The politics of sustainable development: Native forest policy in Chile, Venezuela, Costa Rica and Mexico

Journal of Latin American Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 457-492

  Silva, Eduardo ^a,b,c  

^a Department of Political Science ^*  (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI ST LOUIS   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; FOREST MANAGEMENT; FOREST POLICY; INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON; NATIVE FOREST; POLICY APPROACH; POLITICAL CONTEXT; POLITICAL ECOLOGY; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT;

CHILE; COSTA RICA; MEXICO; VENEZUELA;

EID: 0031441376     PISSN: 0022216X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0022216x97004756     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. 'Native' forest refers to old and new growth forests of autochthonous - indigenous - species.
2. For an early critique see Andrew Hurrell, 'The Politics of Amazonian Deforestation'. Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 23, no. 1 (1991), pp. 198-205; David Goldsworthy, 'Thinking Politically about Development', Development and Change, vol. 19, no. 3 (1988), pp. 505-30.
3. For an early critique see Andrew Hurrell, 'The Politics of Amazonian Deforestation'. Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 23, no. 1 (1991), pp. 198-205; David Goldsworthy, 'Thinking Politically about Development', Development and Change, vol. 19, no. 3 (1988), pp. 505-30.
4. D. Mahar, Government Policies and Deforestation in Brazil's Amazon Region (Washington, D.C., 1989), pp. 45-50; N. Myers, The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future (New York, 1992), pp. 361-75; R. White, North, South, and the Environmental Crises (Toronto, 1993), pp. 174-5.
5. D. Mahar, Government Policies and Deforestation in Brazil's Amazon Region (Washington, D.C., 1989), pp. 45-50; N. Myers, The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future (New York, 1992), pp. 361-75; R. White, North, South, and the Environmental Crises (Toronto, 1993), pp. 174-5.
6. D. Mahar, Government Policies and Deforestation in Brazil's Amazon Region (Washington, D.C., 1989), pp. 45-50; N. Myers, The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future (New York, 1992), pp. 361-75; R. White, North, South, and the Environmental Crises (Toronto, 1993), pp. 174-5.
7. W. Ascher and R. Healy, Natural Resource Policymaking: A Framework for Developing Countries (Durham, 1990), pp. 18-29; Inter-American Development Bank, Our Own Agenda (Washington, D.C., 1990), pp. 9-13.
8. W. Ascher and R. Healy, Natural Resource Policymaking: A Framework for Developing Countries (Durham, 1990), pp. 18-29; Inter-American Development Bank, Our Own Agenda (Washington, D.C., 1990), pp. 9-13.
9. Brundtland Commission, Our Common Future (Oxford, 1987), pp. 43-65.
10. James Weaver and Kevin O'Keefe, 'The Evolution of Development Economics', mimeo, American University, Washington, D.C. (1991), p. 25.
11. For the left-alternative approach in European green parties see Matthias Kaelberer, 'The Emergence of Green Parties in Western Europe', Comparative Politics, vol. 25, no. 2 (1993), pp. 229-43.
12. The definitive work is World Bank, World Development, 1992: Development and the Environment (Oxford, 1992), pp. 1-43.
13. For these approaches see R. Repetto, The Forest for the Trees: Government Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources (Washington, D.C., 1988), pp. 32-43; Garrett Hardin, 'The Tragedy of the Commons', Science, vol. 162 (Dec. 1968), pp. 1245-8; World Bank, Development Report, 1992, pp. 1-43.
14. For these approaches see R. Repetto, The Forest for the Trees: Government Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources (Washington, D.C., 1988), pp. 32-43; Garrett Hardin, 'The Tragedy of the Commons', Science, vol. 162 (Dec. 1968), pp. 1245-8; World Bank, Development Report, 1992, pp. 1-43.
15. For these approaches see R. Repetto, The Forest for the Trees: Government Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources (Washington, D.C., 1988), pp. 32-43; Garrett Hardin, 'The Tragedy of the Commons', Science, vol. 162 (Dec. 1968), pp. 1245-8; World Bank, Development Report, 1992, pp. 1-43.
16. For the left-alternative approach see B. Commoner, Making Peace with the Planet (New York, 1990); J. Browder, Fragile Lands of Latin America: Strategies for Sustainable Development (Boulder, 1989), pp. 1-10; M. Redclift and D. Goodman, (eds.), Environment and Development in Latin America: The Politics of Sustainability (Manchester, 1991), pp. 1-21.
17. For the left-alternative approach see B. Commoner, Making Peace with the Planet (New York, 1990); J. Browder, Fragile Lands of Latin America: Strategies for Sustainable Development (Boulder, 1989), pp. 1-10; M. Redclift and D. Goodman, (eds.), Environment and Development in Latin America: The Politics of Sustainability (Manchester, 1991), pp. 1-21.
18. For the left-alternative approach see B. Commoner, Making Peace with the Planet (New York, 1990); J. Browder, Fragile Lands of Latin America: Strategies for Sustainable Development (Boulder, 1989), pp. 1-10; M. Redclift and D. Goodman, (eds.), Environment and Development in Latin America: The Politics of Sustainability (Manchester, 1991), pp. 1-21.
19. For these views on social equity see D. Ghai, (ed.), Development and Change, vol. 25, no. 1, Special Issue, (1994), pp. 1-12; J. Friedmann and H. Rangan, (eds.), In Defense of Lireliheed: Comparative Studies on Environmental Actium (West Hartford, 1993), pp. 1-10; D. Ghai and J. M. Vivian, (eds.), Grassreets Environmental Actium: People's Participation in Sustainable Development (London, 1992), pp. 1-19.
20. For these views on social equity see D. Ghai, (ed.), Development and Change, vol. 25, no. 1, Special Issue, (1994), pp. 1-12; J. Friedmann and H. Rangan, (eds.), In Defense of Lireliheed: Comparative Studies on Environmental Actium (West Hartford, 1993), pp. 1-10; D. Ghai and J. M. Vivian, (eds.), Grassreets Environmental Actium: People's Participation in Sustainable Development (London, 1992), pp. 1-19.
21. For these views on social equity see D. Ghai, (ed.), Development and Change, vol. 25, no. 1, Special Issue, (1994), pp. 1-12; J. Friedmann and H. Rangan, (eds.), In Defense of Lireliheed: Comparative Studies on Environmental Actium (West Hartford, 1993), pp. 1-10; D. Ghai and J. M. Vivian, (eds.), Grassreets Environmental Actium: People's Participation in Sustainable Development (London, 1992), pp. 1-19.
22. In Mexico, market-friendly legislation in 1992 replaced the 1986 forestry law that gave incentives for community forestry and threatens the experiences developed from it.
23. Peter Haas, 'Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination', International Organization, vol. 46, no. 1 (1991), pp. 377-403.
24. A. Cockburn and S. Hecht, The Fate of the Forest: Developers, Destrovers, and Defenders of the Amazon (London, 1988), pp. 161-91; Stephen Schwartzman, 'Deforestation and Popular Resistance in Acre: From Local Social Movement to Global Network', The Centennial Review, vol. 35, no. 2 (1991), pp. 397-422.
25. A. Cockburn and S. Hecht, The Fate of the Forest: Developers, Destrovers, and Defenders of the Amazon (London, 1988), pp. 161-91; Stephen Schwartzman, 'Deforestation and Popular Resistance in Acre: From Local Social Movement to Global Network', The Centennial Review, vol. 35, no. 2 (1991), pp. 397-422.
26. Hector Schamis, 'Reconsidering Latin American Authoritarianism in the 1970s: From Bureaucratic Authoritarianism to Neoconservatism', Comparative Politics, vol. 23, no. 2 (1991), pp. 201-20; S. Haggard and R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, 1995), pp. 3-17; Peter H. Smith, 'Crisis and Democracy in Latin America', World Politics, vol. 43, no. 4 (1991), pp. 631-4.
27. Hector Schamis, 'Reconsidering Latin American Authoritarianism in the 1970s: From Bureaucratic Authoritarianism to Neoconservatism', Comparative Politics, vol. 23, no. 2 (1991), pp. 201-20; S. Haggard and R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, 1995), pp. 3-17; Peter H. Smith, 'Crisis and Democracy in Latin America', World Politics, vol. 43, no. 4 (1991), pp. 631-4.
28. Hector Schamis, 'Reconsidering Latin American Authoritarianism in the 1970s: From Bureaucratic Authoritarianism to Neoconservatism', Comparative Politics, vol. 23, no. 2 (1991), pp. 201-20; S. Haggard and R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, 1995), pp. 3-17; Peter H. Smith, 'Crisis and Democracy in Latin America', World Politics, vol. 43, no. 4 (1991), pp. 631-4.
29. For the value of mid-range theorising see Carlos H. Acuña and William C. Smith, 'The Political Economy of Structural Adjustment: The Logic of Support and Opposition to Neoliberal Reform', in W. C. Smith, C. Acuña and E. A. Gamarra, (eds.), Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform: Theoretical and Comparative Perspectives for the 1990s (New Brunswick, 1994), pp. 18-24.
30. Multilateral development banks are important too, of course. But they do not seem to be directly involved in policy formulation; their effect is more indirect, through loan conditionality for large projects. They are supposed to remain aloof from direct intervention in the policy disputes of member countries.
31. At the project level US agencies do provide assistance for 'alternative livelihoods'.
32. See Margaret E. Keck, 'Social Equity and Environmental Politics in Brazil: Lessons from the Rubber Tappers of Acre', Comparative Politics, vol. 27, no. 4 (1995), pp. 409-24.
33. For a classic work see P. A. Gourevitch, Politics in Hard Times: Comparative Responses to International Crises (Itheca, 1986), pp. 36-68. For a more recent treatment related to Latin America see W. C. Smith et al., (eds.), Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform, pp. 17-66; J. A. Frieden, Debt, Development, and Democracy: Modern Political Economy and Latin America, 1965-1985 (Princeton, 1991), pp. 18-41.
34. For a classic work see P. A. Gourevitch, Politics in Hard Times: Comparative Responses to International Crises (Itheca, 1986), pp. 36-68. For a more recent treatment related to Latin America see W. C. Smith et al., (eds.), Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform, pp. 17-66; J. A. Frieden, Debt, Development, and Democracy: Modern Political Economy and Latin America, 1965-1985 (Princeton, 1991), pp. 18-41.
35. For a classic work see P. A. Gourevitch, Politics in Hard Times: Comparative Responses to International Crises (Itheca, 1986), pp. 36-68. For a more recent treatment related to Latin America see W. C. Smith et al., (eds.), Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform, pp. 17-66; J. A. Frieden, Debt, Development, and Democracy: Modern Political Economy and Latin America, 1965-1985 (Princeton, 1991), pp. 18-41.
36. In all but one case, the policy-making teams had the support of their minister and the presidency. In the one where they did not, ministerial opposition was neutralised by another state institution: the legislature.
37. For these arguments see F. H. Cardoso and E. Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America (Berkeley, 1979), pp. 8-28; S. Haggard, Pathways From the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in Nawly Industrializing Countries (Ithaca, 1990), pp. 23-48.
38. For these arguments see F. H. Cardoso and E. Faletto, Dependency and Development in Latin America (Berkeley, 1979), pp. 8-28; S. Haggard, Pathways From the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in Nawly Industrializing Countries (Ithaca, 1990), pp. 23-48.
39. Robert N. Gwynne, 'Non-Traditional Export Growth and Economic Development: The Chilean Forestry Sector since 1974', Bulletin of Latin American Research, vol. 12, no. 2 (1995), pp. 147-69. For a review of the forest sector to the early 1980s see M. J. Mamalakis, Historical Statistics of Chile: Forestry and Related Activities (Westport, 1982).
40. Robert N. Gwynne, 'Non-Traditional Export Growth and Economic Development: The Chilean Forestry Sector since 1974', Bulletin of Latin American Research, vol. 12, no. 2 (1995), pp. 147-69. For a review of the forest sector to the early 1980s see M. J. Mamalakis, Historical Statistics of Chile: Forestry and Related Activities (Westport, 1982).
41. Comité Pro Defensa de la Flora y Fauna (Codeff), 'El futuro del bosque nativo chileno: Un desafio de hoy', Codeff, working paper, n.n. (Oct. 1992), pp. 35-42.
42. For the bill see Ministerio de Agricultura and Corporación Nacional Forestal, 'Proyecto de ley de recuperación del bosque nativo y fomento forestal' (May 1992).
43. For the alternative conceptualisation of sustainable development in the forest sector in Chile see Aarón Cavieres et al., 'Especialización productive, medio ambiente y migraciones: El caso del sector forestal en Chile', Agricultura y Sociedad, vol. 4 (Nov. 1986), pp. 31-95; Luis Otero, 'La depredación forestal', Agricultura y sociedad, vol. 2 (Dec. 1985), pp. 31-4; Harald Schmidt and Antonio Lara, 'Descripción y potencialidad de los bosques natives de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 2 (1985), pp. 91-108; Antonio Lara,' Los ecosistemas forestales en el desarrollo de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 3 (1985), pp. 81-99. Antonio Lara, Aaron Cavieres, Marcos Cortés, Pablo Donoso, 'Considerationes para una política forestal en el gobierno de transición, 1990-1994', CODEFF, Documentes Serie Forestal 89/11 (Nov. 1989), pp. 117.
44. For the alternative conceptualisation of sustainable development in the forest sector in Chile see Aarón Cavieres et al., 'Especialización productive, medio ambiente y migraciones: El caso del sector forestal en Chile', Agricultura y Sociedad, vol. 4 (Nov. 1986), pp. 31-95; Luis Otero, 'La depredación forestal', Agricultura y sociedad, vol. 2 (Dec. 1985), pp. 31-4; Harald Schmidt and Antonio Lara, 'Descripción y potencialidad de los bosques natives de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 2 (1985), pp. 91-108; Antonio Lara,' Los ecosistemas forestales en el desarrollo de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 3 (1985), pp. 81-99. Antonio Lara, Aaron Cavieres, Marcos Cortés, Pablo Donoso, 'Considerationes para una política forestal en el gobierno de transición, 1990-1994', CODEFF, Documentes Serie Forestal 89/11 (Nov. 1989), pp. 117.
45. For the alternative conceptualisation of sustainable development in the forest sector in Chile see Aarón Cavieres et al., 'Especialización productive, medio ambiente y migraciones: El caso del sector forestal en Chile', Agricultura y Sociedad, vol. 4 (Nov. 1986), pp. 31-95; Luis Otero, 'La depredación forestal', Agricultura y sociedad, vol. 2 (Dec. 1985), pp. 31-4; Harald Schmidt and Antonio Lara, 'Descripción y potencialidad de los bosques natives de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 2 (1985), pp. 91-108; Antonio Lara,' Los ecosistemas forestales en el desarrollo de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 3 (1985), pp. 81-99. Antonio Lara, Aaron Cavieres, Marcos Cortés, Pablo Donoso, 'Considerationes para una política forestal en el gobierno de transición, 1990-1994', CODEFF, Documentes Serie Forestal 89/11 (Nov. 1989), pp. 117.
46. For the alternative conceptualisation of sustainable development in the forest sector in Chile see Aarón Cavieres et al., 'Especialización productive, medio ambiente y migraciones: El caso del sector forestal en Chile', Agricultura y Sociedad, vol. 4 (Nov. 1986), pp. 31-95; Luis Otero, 'La depredación forestal', Agricultura y sociedad, vol. 2 (Dec. 1985), pp. 31-4; Harald Schmidt and Antonio Lara, 'Descripción y potencialidad de los bosques natives de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 2 (1985), pp. 91-108; Antonio Lara,' Los ecosistemas forestales en el desarrollo de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 3 (1985), pp. 81-99. Antonio Lara, Aaron Cavieres, Marcos Cortés, Pablo Donoso, 'Considerationes para una política forestal en el gobierno de transición, 1990-1994', CODEFF, Documentes Serie Forestal 89/11 (Nov. 1989), pp. 117.
47. For the alternative conceptualisation of sustainable development in the forest sector in Chile see Aarón Cavieres et al., 'Especialización productive, medio ambiente y migraciones: El caso del sector forestal en Chile', Agricultura y Sociedad, vol. 4 (Nov. 1986), pp. 31-95; Luis Otero, 'La depredación forestal', Agricultura y sociedad, vol. 2 (Dec. 1985), pp. 31-4; Harald Schmidt and Antonio Lara, 'Descripción y potencialidad de los bosques natives de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 2 (1985), pp. 91-108; Antonio Lara,' Los ecosistemas forestales en el desarrollo de Chile', Ambiente y Desarrollo, vol. 1, no. 3 (1985), pp. 81-99. Antonio Lara, Aaron Cavieres, Marcos Cortés, Pablo Donoso, 'Considerationes para una política forestal en el gobierno de transición, 1990-1994', CODEFF, Documentes Serie Forestal 89/11 (Nov. 1989), pp. 117.
48. Paulina Infante, 'Roberto de Andraca: Los empresarios podemos compatibilizar desarrollo y medio ambiente', Revista Industria, no. 1051 (April/May, 1991), pp. 12-15; and Centro de Investigación y Planificación del Medio Ambiente, Propuestas de actión ambiental en cinco sectors (Santiago, 1992), pp. 23-8.
49. Paulina Infante, 'Roberto de Andraca: Los empresarios podemos compatibilizar desarrollo y medio ambiente', Revista Industria, no. 1051 (April/May, 1991), pp. 12-15; and Centro de Investigación y Planificación del Medio Ambiente, Propuestas de actión ambiental en cinco sectors (Santiago, 1992), pp. 23-8.
50. For more details see Eduardo Silva, 'Conservation, Sustainable Development, and the Politics of Native Forest Policy in Chile', in G. MacDonald, D. Nielson and M. Stern, (eds.), Latin American Environmental Policymaking in International Perspective (Boulder, 1997), pp. 60-87.
51. Some interviewees stated that the environmentalist views of President Aylwin's son played an important role in the president's decision.
52. For Minister Figueroa's stance see 'Presidente de CORMA: Solo un tercio de los bosques se aprovecha económicameme', Estrategia, 11 Jan. 1991; 'Ministro de Agriculture: El bosque nativo chileno debe ser preservado', El Mercurio, 4 April 1991. With respect to President Aylwin's position, a number of interviewees in the policy-making loop mentioned the importance of this intervention. Author interviews in Santiago de Chile, June-July 1992 and August 1993.
53. For Minister Figueroa's stance see 'Presidente de CORMA: Solo un tercio de los bosques se aprovecha económicameme', Estrategia, 11 Jan. 1991; 'Ministro de Agriculture: El bosque nativo chileno debe ser preservado', El Mercurio, 4 April 1991. With respect to President Aylwin's position, a number of interviewees in the policy-making loop mentioned the importance of this intervention. Author interviews in Santiago de Chile, June-July 1992 and August 1993.
54. For the institutional power of conservatives see Brian Loveman. 'Misión Cumplida? Civil-Military Relations and the Chilean Political Transition', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, vol. 33, no. 3 (1991), pp. 45-52 and 65.
55. Ministerio del Ambiente y de Recursos Naturales Renovables (MARNR), Plan national de desarrollo de recursos forestales (Caracas, 1988), pp. 2-3 and 137-50.
56. The concessions policy dated back to the mid-1950s, but monitoring of extraction was not very rigorous; see Antonio Rodríguez, 'El Manejo Forestal en Venezuela', SEFORVEN, vol. 4, no. 8 (1993), pp. 26-7; Euro Segura, 'Análisis de los resultados obtenidos con la implantación de la resolución 506-A del 4 de enero de 1984', Serie Informes Técnicos DGSIIA/IT/255 (1988), pp. 15-20; L. Hamilton et al., Conservación de los bosques búmedos de Venezuela (Caracas, 1977), pp. 41-5.
57. The concessions policy dated back to the mid-1950s, but monitoring of extraction was not very rigorous; see Antonio Rodríguez, 'El Manejo Forestal en Venezuela', SEFORVEN, vol. 4, no. 8 (1993), pp. 26-7; Euro Segura, 'Análisis de los resultados obtenidos con la implantación de la resolución 506-A del 4 de enero de 1984', Serie Informes Técnicos DGSIIA/IT/255 (1988), pp. 15-20; L. Hamilton et al., Conservación de los bosques búmedos de Venezuela (Caracas, 1977), pp. 41-5.
58. The concessions policy dated back to the mid-1950s, but monitoring of extraction was not very rigorous; see Antonio Rodríguez, 'El Manejo Forestal en Venezuela', SEFORVEN, vol. 4, no. 8 (1993), pp. 26-7; Euro Segura, 'Análisis de los resultados obtenidos con la implantación de la resolución 506-A del 4 de enero de 1984', Serie Informes Técnicos DGSIIA/IT/255 (1988), pp. 15-20; L. Hamilton et al., Conservación de los bosques búmedos de Venezuela (Caracas, 1977), pp. 41-5.
59. Since the early 1970s the Venezuelan government has had a policy of promoting Caribbean pine plantations. To that end it created the Comisión Nacional de Reforestación (CONARE) and Productos Forestales de Oriente, a division of the Corporación Venezolane de Guyana (CVG-PROFORCA), a cabinet-rank parastatal. CVG-PROFORCA is much stronger than CONARE. The bulk of the plantations are on deforested lands in the states of Monagas and Anzoátegui. Although they are intended to provide raw material for the pulp and paper industry, the Venezuelan government has had to abandon the idea of creating a pulp parastatal. Moreover, it has been unsuccessful in signing a concession with transnational pulp and paper companies. Both CONARE and CVG-PROFORCA now contract concessions to companies of the Venezuelan pulp and paper and furniture industries. About 400,000 hectares of caribbean pine have been planted. Many have reached maturity. SEFORVEN, Estadisticas Fortstales (Caracas, 1992), pp. 118 20. Author interviews with Nestor Altuve, Principal Director, CVG-PROFORCA; Sixto Pericchi, President of CONARE; and Gustavo Larrazábal, a director of Venepal conducted in Caracas, Venezuela, June and July 1995, and July 1995.
60. Since the early 1970s the Venezuelan government has had a policy of promoting Caribbean pine plantations. To that end it created the Comisión Nacional de Reforestación (CONARE) and Productos Forestales de Oriente, a division of the Corporación Venezolane de Guyana (CVG-PROFORCA), a cabinet-rank parastatal. CVG-PROFORCA is much stronger than CONARE. The bulk of the plantations are on deforested lands in the states of Monagas and Anzoátegui. Although they are intended to provide raw material for the pulp and paper industry, the Venezuelan government has had to abandon the idea of creating a pulp parastatal. Moreover, it has been unsuccessful in signing a concession with transnational pulp and paper companies. Both CONARE and CVG-PROFORCA now contract concessions to companies of the Venezuelan pulp and paper and furniture industries. About 400,000 hectares of caribbean pine have been planted. Many have reached maturity. SEFORVEN, Estadisticas Fortstales (Caracas, 1992), pp. 118 20. Author interviews with Nestor Altuve, Principal Director, CVG-PROFORCA; Sixto Pericchi, President of CONARE; and Gustavo Larrazábal, a director of Venepal conducted in Caracas, Venezuela, June and July 1995, and July 1995.
61. For an overview of the socio-ecological problem see Gaston Guinand, 'Programa de Recuperación de las reservas forestales Ticoporo y Caparo', Seforven, vol. 3, no. 6 (1992), pp. 24-5; Bérnice Alfaro and Olga Pérez, 'Fundamentes de la ley programa para la recuperación de las reservas forestales Ticoporo y Caparo y su entorno', Seforven, vol. 3, no. 7 (1992), pp. 23-4. For the agroforestry projects proper see Eduardo Escalante, 'La agroforesteria: Una alternative de uso de la tierra', Seforven, vol. 4, no. 8 (1993), pp. 24-5.
62. For an overview of the socio-ecological problem see Gaston Guinand, 'Programa de Recuperación de las reservas forestales Ticoporo y Caparo', Seforven, vol. 3, no. 6 (1992), pp. 24-5; Bérnice Alfaro and Olga Pérez, 'Fundamentes de la ley programa para la recuperación de las reservas forestales Ticoporo y Caparo y su entorno', Seforven, vol. 3, no. 7 (1992), pp. 23-4. For the agroforestry projects proper see Eduardo Escalante, 'La agroforesteria: Una alternative de uso de la tierra', Seforven, vol. 4, no. 8 (1993), pp. 24-5.
63. For an overview of the socio-ecological problem see Gaston Guinand, 'Programa de Recuperación de las reservas forestales Ticoporo y Caparo', Seforven, vol. 3, no. 6 (1992), pp. 24-5; Bérnice Alfaro and Olga Pérez, 'Fundamentes de la ley programa para la recuperación de las reservas forestales Ticoporo y Caparo y su entorno', Seforven, vol. 3, no. 7 (1992), pp. 23-4. For the agroforestry projects proper see Eduardo Escalante, 'La agroforesteria: Una alternative de uso de la tierra', Seforven, vol. 4, no. 8 (1993), pp. 24-5.
64. Pedro Garcia Montero, 'Sada Amazonas: La politica ambiental y desarrollo sustentable en el Estado Amazonas', and 'La reserva de la biósfera Alto Orinico-Casiquiare: Una opción para el desarrollo sustentable', both in Ambiente, vol. 15, no. 47 (1993), pp. 19-22 and 26-8; and Antonio Carrillo, 'Anotaciones sobre la política ambiental de la R. de Alemania', Encueatros, vol. 6, no. 14 (1992), pp. 26-8. For a comprehensive treatment of Amazonas State see A. Carrillo and M. Perera, (eds.), Amazonas: Modernidad en tradición (Caracas, 1995).
65. Pedro Garcia Montero, 'Sada Amazonas: La politica ambiental y desarrollo sustentable en el Estado Amazonas', and 'La reserva de la biósfera Alto Orinico-Casiquiare: Una opción para el desarrollo sustentable', both in Ambiente, vol. 15, no. 47 (1993), pp. 19-22 and 26-8; and Antonio Carrillo, 'Anotaciones sobre la política ambiental de la R. de Alemania', Encueatros, vol. 6, no. 14 (1992), pp. 26-8. For a comprehensive treatment of Amazonas State see A. Carrillo and M. Perera, (eds.), Amazonas: Modernidad en tradición (Caracas, 1995).
66. Pedro Garcia Montero, 'Sada Amazonas: La politica ambiental y desarrollo sustentable en el Estado Amazonas', and 'La reserva de la biósfera Alto Orinico-Casiquiare: Una opción para el desarrollo sustentable', both in Ambiente, vol. 15, no. 47 (1993), pp. 19-22 and 26-8; and Antonio Carrillo, 'Anotaciones sobre la política ambiental de la R. de Alemania', Encueatros, vol. 6, no. 14 (1992), pp. 26-8. For a comprehensive treatment of Amazonas State see A. Carrillo and M. Perera, (eds.), Amazonas: Modernidad en tradición (Caracas, 1995).
67. For neoliberal reforms see J. Tulchin with G. Bland, (eds.), Venezuela in the Wake of Radical Reforms (Boulder, 1993).
68. Author interview with Diomira Barrios, SEFORVEN Director of Planning, Caracas, June and July 1995, and July 1995. See also SEFORVEN, Marco Institutional del Servicio Forestal Venezolano (Caracas, 1990), pp. 1-5.
69. For the ideology of the leading experts I relied on author interviews with Omar Carrero, Director General of the forest service (Seforven); Diomira Barrios, Director of Planning, Seforven; Deud Dumith, president of the parks service (Inparques); José Arnoldo Garbaldón, former Minister of MARNR; Pedro Garcia, Director General of the department with oversight for Amazonia (Sada-Amazonas). All interviewed in Caracas, Venezuela between June and July 1993 and July 1995. For an overview of departments and functions in the ministry see Ministerio del Amabiente y de Recursos Naturales Renovables, Memoriay Cuenta Año 1991 (Caracas, 1992), pp. 149-74, 311-77, 489-581.
70. Data for this interpretation were drawn from author interviews with Maria Auxiliadora Alvarado, Executive Director of the timber industry association (Asoinbosques); Antonio Gaspard, a timber industrialist and Asoinbosque representative to the National Forestry Council (an advisory body to the MARNR); Juan Gutiérrez and Gustavo Larrazábal, each on the board of directors of large pulp and paper firms. All interviews in Caracas, Venezuela between June and July 1995. For antipathy to the agroforestry projects see the Asoinbosques statement in the annex of Consejo Nacional Forestal, the minutes of meeting 91-04, 19 March 1991, p. 2.
71. Author interviews with high-level planning board personnel of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Renewable Resources, such as José Antonio Carvailo, Director, Office of Planning and Budget, MARNR, in Caracas, Venezuela in June and July 1993.
72. Author interview with María Antonieta Febres, Director of the Areas Bajo Régimen de Administración Especial, MARNR, Caracas, July 1993.
73. For overviews of Costa Rica see Lori-Ann Thrupp, 'Political Ecology of Sustainable Rural Development', in Patricia Allen, (ed.), Food for the Future: Conditions and Contradictions of Sustainability (New York, 1993), pp. 47-73; Jean Carriere, 'The Crisis in Costa Rica: An Ecological Perspective', in M. Redclift and D. Goodman, (eds.), Environment and Development in Latin America, pp. 184-203.
74. For overviews of Costa Rica see Lori-Ann Thrupp, 'Political Ecology of Sustainable Rural Development', in Patricia Allen, (ed.), Food for the Future: Conditions and Contradictions of Sustainability (New York, 1993), pp. 47-73; Jean Carriere, 'The Crisis in Costa Rica: An Ecological Perspective', in M. Redclift and D. Goodman, (eds.), Environment and Development in Latin America, pp. 184-203.
75. The institutional setting for legislation in Costa Rica is complex, and, for idiosyncratic reasons that is even more so in the case of natural forest policy. For the basics see Carriere, 'The Crisis in Costa Rica: An Ecological Perspective'.
76. For the policy orientation of the legislative commission I relied on author interviews with key actors in the process. These included José Luis Salas, technical director of the commission; Gilbert Canet, director of the Forest Service's Office of Peasant Development; Gaston Vargas, chief aide to Legislative Commission. All interviewed in San José, Costa Rica, Nov. 1994 and Feb. 1995.
77. Asamblea Nacional, Comisión Especial para las Reformas a la Ley Forestal No. 7174, 'Dictamen afirmativo de mayoria', Expediente no. 11,003, San José, 9 July 1992.
78. Magda Solís, Junta Nacional Forestal Campesina: Una experiencia de organizatión campesina (San José, 1993), p. 11.
79. These data from author interviews with key market-friendly participants, Enrique Barrau, Agricultural Development Officer, USAID; Raúl Solórzano, Executive Director of the Centro Científico Tropical; Luis Fernando Sage, forest industrialist; Alfredo Peralta, forest industrialist; all interviews in May 1993 and Nov. 1994, San José, Costa Rica.
80. República de Costa Rica, 'Ley Forestal', La Gaceta, vol. 85, 7 May 1986. Also see Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energía y Minas, Estrategía de conservación para el desarrollo sostenible de Costa Rica (San José, 1990), pp. 43-7.
81. República de Costa Rica, 'Ley Forestal', La Gaceta, vol. 85, 7 May 1986. Also see Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energía y Minas, Estrategía de conservación para el desarrollo sostenible de Costa Rica (San José, 1990), pp. 43-7.
82. Dixie Mendoza, 'Sala IV anula Ley Forestal', La Nación, 25 May 1990, p. 5A.
83. These data were collected during author interviews with key actors on both sides of the debate. On the more grassroots-oriented side these included José Luis Salas, technical director of the commission; Gaston Vargas, chief aide to Legislative Commission. All interviews in San José, Costa Rica, Nov. 1994. On the more market-friendly side interviewees included Enrique Barrau, Agricultural Development Officer, USAID; Raúl Solorzano, Executive Director of the Centro Cientifico Tropical; Luis Fernando Sage, forest industrialist; Alfredo Peralta, forest industrialist; all interviews in May 1993 and Nov. 1994, San José, Costa Rica.
84. In addition to the author interviews from the previous note see Centro Científico Tropical, 'Política forestal para Costa Rica', mimeo, Sep. 1992; Unión Nacional de Empresarios Forestales, 'Listos estatutos para crear cúpula del sector forestal', Desde el Basque, vol. 1, no. 3 (1993), p. 2. For lobbying efforts, see National Assembly, Comisión Permanente de Asuntos Agropecuarios y de Recursos Naturales, File nos. 11,003, pp. 13-30, 549-69, 727-75; and ledgers nos. 54, 23 Aug. and 56-57, 25 Aug. 1994.
85. In addition to the author interviews from the previous note see Centro Científico Tropical, 'Política forestal para Costa Rica', mimeo, Sep. 1992; Unión Nacional de Empresarios Forestales, 'Listos estatutos para crear cúpula del sector forestal', Desde el Basque, vol. 1, no. 3 (1993), p. 2. For lobbying efforts, see National Assembly, Comisión Permanente de Asuntos Agropecuarios y de Recursos Naturales, File nos. 11,003, pp. 13-30, 549-69, 727-75; and ledgers nos. 54, 23 Aug. and 56-57, 25 Aug. 1994.
86. In addition to the author interviews from the previous note see Centro Científico Tropical, 'Política forestal para Costa Rica', mimeo, Sep. 1992; Unión Nacional de Empresarios Forestales, 'Listos estatutos para crear cúpula del sector forestal', Desde el Basque, vol. 1, no. 3 (1993), p. 2. For lobbying efforts, see National Assembly, Comisión Permanente de Asuntos Agropecuarios y de Recursos Naturales, File nos. 11,003, pp. 13-30, 549-69, 727-75; and ledgers nos. 54, 23 Aug. and 56-57, 25 Aug. 1994.
87. Author interviews with Luis Fernando Sage, forest industrialist; Alfredo Peralta, forest industrialist, and now vice president of the Cámara Costaricense Forestal; Edgar Salazar, executive director, Comisión de Desarrollo Forestal de San Carlos. All interviews in May 1993 and Nov. 1994 in San José and Ciudad Quesada, Costa Rica.
88. Dirección General Forestal, 'Proyecto Ley Forestal', 31 Oct. 1994, pp. 13-15, 22-5.
89. Author interviews with key large and small-scale private sector timber interests and peasant organisations, Luis Fernando Sage; Alfredo Peralta; Edgar Salazar; Magda Solís, executive director of the Junta Nacional Forestal Campesina. All interviewed in May 1993, Nov. 1994, and Feb. 1995 in San José and Ciudad Quesada, Costa Rica.
90. Author interview with Magda Solis, Junaforca, Nov. 1994. Junaforca carried out the negotiations on behalf of peasant organisations. Also see Junaforca, 'El nuevo sector forestal', Boletín Informativo, no. 5 (Sep.-Oct. 1994), n.p.
91. For general studies of environmental issues, including forests, in Mexico see E. Left, (ed.), Medio ambiente y desarrollo en México (Mexico City, 1990); V. Toledo, et al., La producción rural en México: Alternativas ecológicas (Mexico City, 1989); A. Azuela et al., Desarrello sustentable: Hacia una política ambiental (Mexico City, 1993).
92. For general studies of environmental issues, including forests, in Mexico see E. Left, (ed.), Medio ambiente y desarrollo en México (Mexico City, 1990); V. Toledo, et al., La producción rural en México: Alternativas ecológicas (Mexico City, 1989); A. Azuela et al., Desarrello sustentable: Hacia una política ambiental (Mexico City, 1993).
93. For general studies of environmental issues, including forests, in Mexico see E. Left, (ed.), Medio ambiente y desarrollo en México (Mexico City, 1990); V. Toledo, et al., La producción rural en México: Alternativas ecológicas (Mexico City, 1989); A. Azuela et al., Desarrello sustentable: Hacia una política ambiental (Mexico City, 1993).
94. These data are partly from author interviews with key policy makers of this period, Leon Jorge Castaños, former undersecretary for forestry of the Agriculture Secretariat; and his one-time right-hand assistant, Víctor Suárez. Interviews in Mexico City, July 1994 and Durango, March 1995. Also see Gonzalo Chapela. 'Nueva ley forestal, nuevo interlocutor', Cuadernos Agrarios, 5-6 (1992), pp. 80-7; Luisa Paré, 'Las plantaciones forcstales: ¿Para quién es el negocio?', Cuadernos Agrarios, 5-6 (1992), pp. 146-54; Gonzalo Chapela. 'De bosques y compesinos: La problemática forestal y el desarrollo organizativo', in A. Bartra et al., Los nuevos sujetos del desarrollo rural (Mexico City, 1991), pp. 137-43.
95. These data are partly from author interviews with key policy makers of this period, Leon Jorge Castaños, former undersecretary for forestry of the Agriculture Secretariat; and his one-time right-hand assistant, Víctor Suárez. Interviews in Mexico City, July 1994 and Durango, March 1995. Also see Gonzalo Chapela. 'Nueva ley forestal, nuevo interlocutor', Cuadernos Agrarios, 5-6 (1992), pp. 80-7; Luisa Paré, 'Las plantaciones forcstales: ¿Para quién es el negocio?', Cuadernos Agrarios, 5-6 (1992), pp. 146-54; Gonzalo Chapela. 'De bosques y compesinos: La problemática forestal y el desarrollo organizativo', in A. Bartra et al., Los nuevos sujetos del desarrollo rural (Mexico City, 1991), pp. 137-43.
96. These data are partly from author interviews with key policy makers of this period, Leon Jorge Castaños, former undersecretary for forestry of the Agriculture Secretariat; and his one-time right-hand assistant, Víctor Suárez. Interviews in Mexico City, July 1994 and Durango, March 1995. Also see Gonzalo Chapela. 'Nueva ley forestal, nuevo interlocutor', Cuadernos Agrarios, 5-6 (1992), pp. 80-7; Luisa Paré, 'Las plantaciones forcstales: ¿Para quién es el negocio?', Cuadernos Agrarios, 5-6 (1992), pp. 146-54; Gonzalo Chapela. 'De bosques y compesinos: La problemática forestal y el desarrollo organizativo', in A. Bartra et al., Los nuevos sujetos del desarrollo rural (Mexico City, 1991), pp. 137-43.
97. The core of the group from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s included former Secretary of Agriculture, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas; Leon Jorge Castaños, former undersecretary for forestry, and his right-hand man, Víctor Suárez. All are firmly leftist in their idology. They established a programme for forestry development called socio-production. Cárdenas went on to become two time leftist presidential challenger to the ruling party (1988 and 1994)
98. For the Mexican political system see W. Cornelius and A. Craig, The Mexican Political System in Transition (San Diego, 1991), pp. 23-44, 55-83.
99. David Barton Bray, 'Peasant Organization and the Permanent Reconstruction of Nature: Grassroots Sustainable Development in Rural Mexico', Journal of Environment and Development, vol. 4, no. 2 (1995), pp. 191-4; David Barton Bray and Matthew B. Wexler, 'Forest Policies in Mexico', in L. Randall, (ed.), Changing Structure of Mexico: Political, Social, and Economic Prospects (London, 1996), pp. 219-22.
100. David Barton Bray, 'Peasant Organization and the Permanent Reconstruction of Nature: Grassroots Sustainable Development in Rural Mexico', Journal of Environment and Development, vol. 4, no. 2 (1995), pp. 191-4; David Barton Bray and Matthew B. Wexler, 'Forest Policies in Mexico', in L. Randall, (ed.), Changing Structure of Mexico: Political, Social, and Economic Prospects (London, 1996), pp. 219-22.
101. Author interview with Victor Suárez and León Jorge Castaños, Mexico City, July 1994 and in Durango, March 1995.
102. Key leaders of peasant cooperatives that I visited in the states of Jalisco and Quintana Roo in July, Aug. and Oct. 1994 and in Durango and Oaxaca, March 1995, all made spontaneous reference to the period of socio-producción as key to the genesis of their community forestry enterprises.
103. Gonzalo Chapela, 'Nueva Ley Fotestal, nuevo interlocutor', pp. 83-7. This checks out when one compares the actual documents as well.
104. Luis Tellez, a strong supporter of neoliberal economic restructuring, was appointed by president Salinas to head the technical team that would design forest policy. He appointed another neoliberal, Claudio Gonzalez, as his right-hand man. Together they hand-picked the rest of the technical team, largely from universities on a consultancy basis.
105. Author interview with Gerardo Segura, a member of the technical team that worked on the bill, Mexico City, June 1994. The same position is clearly reflected in various drafts that the technical group put forth, as well as in the preamble of the bill itself; see Presidencia de la República, 'Nueva Ley Forestal', Doc. LV/036/92 P.O. (II), 1992, p. x.
106. Such hearings were held for the new forestry law, see note 65.
107. These points came across clearly in legislative hearings on the forestry bill. See declarations by private sector representatives for the hearings of 10, 14, and 17 June 1992 in Cámara de Diputados, Consultas: Iniciativa ley de bosques, 1992 (Mexico City, n.d.).
108. 69 This was evident in the congressional hearings cited above. Discontent over loss of protection also came out strongly in a two-day conference that I attended on sustainable forestry, 'Taller forestal sobre desarrollo sostenible', organised by the Instituto Nacional de Ecología - a government agency in Mexico City, 16-17 June 1994. The clash between business and peasants over control of forest resources was also sharp.
109. For the structure of the forest sector and the different actors, see El Cotadion«: Revista de la realidad mexicana actual, vol. 8 (June 1992), pp. 1-6, 21-7. This is a special issue dedicated to forests. Also see World Bank, 'Estudio del Subsector Forestal', draft (Feb. 1994), pp. 42-7; Laura K. Snook, 'Forest Management in Mexico: Social, Technical, and Institutional Aspects', draft for World Bank (July 1993), pp. 1-17.
110. For the structure of the forest sector and the different actors, see El Cotadion«: Revista de la realidad mexicana actual, vol. 8 (June 1992), pp. 1-6, 21-7. This is a special issue dedicated to forests. Also see World Bank, 'Estudio del Subsector Forestal', draft (Feb. 1994), pp. 42-7; Laura K. Snook, 'Forest Management in Mexico: Social, Technical, and Institutional Aspects', draft for World Bank (July 1993), pp. 1-17.
111. For the structure of the forest sector and the different actors, see El Cotadion«: Revista de la realidad mexicana actual, vol. 8 (June 1992), pp. 1-6, 21-7. This is a special issue dedicated to forests. Also see World Bank, 'Estudio del Subsector Forestal', draft (Feb. 1994), pp. 42-7; Laura K. Snook, 'Forest Management in Mexico: Social, Technical, and Institutional Aspects', draft for World Bank (July 1993), pp. 1-17.
112. Author interview with Enrique Provencio, Director General of the Instituto Nacional de Ecologia, Mexico City, July 1994. Author interviews with peasant leaders at the INE-organised 'Taller sobre desarrollo forestal sostenible', Mexico City 16-17 June 1994.
113. For a complementary view see A. Hurrell and B. Kingsbury, (eds.), The International Politics of the Environment: Actors, Interests, and Institutions (Oxford, 1992), pp. 1-47.
114. H. Muñoz and R. Rosenberg, Difficult Liaison: Trade and the Environment in the Americas (New Brunswick, 1993); H. Muñoz, 'Free Trade and Environmental Policies: The Cases of Chile, Mexico, and Venezuela', in G. MacDonald, D. Nielsen and M. Stern, (eds.), Latin American Environmental Policymaking in International Perspective (Boulder, 1997), pp. 113-29.
115. H. Muñoz and R. Rosenberg, Difficult Liaison: Trade and the Environment in the Americas (New Brunswick, 1993); H. Muñoz, 'Free Trade and Environmental Policies: The Cases of Chile, Mexico, and Venezuela', in G. MacDonald, D. Nielsen and M. Stern, (eds.), Latin American Environmental Policymaking in International Perspective (Boulder, 1997), pp. 113-29.
116. One significant national planning effort for the sustainable development of forests was the Tropical Forestry Action Programme. Under the general direction of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, and under the guidance of foreign donors, many developing countries prepared national sector reviews and policy proposals. Conservationists criticised it for being too oriented toward production. The effort did not flourish, however, because it became a wish list of projects in search of foreign donors. For an overview see R. Winterbottom, Taking Stock: the Tropical Forestry Action Plan after Five Years (Washington, D.C., 1990), pp. 23-31.
117. Harvesting refers to extraction that does not exceed the regenerative capacity of an ecosystem; mining refers to processes that exhaust reserves of the resource.
118. Infrastructure improvements are a controversial issue, for road penetration brings colonists and that may lead to degradation of forests
119. Costa Rica has various experiences for both conservation and grassroots development.
120. Arturo Gómez-Pompa and Andrea Kaus, 'Taming the Wilderness Myth', BioScience, vol. 42, no. 4 (1992), pp. 271-9; Val Plumwood and Richard Routley, 'World Rainforest Destruction: The Social Factors', The Ecoiogist, vol. 12 (1982), pp. 4-22.
121. Arturo Gómez-Pompa and Andrea Kaus, 'Taming the Wilderness Myth', BioScience, vol. 42, no. 4 (1992), pp. 271-9; Val Plumwood and Richard Routley, 'World Rainforest Destruction: The Social Factors', The Ecoiogist, vol. 12 (1982), pp. 4-22.
122. J. W. Hopkins, Policymaking for Conservation in Latin America: National Parks, Reserves, and the Environment (Westport, 1995), pp. 16-7.
123. Although this subject merits much more attention, I draw this conclusion from numerous interviews with officials in the parks and forestry services of Costa Rica, Mexico and Venezuela; as well as with personnel from well-established NGOs, researchers in university programmes and peasant organisers between May 1993 and July 1995. There is some supporting evidence from World Bank documents themselves. The Bank's forest sector reviews proclaim a greater commitment to spending for 'alternative livelihood' projects. But upon closer inspection of project descriptions, the bulk seems to focus on non-production components, such as land demarcation, policy reform, and monitoring, or linked to the preservationist aspects of conservation projects. World Bank, Conditional Landing Experience in World Bank-Financed Forestry Projects (Washington, D.C., 1994), pp. 54-9; World Bank, Review of Implementation of the Forest Sector Policy (Washington, D.C., 1994), annexes 1, 1B and 3.
124. Although this subject merits much more attention, I draw this conclusion from numerous interviews with officials in the parks and forestry services of Costa Rica, Mexico and Venezuela; as well as with personnel from well-established NGOs, researchers in university programmes and peasant organisers between May 1993 and July 1995. There is some supporting evidence from World Bank documents themselves. The Bank's forest sector reviews proclaim a greater commitment to spending for 'alternative livelihood' projects. But upon closer inspection of project descriptions, the bulk seems to focus on non-production components, such as land demarcation, policy reform, and monitoring, or linked to the preservationist aspects of conservation projects. World Bank, Conditional Landing Experience in World Bank-Financed Forestry Projects (Washington, D.C., 1994), pp. 54-9; World Bank, Review of Implementation of the Forest Sector Policy (Washington, D.C., 1994), annexes 1, 1B and 3.