otherwise stated. There are some minor discrepancies between figures reported by the FAO and national agencies, owing to reclassification to allow international comparisons.
11. Hardin's well-known 'tragedy of the commons' model has greatly influenced the extant literature on fisheries development. G. Hardin, 'The Tragedy of the Commons', in G. Hardin and J. Baden, (ed.), Managing the Commons, (San Francisco, 1977), pp. 16-50.
12. Bulmer-Thomas, Economic History, pp. 14-18.
13. Mexico's declaration of exclusive rights to its continental shelf resources in 1945 precipitated other claims, most notably the Chilean and Peruvian declaration of zoomile 'territorial' seas in 1947. These claims, formalised by the 1952 Santiago Declaration, encouraged similar claims in the 1950s and 1960s. Other Latin nations declaring 200-mile territorial waters include: El Salvador (1950), Honduras (1951), Nicaragua (1965), Argentina (1966), Panama (1967), Uruguay (1969), and Brazil (1970). See: F. Orrego Vicuña (ed.), The Exclusive Economic Zone: A Latin American Perspective (Colorado, 1984); F. Orrego Vicuña, "Trends and Issues in the Law of the Sea as Applied in Latin America', Ocean Development and International Law, vol. 26 (1995), pp. 93-103; F. Paolillo, 'The Exclusive Economic Zone in Latin American Practice and Legislation', Ocean Development and International Law, vol.26 (1991), pp.105-25.
14. Mexico's declaration of exclusive rights to its continental shelf resources in 1945 precipitated other claims, most notably the Chilean and Peruvian declaration of zoomile 'territorial' seas in 1947. These claims, formalised by the 1952 Santiago Declaration, encouraged similar claims in the 1950s and 1960s. Other Latin nations declaring 200-mile territorial waters include: El Salvador (1950), Honduras (1951), Nicaragua (1965), Argentina (1966), Panama (1967), Uruguay (1969), and Brazil (1970). See: F. Orrego Vicuña (ed.), The Exclusive Economic Zone: A Latin American Perspective (Colorado, 1984); F. Orrego Vicuña, "Trends and Issues in the Law of the Sea as Applied in Latin America', Ocean Development and International Law, vol. 26 (1995), pp. 93-103; F. Paolillo, 'The Exclusive Economic Zone in Latin American Practice and Legislation', Ocean Development and International Law, vol.26 (1991), pp.105-25.
15. Mexico's declaration of exclusive rights to its continental shelf resources in 1945 precipitated other claims, most notably the Chilean and Peruvian declaration of zoomile 'territorial' seas in 1947. These claims, formalised by the 1952 Santiago Declaration, encouraged similar claims in the 1950s and 1960s. Other Latin nations declaring 200-mile territorial waters include: El Salvador (1950), Honduras (1951), Nicaragua (1965), Argentina (1966), Panama (1967), Uruguay (1969), and Brazil (1970). See: F. Orrego Vicuña (ed.), The Exclusive Economic Zone: A Latin American Perspective (Colorado, 1984); F. Orrego Vicuña, "Trends and Issues in the Law of the Sea as Applied in Latin America', Ocean Development and International Law, vol. 26 (1995), pp. 93-103; F. Paolillo, 'The Exclusive Economic Zone in Latin American Practice and Legislation', Ocean Development and International Law, vol.26 (1991), pp.105-25.
16. An extensive literature details the problems of fisheries development, drawing upon a core 'bioeconomic' model. See, for example: S. Cunningham et al., Fisheries Economics: An Introduction, (London, 1985).
17. Cushing gives many examples of overfishing between the late-nineteenth century and the present. D. H. Cushing, The Provident Sea, (Cambridge, 1988).
18. Cunningham suggests that ITQs have become the conventional wisdom among fisheries economists, despite widely-held reservations about their distributional consequences. See: S. Cunningham, "Fishermen's Incomes and Fisheries Management', Marine Resource Economics, vol. 9 (1994), p. 245.
19. The problems of multiple objectives in fisheries management are discussed in: A. T. Charles, 'Bio-Socio-Economic Fishery Models: Labour Dynamics and Multiobjective Management', Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 46 (1989), 1313-1312 ; C. Bailey and S. Jentoft, "Hard Choices in Fisheries Development", Marine Policy, vol. 14 (1990), pp. 335-344.
20. The problems of multiple objectives in fisheries management are discussed in: A. T. Charles, 'Bio-Socio-Economic Fishery Models: Labour Dynamics and Multiobjective Management', Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Vol. 46 (1989), 1313-1312 ; C. Bailey and S. Jentoft, "Hard Choices in Fisheries Development", Marine Policy, vol. 14 (1990), pp. 335-344.
21. El Niño arises from a relaxation of the trade winds, which slows the upwelling of the Humboldt current allowing warmer water from the Western Pacific to move eastwards. See: S. G. H. Philander, El Niño, La Niña and the Southern Oscillation, (San Diego, 1990).
22. South Pacific hake are also known as silver or Chilean hake, and Patagonian hake as southern hake.
23. Christy, 'Development and Management of Marine Fisheries', p. 35.
24. For further discussion of developments in the 1950s and 1960s, see: M. Roemer, Fishing for Growth: Export-Led Development in Peru, 1950-1967, (Cambridge (Mass.), 1970); W. P. Appleyard, 'Peru: A Case Study in the Establishment of a Food Fish Industry for a Developing Country', Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, vol. 30 (1973), pp. 2236-2241; B. B. Smetherman and R. M. Smetherman, 'Peruvian Fisheries: Conservation and Development', Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 21 (1973), pp. 338-351; J. R. Coull, 'The Development of the Fishing Industry in Peru', Geography, vol. 59 (1974), pp. 522-32, R. Thorp and G. Bertram, Peru 1890-1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy, (Basingstoke, 1978), pp. 180-2, 242-51.
25. For further discussion of developments in the 1950s and 1960s, see: M. Roemer, Fishing for Growth: Export-Led Development in Peru, 1950-1967, (Cambridge (Mass.), 1970); W. P. Appleyard, 'Peru: A Case Study in the Establishment of a Food Fish Industry for a Developing Country', Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, vol. 30 (1973), pp. 2236-2241; B. B. Smetherman and R. M. Smetherman, 'Peruvian Fisheries: Conservation and Development', Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 21 (1973), pp. 338-351; J. R. Coull, 'The Development of the Fishing Industry in Peru', Geography, vol. 59 (1974), pp. 522-32, R. Thorp and G. Bertram, Peru 1890-1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy, (Basingstoke, 1978), pp. 180-2, 242-51.
26. For further discussion of developments in the 1950s and 1960s, see: M. Roemer, Fishing for Growth: Export-Led Development in Peru, 1950-1967, (Cambridge (Mass.), 1970); W. P. Appleyard, 'Peru: A Case Study in the Establishment of a Food Fish Industry for a Developing Country', Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, vol. 30 (1973), pp. 2236-2241; B. B. Smetherman and R. M. Smetherman, 'Peruvian Fisheries: Conservation and Development', Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 21 (1973), pp. 338-351; J. R. Coull, 'The Development of the Fishing Industry in Peru', Geography, vol. 59 (1974), pp. 522-32, R. Thorp and G. Bertram, Peru 1890-1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy, (Basingstoke, 1978), pp. 180-2, 242-51.
27. For further discussion of developments in the 1950s and 1960s, see: M. Roemer, Fishing for Growth: Export-Led Development in Peru, 1950-1967, (Cambridge (Mass.), 1970); W. P. Appleyard, 'Peru: A Case Study in the Establishment of a Food Fish Industry for a Developing Country', Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, vol. 30 (1973), pp. 2236-2241; B. B. Smetherman and R. M. Smetherman, 'Peruvian Fisheries: Conservation and Development', Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 21 (1973), pp. 338-351; J. R. Coull, 'The Development of the Fishing Industry in Peru', Geography, vol. 59 (1974), pp. 522-32, R. Thorp and G. Bertram, Peru 1890-1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy, (Basingstoke, 1978), pp. 180-2, 242-51.
28. For further discussion of developments in the 1950s and 1960s, see: M. Roemer, Fishing for Growth: Export-Led Development in Peru, 1950-1967, (Cambridge (Mass.), 1970); W. P. Appleyard, 'Peru: A Case Study in the Establishment of a Food Fish Industry for a Developing Country', Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, vol. 30 (1973), pp. 2236-2241; B. B. Smetherman and R. M. Smetherman, 'Peruvian Fisheries: Conservation and Development', Economic Development and Cultural Change, vol. 21 (1973), pp. 338-351; J. R. Coull, 'The Development of the Fishing Industry in Peru', Geography, vol. 59 (1974), pp. 522-32, R. Thorp and G. Bertram, Peru 1890-1977: Growth and Policy in an Open Economy, (Basingstoke, 1978), pp. 180-2, 242-51.
29. Small pelagic species constitute about 90% of the Peruvian catch.
30. Peruvian exports accounted for around 60 per cent of the international fishmeal trade at the time. E. Leoncio Segura, 'An Econometric Study of the Fish Meal Industry', FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, no. 119 (1973), pp. 1, 22.
31. The national fleet grew from 433 vessels in 1959 to 1,846 vessels by 1964, the fleet's gross tonnage and hold capacity increasing by 750% over the same period. These vessels employed the sophisticated fishing methods used in the linked States, L. K. Boerema et al., "Report on the Effects of Fishing on the Peruvian Stock of Anchovy', FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, no. 55 (1965), p. 6.
32. Leoncio Segura, 'Econometric Study', p. 7
33. Roemer, Fishing for Growth, p. 112-3; Thorp and Bertram, Peru 1890-1977, pp. 250-1.
34. Roemer, Fishing for Growth, p. 112-3; Thorp and Bertram, Peru 1890-1977, pp. 250-1.
35. Peruvian involvement in the international Fish Meal Exporters Organisation (FMEO) and the formation of fishing and processor associations (the Sociedad Nacional de Pesquería (SNP) and the Consorcio Pesquero de Peru (CPP)), are discussed in: Leoncio Segura, 'Econometric Study', p. 19.
36. Smetherman, 'Peruvian Fisheries', pp. 345.
37. Ley de Fomento de la Industria Pesquera, no. 16694.
38. Leoncio Segura, 'Econometric Study', p. 200.
39. L. K. Boerema and J. A. Gulland, 'Stock Assessment of the Peruvian Anchovy (Engraulis ringens) and Management of the Fishery', Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, vol. 30 (1973), pp. 2226-2235; J. Csirke, 'Recruitment in the Peruvian Anchovy and its Dependence on the Adult Population', ICES Rapports et ProcèsVerbaux des Rèunions, vol. 177 (1980), pp. 507-313.
40. L. K. Boerema and J. A. Gulland, 'Stock Assessment of the Peruvian Anchovy (Engraulis ringens) and Management of the Fishery', Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada, vol. 30 (1973), pp. 2226-2235; J. Csirke, 'Recruitment in the Peruvian Anchovy and its Dependence on the Adult Population', ICES Rapports et ProcèsVerbaux des Rèunions, vol. 177 (1980), pp. 507-313.
41. C. N. Caviedes and T. J. Fik, 'Modelling Change in the Peruvian-Chilean Eastern Pacific Fisheries', Geojournal, vol. 30 (1993), p. 370.
42. For a fuller explanation, see: J. Csirke, 'Small Shoaling Pelagic Fish Stocks', in J. A. Gulland (ed.), Fish Population Dynamics; The Implications for Management, 2nd edition, (Chichester, 1988), p. 287.
43. Boerema, 'Stock Assessment of the Peruvian Anchovy", p, 2234.
44. Thorp and Bertram point out that the 1971 Fisheries Law had already established state control of marketing, introducing provisions for the elimination of foreign ownership and the introduction of worker participation in the sector. Thorp and Bertram, Peru 1890-1977, p. 302-The industry's assets at the time of the collapse were estimated at US$120 million, compared to debts of $227.5 million. W. Royce, Fishery Development, Orlando, 1987), p. 106.
45. Thorp and Bertram point out that the 1971 Fisheries Law had already established state control of marketing, introducing provisions for the elimination of foreign ownership and the introduction of worker participation in the sector. Thorp and Bertram, Peru 1890-1977, p. 302-The industry's assets at the time of the collapse were estimated at US$120 million, compared to debts of $227.5 million. W. Royce, Fishery Development, Orlando, 1987), p. 106.
46. Private participation was not precluded - although private entrepreneurs were obliged to produce 10 cases of canned fish per tonne of fish, before they could assign the residual to meal production.
47. 'Peru Closes Anchovy Fishery', Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 39, no. 8 (1977), p. 32.
48. 'Peruvian Fishing Law Modified to Attract Capital Investment', Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 41, no. 4 (1979), p. 36.
49. FAO, Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics, (Rome, annual).
50. Jack mackerel stocks remained unregulated. 'Peruvian Fisheries Developments, 1980-81', Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 45, no. 7 (1981), p. 17.
51. PESCA PERU contracted sharply during the early 1980s, its employees decreasing from 7,000 in 1982 to 1,100 in 1984. 'Peru Loses More Meal Plants', Fishing News International, (Oct. 1981), p. 4;
52. 'PESCA PERU Faces a Big Cut in Fish Meal Capacity', Fishing News International (Sept. 1984), p. 8.
53. 'Peru Puts Food Fish First', Fishing News International, (Sept. 1980), p.1.
54. 'Peru Expects Larger Catch This Year', Fishing News International, (Jan. 1986), p. 26.
55. 'Peruvian Fisheries, 1986-7', Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 50, no. 2 (1988), p. 63. A. García Mesinas 'Current Status and Strategies of Peruvian Fisheries', in M. Murphy (ed.). Maximum Sustainable Yield from Fish Stocks: A Challenge to Fishermen and Managers, (Cork, 1993), p-82.
56. 'Peruvian Fisheries, 1986-7', Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 50, no. 2 (1988), p. 63. A. García Mesinas 'Current Status and Strategies of Peruvian Fisheries', in M. Murphy (ed.). Maximum Sustainable Yield from Fish Stocks: A Challenge to Fishermen and Managers, (Cork, 1993), p-82.
57. For an interpretation of neo-liberal economic policies in Latin America, See: V. Bulmer-Thomas (ed.), The New Economic Model and its Impact on Poverty and Income Distribution in Latin America (Basingstoke, 1996).
58. J. Sheahan, 'Peru's Return Towards an Open Economy: Macroeconomic Complications and Structural Questions', World Development, vol. 22 (1994), pp. 911-2.
59. WorldFish Report, (7 Dec. 1995), p. SP/4; WorldFish Report, (13 March 1997), p. SP/1.
60. WorldFish Report, (7 Dec. 1995), p. SP/4; WorldFish Report, (13 March 1997), p. SP/1.
61. Its share of fishmeal and oil production fell from 34.6% to 25.6% and 41.8 % to 23.8% respectively over the same period. Pesta-Peru: Sintesis Estadistica, enero-dic., (Lima, 1994), pp. 1-18.
62. 'Fishing Ban imposed to Protect Stocks', IMI Environmental News, 1 Aug. 1995); 'FAO Plan to Cut Peruvian Fishmeal Output', WorldFish Report, (26 Sept. 1996), p. SP/3.
63. 'Fishing Ban imposed to Protect Stocks', IMl Environmental News, 1 Aug. 1995); 'FAO Plan to Cut Peruvian Fishmeal Output', WorldFish Report, (26 Sept. 1996), p. SP/3.
64. Fish Information Services, Sea-World, 3 May 1999 (http://www.fis-net.com).
65. P. Pavez, 'Chile's General Law of Fisheries and Aquaculture', in E. A. Loayza (ed.), Managing Fishery Resources, World Bank Discussion Papers (Fisheries Series), no. 217 (1994), p. 59.
66. Peña-Torres, 'Political Economy of Fishing Regulation', p. 256.
67. Although fishing, consequently, now accounts for only a fraction of the Angelini group's revenue, Aguero and Zuleta suggest that the group controls as much as 70 % of the country's northern fishing industry, and provides over 40% of the country's fishmeal exports. M. Aguero and A, Zuleta, 'Management Options for Transboundary Stocks: The Peruvian-Chilean Pelagic Fishery', Managing Fisheries Resources, World Bank Discussion Paper, no. 217 (1991) p. 72.
68. Average hold capacities of the new vessels increased by about 25% in the Talcahuano region, and by 100% in the Northern zone, 'Proceedings of the Expert Consultation to Examine Changes in the Abundance and Species Composition of Neritic Fish Resources', FAO Fisheries Repart, no. 291, vol. 2., (1983), pp. 255-84.
69. According to Aguero and Zuleta, the industrial fleet adopted a 'gold rush strategy' when a 1.3 million tonne TAC was introduced to the Northern pilchard fishery, thereby undermining its purpose. Aguero and Zuleta, 'Management Options for Transboundary Stocks', p. 72.
70. Peña Torres, 'Political Economy of Fishing Regulation", p.259.
71. In 1990, for example, exports of approximately one million tonnes of pelagic fish products were valued at some US$400 million, compared to the US$129 million realised by exports of some 68,000 tonnes of demersal fish products. These figures are indicative - rather than definitive - as the pelagic figures relate to aggregate fishmeal and oil exports, while the demersal data is for frozen and fresh/chilled hake only, FAO, Fisheries Yearbook: Commodities, (Rome, 1992), tables G2-1, H2-1, J 13-14.
72. FAO, Technical Consultation on the Latin American Hake Industry, Montevideo, 24-8 October 1977, (Rome, 1978) and FAO Fisheries Yearbook: Commodities, (Rome, annual) table J13-I4.
73. FAO, Technical Consultation on the Latin American Hake Industry, Montevideo, 24-8 October 1977, (Rome, 1978) and FAO Fisheries Yearbook: Commodities, (Rome, annual) table J13-I4.
74. R. Schurman, 'Economic Development and Class Formation in an Extractive Economy: The Fragile Nature of the Chilean Fishing Industry 1973-90', unpubl. PhD diss., (University of Wisconsin), 1993), p. 208; Schurman, 'Snail, Southern Hake and Sustainabiiity', p. 1699.
75. R. Schurman, 'Economic Development and Class Formation in an Extractive Economy: The Fragile Nature of the Chilean Fishing Industry 1973-90', unpubl. PhD diss., (University of Wisconsin), 1993), p. 208; Schurman, 'Snail, Southern Hake and Sustainabiiity', p. 1699.
76. See: Peña Torres, 'Political Economy of Fishing Regulation', p. 266-9.
77. Pavez, 'Chile's General Law of Fisheries and Aquaculture', p. 62.
78. The Presential Sea, would exclude foreign vessels from the high seas jack mackerel fishery. For now Chile is not enforcing this exclusion. See: C. Joyner and P. De Cola, 'Chile's Presential Sea Proposal: Implications for Straddling Stocks and the International Law of Fisheries', Ocean Development and International Law, vol. 24 (1993), p. 111.
79. Although the Law still recognises open access fisheries, as the term is a residual one-those fisheries not 'fully-exploited', 'recovering' or 'emerging' remain open access-such fisheries must, by definition, be of negligible importance.
80. A more comprehensive account of the law is given in: A. Alonso Ibarra et al, 'Neoliberalism and the Latin 'Blue Revolution': Fisheries Development in Chile, Mexico and Peru', Cemare Researcb Paper, University of Portsmouth, no. 139 (1998), table 1.
81. Juan Cruz, current Fisheries Undersecretary, as reported by Fish Information Services, Sea-World, 27 May 1999 (http://www.fis-net.com).
82. See World Fishing, Sept. 1999, p. 5.
83. The 1947 Law granted exclusive rights to harvest shrimp, abalone, lobster, oysters, squid, mullet, octopus and totoaba. The 1972 Federal Law for the Promotion of Fisheries extended the list to include turtles. See: J. L. Soberanes Fernandez, 'Historia Contemporánea de la Legislacion Pesquera en México', in M. González Oropeza and M. A. Garita Alonso, El régimen jurídico de la pesca en México, (Mexico, DF, 1994), p. 9; A. Villa Arce, 'A Review of Recent Changes in Mexico's Fishing Policy', unpubl. Masters diss., University of Delaware, 1996, pp. 4-25.
84. The 1947 Law granted exclusive rights to harvest shrimp, abalone, lobster, oysters, squid, mullet, octopus and totoaba. The 1972 Federal Law for the Promotion of Fisheries extended the list to include turtles. See: J. L. Soberanes Fernandez, 'Historia Contemporánea de la Legislacion Pesquera en México', in M. González Oropeza and M. A. Garita Alonso, El régimen jurídico de la pesca en México, (Mexico, DF, 1994), p. 9; A. Villa Arce, 'A Review of Recent Changes in Mexico's Fishing Policy', unpubl. Masters diss., University of Delaware, 1996, pp. 4-25.
85. The IADB loan of US$43 million was to fund the construction of 523 new vessels. The Bank of Brazil's US$30 million loan was conditional on the purchase of vessels from Brazilian shipyards. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 37, no. 11 (1975), p. 35. Soberanes Fernández, 'Historia Contemporánea', p. 17.
86. The IADB loan of US$43 million was to fund the construction of 523 new vessels. The Bank of Brazil's US$30 million loan was conditional on the purchase of vessels from Brazilian shipyards. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 37, no. 11 (1975), p. 35. Soberanes Fernández, 'Historia Contemporánea', p. 17.
87. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 39, no.12 (1977), p. 31; M. Gatti, 'Los Pescadores de Mexico: La Vida en un Lance', Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, Cuadernos de la Casa Chata 110, (México D.F., 1986). In the early 1980s illegal shrimp sales were estimated at between 30% and 50% of production and valued at some US$500 million per annum. '"Shadow Industry" Costs Mexico Millions of Dollars', Fishing News International, (Aug. 1984), p.20
88. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 39, no.12 (1977), p. 31; M. Gatti, 'Los Pescadores de Mexico: La Vida en un Lance', Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, Cuadernos de la Casa Chata 110, (México D.F., 1986). In the early 1980s illegal shrimp sales were estimated at between 30% and 50% of production and valued at some US$500 million per annum. '"Shadow Industry" Costs Mexico Millions of Dollars', Fishing News International, (Aug. 1984), p.20
89. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 39, no.12 (1977), p. 31; M. Gatti, 'Los Pescadores de Mexico: La Vida en un Lance', Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social, Cuadernos de la Casa Chata 110, (México D.F., 1986). In the early 1980s illegal shrimp sales were estimated at between 30% and 50% of production and valued at some US$500 million per annum. '"Shadow Industry" Costs Mexico Millions of Dollars', Fishing News International, (Aug. 1984), p.20
90. The necessary constitutional amendments were approved in July 1976.
91. The agreement with Cuba (July 1976), sought to regulate fishing activity on the Campeche Bank. The US-Mexican agreement (November 1976), provided US vessels with access to specified snapper, grouper and shrimp fisheries within the Mexican EEZ. Enforcement procedures were intensified, and various US vessels were seized for straying into inshore waters. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 41, no. 11 (1979), pp. 38-9.
92. Fernando Rafful, Director of the Secretaria de Pesca, Marine Fisheries Review, (Dec. 1977), pp. 30-1; F. A, Konig, Análisis del crecimiento económico sectorial en México (1940-1987): El caso de la pesca, (México D.F., 1993)
93. Fernando Rafful, Director of the Secretaria de Pesca, Marine Fisheries Review, (Dec. 1977), pp. 30-1; F. A, Konig, Análisis del crecimiento económico sectorial en México (1940-1987): El caso de la pesca, (México D.F., 1993)
94. Marine Fisheries Review, (Dec. 1977), pp. 30-1.
95. 'Biggest Fishery Loan Yet: IDB Lends $80m to Boost Mexican Catch', Fishing News International, (Feb. 1981), p. 1.
96. Pacific coast vessels were transferred to co-operatives in late 1981, Gulf of Mexico trawlers in early 1982, La Cooperativización, as the process was known, also permitted PROPEMEX to buy-out private shrimp processors. Marine fisheries Review, vol. 44, no. 11 (1982), p. 29.
97. Quoted in the National Plan for Fishing Development 1977-82. In the 1970s, almost two-thirds of the total catch was exported. 'Mexico: A Long Way to Go', World Fishing, vol. 30, no. 12 (1981), p. 41.
98. The target was not reached until 1994. Annario Estadistico de Pesca 1991, (México D. F., 1995). P-135.
99. M. D. Ramirez, Mexico's Economic Crisis: Its Origins and Consequences, (New York, 1988); World Bank, A Decade after the Debt Crisis, (Washington, 1995).
100. M. D. Ramirez, Mexico's Economic Crisis: Its Origins and Consequences, (New York, 1988); World Bank, A Decade after the Debt Crisis, (Washington, 1995).
101. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 44, no. 8 (1982), p. 28.
102. The embargo, which remained in place until 1986, cost Mexico an estimated $50 million. 'US Tuna Embargo Costs Mexicans $50 Million', Fishing News International, (June, 1983), p. 30.
103. In 1978, 68.3 % of the 26,337 tonnes landed was exported to the United States. By 1985, 58.8 % of the tuna catch was consigned to domestic markets. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 48, no. 4 (1986), p. 82.
104. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 44, no. 8 (1982), p. 29; Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 48, no. 4 (1986), p. 82; 'Mexico's Tuna Ship Gamble', Fishing News International, (July 1982), p. 71.
105. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 44, no. 8 (1982), p. 29; Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 48, no. 4 (1986), p. 82; 'Mexico's Tuna Ship Gamble', Fishing News International, (July 1982), p. 71.
106. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 44, no. 8 (1982), p. 29; Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 48, no. 4 (1986), p. 82; 'Mexico's Tuna Ship Gamble', Fishing News International, (July 1982), p. 71.
107. In July 1997 a reduction in incidental dolphin by-catch fleet to acceptable levels, led the United States to partially lift the embargo. It was finally rescinded in May 1999. R. L. McLoughlin, 'UNCLOS and the Demise of the United States' Use of Trade Sanctions to Protect Dolphins, Sea Turtles, Whales, and Other International Marine Living Resources', Ecology Law Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 1 (1994), pp. 1-78; Semarnap Press Release, (1 Aug. 1997).
108. This decline was demand-induced, the economic recession in the United States and high interest rates reducing consumer demand. Marine Fisheries Review, vol. 43, no. 9 (1981), p. 26.
109. Fishing News International, 'Shadow Industry', p. 20.
110. M. C. Rodriguez de la Cruz, Aspectos Socioeconómicos de la Pesqueria y el Cultivo de Camarones en México, (Rome, 1987), p. 50.
111. M. Miller, 'Shrimp Aquaculture in Mexico', Food Research Institute Studies, vol. 22, no.1 (1990), pp. 83-107; Vásquez León and McGuire, 'La Iniciativa Privada', p. 60.
112. M. Miller, 'Shrimp Aquaculture in Mexico', Food Research Institute Studies, vol. 22, no.1 (1990), pp. 83-107; Vásquez León and McGuire, 'La Iniciativa Privada', p. 60.
113. The Law allowed co-operatives to invest in joint ventures, becoming partners with ejidos and non-fishing co-operatives. The formation of new co-operatives was also permitted. However, as Nadel Egea suggests, the process was excessively bureaucratic. A. Nadel Egea, 'The Development of Mexico's Living Marine Resources', in S. DiazBriquets and S. Wintraub (ed.), Regional and Sectoral Developments in Mexico as Alternatives to Migration, (Boulder, 1991), p. 233ff.
114. By 1987, PROPEMEX's debts amounted to about 12.7 trillion Mexican pesos (approximately US$6.4 billion) F. Estrada y Servin, 'Intervencion del Director General de Productos Pesqueros Mexicanos Sa de CV ', in Secretaría de Pesca, Reunión de Autoevaluación 1983-1987, (México DF, 1988), pp. 29-36.
115. PRONASOL (Programs Nacional de Solidaridad) was conceived in 1989 to help alleviate poverty. See: H. Pánuco-Laguette and M. Szekely, 'Income Distribution and Poverty in Mexico ', in Bulmer-Thomas (ed.), The New Economic Model in Latin America, pp. 202-10.
116. Villa Arce, 'Recent Changes in Mexico's Fishing Policy', p. 44.
117. The 94 co-operatives selected to participate in the Pacific shrimp cooperative 1992 rescue plan (Programa de Restructuración Financiera de Cooperatives Camamneras del Litoral del Pacifico) had debts totalling 264.7 million pesos, 1995-2000 Programa de Pesca y Acuacultura (Mexico, DF, 1996), p. 40.
118. Vásquez Léon and McGuire, 'La Iniciativa Privada', p. 60ff.
119. Programa de Pesca y Acuacultura 1995-2000, pp. 10, 14, 47.
120. Christy, 'The Development and Management of Marine Fisheries', p. 27, for example, notes that Inter-American Development Bank policy guidelines at the time presumed fisheries resources to be both abundant and untapped (Peruvian anchovy excepted).