Protein oxidation

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 899, Issue , 2000, Pages 191-208

  Stadtman, Earl R ^a,b   Levine, Rodney L ^a  

^a NATIONAL HEART LUNG AND BLOOD INSTITUTE   (United States)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBONYL DERIVATIVE; PROTEIN; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE;

AGING; CELL FUNCTION; CONFERENCE PAPER; OXIDATION; PROTEIN DEGRADATION;

EID: 0034094957     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb06187.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (129)

1. 1. GRUNE, T., T. REINHECKEL & K.J.A. DAVIES. 1996. Degradation of oxidized proteins in K562 human hematopoietic cells by proteasome. J. Biol. Chem. 271: 15504-15509.
2. 2. RIVETT, A.J. 1986. Regulation of intracellular protein turnover: Covalent modification as a mechanism of marking proteins for regulation. Current Topics Cell. Reg. 28: 291-337.
3. 3. FRIGUET, B., E.R. STADTMAN & L.I. SZWEDA. 1994. Modification of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal: formation of cross-linked protein which inhibits the multicatalytic protease. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 21639-21643.
4. 4. GRUNE, T., T. REINHECKEL, M. JOSHI & K.J.A. DAVIES. 1995. Proteolysis in cultured liver epithelial cells during oxidative stress: Role of the multicatalytic proteinase complex, proteasome. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 2344-2351.
5. 5. FRIGUET, B., L. SZWEDA & E. R. STADTMAN. 1994. Susceptibility of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase modified by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal and metal-catalyzed oxidation to proteolysis by the multicatalytic protease. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 311: 168-173.
6. 6. BRUENNER, B.A., A.D. JONES & J.B. GERMAN. 1994. Maximum entropy deconvolution of heterogeneity in protein modification: protein adducts of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal. Rapid. Commun. Mass. Spectrom. 8: 509-512.
7. 7. MULLARKEY, C.J., D. EDELSTEIN & M. BROWNLEE. 1990. Free radical generation by early glycation products: a mechanism for accelerated atherogenesis in diabetes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 173: 932-939.
8. 8. WOLFF, S.P. & R.T. DEAN. 1987. Glucose autoxidation and protein modification. The potential role of 'autoxidative glycosylation' in diabetes. Biochem. J. 245: 243-250.
9. 9. KRISTAL, B.S. & B.P. YU. 1992. An emerging hypothesis: synergistic induction of aging by free radicals and Maillard reactions. J. Gerontol. 47: B107-B114.
10. 10. HUGGINS, T.G., M.C. WELLS-KNECHT, N.A. DETORIE, J W. BAYNES & S.R. THORPE. 1993. Formation of o-tyrosine and dityrosine in proteins during radiolytic and metal-catalyzed oxidation. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 12341-12347.
11. 11. NEUZIL, J., J.M. GEBICKI & R. STOCKER. 1993. Radical-induced chain oxidation of proteins and its inhibition by chain-breaking antioxidants. Biochem. J. 293: 601-606.
12. 12. BACHUR, N.R., S.L. GORDON, M.V. GEE & H. KON. 1979. NADPH cytochrome P-450 reductase activation of quinone anticancer agents to free radicals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76: 954-957.
13. 13. LEVINE, R. L., C. N. OLIVER, R.M. FULKS & E.R. STADTMAN. 1981. Turnover of bacterial glutamine synthetase: oxidative inactivation precedes proteolysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78: 2120-2124.
14. 14. CHEVION, M. 1988. A site-specific mechanism for free radical induced biological damage: the essential role of redox-active transition metals. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 5: 27-37.
15. 15. STADTMAN, E.R. 1990. Metal ion-catalyzed oxidation of proteins: biochemical mechanism and biological consequences. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 9: 315-325.
16. 16. FUCCI, L., C.N. OLIVER, M.J. COON & E.R. STADTMAN. 1983. Inactivation of key metabolic enzymes by mixed-function oxidation reactions: possible implication in protein turnover and ageing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80: 1521-1525.
17. 17. UCHIDA, K. & S. KAWAKISHI. 1993. 2-oxohistidine as a novel biological marker for oxidatively modified proteins. FEBS Lett. 332: 208-210.
18. 18. BERLETT, B.S., R.L. LEVINE & E.R. STADTMAN. 1996. A comparison of the effects of ozone on the modification of amino acid residues in glutamine synthetase and bovine serum albumin. J. Biol. Chem. In press.
19. 19. KIKUGAWA, K., T. KATO & Y. OKAMOTO. 1994. Damage of amino acids and proteins induced by nitrogen dioxide, a free radical toxin, in air. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 16: 373-382.
20. 20. WINCHESTER, R.V. & K.R. LYNN. 1970. X-and gamma-radiolysis of some tryptophan dipeptides. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. Relat. Stud. Phys. Chem. Med. 17: 541-548.
21. 21. ARMSTRONG, R.C. & A.J. SWALLOW. 1969. Pulse-and gamma-radiolysis of aqueous solutions of tryptophan. Radiat. Res. 40: 563-579.
22. 22. PRYOR, W.A. & R.M. UPPU. 1993. A kinetic model for the competitive reactions of ozone with amino acid residues in proteins in reverse micelles. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 3120-3126.
23. 23. DEAN, R.T., S. GIESEG & M.J. DAVIES. 1993. Reactive species and their accumulation on radical-damaged proteins. Trends Biochem. Sci. 18: 437-441.
24. 24. HEINECKE, J.W., W. LI, H.L. DAEHNKE III & J.A. GOLDSTEIN. 1993. Dityrosine, a specific marker of oxidation, is synthesized by the myeloperoxidase-hydrogen peroxide system of human neutrophils and macrophages. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 4069-4077.
25. 25. GIULIVI, C. & K.J.A. DAVIES. 1993. Dityrosine and tyrosine oxidation products are endogeneous markers for the selective proteolysis of oxidatively modified red blood cell hemoglobin by (the 19S) proteosome. J. Biol. Chem. 68: 8752-8759.
26. 26. GARRISON, W.M., M.E. JAYKO & BENNETT. 1962. Radiation-induced oxidation of proteins in aqueous solution. Radiat. Res. 16: 487-502
27. 27. GARRISON, W.M. 1987. Reaction mechanisms in radiolysis of peptides, polypeptides, and proteins. Chem. Rev. 87: 381-398.
28. 28. BERLETT, B.S., R.L. LEVINE & E.R. STADTMAN. 1998. Carbon dioxide stimulates peroxynitrite-mediated nitration of tyrosine residues and inhibits oxidation of methionine residues of glutamine synthetase: both modifications mimic effects of adenylylation. Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA 95: 2784-2789.
29. 29. PRYOR, W.A., X. JIN & G.L. SQUADRITO. 1994. One-and two-electron oxidations of methionine by peroxynitrite. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 11173-11177.
30. 30. VOGT, W. 1995. Oxidation of methionine residues in proteins: tools, targets, and reversal. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 18: 93-105.
31. 31. KOPOLDOVA, J. & J. LIEBSIER. 1963. The mechanism of radiation chemical degradation of amino acids V. Intern. J. Appl. Radiat. Isotopes 14: 493-498.
32. 32. BRODIE, E. & D.J. REED. 1990. Cellular recovery of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity and thiol status after exposure to hydroperoxide. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 276: 210-212.
33. 33. SWALLOW, A.J. 1960. Effect of ionizing radiation on proteins, RCO groups, peptide bond cleavage, inactivation, -SH oxidation. A. J. Swallow. Ed. :211-224. Radiation Chemistry of Organic Compounds. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
34. 34. AMICI, A., R.L. LEVINE & E.R. STADTMAN. 1989. Conversion of amino acids residues in proteins and amino acid homopolymers to carbonyl derivatives by metal-catalyzed reactions. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 3341-3346.
35. 35. CREETH, J.M., B. COOPER, A.S.R. DONALD & J.R. CLAMP. 1983. Studies of the limited degradation of mucous glycoproteins. Biochem. J. 211: 323-332.
36. 36. UCHIDA, K., Y. KATO & S. KAWAKISHI. 1990. A novel mechanism for oxidative damage of prolyl peptides induced by hydroxyl radicals. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 169: 265-271.
37. 37. SCHUENSTEIN, E. & H. ESTERBAUER. 1979. Formation and preparation of reactive aldehydes. Submolecular biology of cancer. Excerpta Medica/Elsevier. Amsterdam. CIBA Foundation Series 67: 225-234.
38. 38. UCHIDA, K. & E.R. STADTMAN. 1993. Covalent modification of 4-hydroxynonenal to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 6388-6393.
39. 39. NADKARNI, D.V. & L.M. SAYRE. 1995. Structural definition of early lysine and histidine adduction chemistry of 4-hydroxynonenal. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 8: 284-291.
40. 40. KRISTAL, B.S. & B.P. YU. 1992. An emerging hypothesis: synergistic induction of aging by free radicals and Maillard reactions. J. Gerontol. 47: B104-B107.
41. 41. MONNIER, V., C. GERHARDINGER, M.S. MARION & S. TANEDA. 1995. Novel approaches toward inhibition of the Maillard reaction in vivo: search, isolation, nd characterization of prokaryotic enzymes which degrade glycated substrates. In Oxidative Stress and Aging. R.G. Cuttler, L. Packer, J. Bertram & A. Mori, Eds. :141-149. Birkhauser Verlag. Basel.
42. 42. BAYNES, J.W. & S.R. THORPE. 1999. Role of oxidative stress in diabetic complications: a new perspective on an old paradigm. Diabetes 48: 1-9.
43. 43. LEVINE, R.L., J.A. WILLIAMS, E.R. STADTMAN & E. SHACTER. 1994. Carbonyl assays for determination of oxidatively modified proteins. Methods Enzymol. 233: 346-357.
44. 44. BERLETT, B.S. & E.R. STADTMAN. 1997. Protein oxidation in aging, disease, and oxidative stress. J. Biol. Chem. 272: 20313-20316.
45. 45. DEAN, R.T., S. FU, R. STOCKER & M.J. DAVIES. 1997. Biochemistry and pathology of radical-mediated protein oxidation. Biochem. J. 324: 1-18.
46. 46. OLIVER, C.N., P.E. STARKE-REED, E.R. STADTMAN, G.J. LIU, J.M. CARNEY & R.A. FLOYD. 1990. Oxidative damage to brain proteins, loss of glutamine synthetase activity, and production of free radicals during ischemia/reperfusion-induced injury to gerbil brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87: 5144-5147.
47. 47. POSTON, J. M. & G.L. PARENTEAU. 1992. Biochemical effects of ischemia on isolated perfused rat heart tissues. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 295: 35-41.
48. 48. AYENE, I.S., A.B. AL-MEDI & A.B. FISHER. 1993. Inhibition of lung tissue oxidation during ischemia/reperfusion by 2-mercaptopropionyl glycine. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 303: 307-312.
49. 49. ISCHIROPOULOS, H. & A.B. AL-MEDI. 1995. Peroxynitrite-mediated oxidative protein modifications. FEBS Lett. 364: 279-282.
50. 50. YAN, L.J., R.L. LEVINE & R.S. SOHAL. 1997. Oxidative damage during aging targets mitochondrial aconitase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 11168-11172.
51. 51. STARKE-REED, P.E. & C.N. OLIVER. 1989. Protein oxidation and proteolysis during aging and oxidative stress. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 275: 559-567.
52. 52. SOHAL, R.S., S. AGARWAL, A. DUBEY & W.C. ORR. 1993. Proicin oxidative damage is associated with life expectancy of houseflies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 7255-7259.
53. 3H]ydride reduction. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 14446-14450.
54. 54. REZNICK, A.Z., C.E. CROSS, M.-L. HU, Y.J. SUZUKI, S. KHWAJA, A. SAFADI, P.A. MOTCHNIK, L. PACKER & B. HALLIWELL. 1992. Modification of plasma proteins by cigarette smoke as measured by protein carbonyl formation. Biochem. J. 286: 607-611.
55. 55. BUTTERWORTH, M., S.S. LAU & T.J. MONKS. 1998. 2-Hydroxy-4-glutathion-S-yl-17beta-estradiol and 2-hydroxy-1-glutathion-S-yl-17beta-estradiol produce oxidative stress and renal toxicity in an animal model of 17beta-estradiol-mediated nephrocarcinogenicity. Carcinogenesis. 19: 133-139.
56. 3H]hydride reduction. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 14446-14450.
57. 57. GLADSTONE, I.M., JR. & R.L. LEVINE. 1994. Oxidation of proteins in neonatal lungs. Pediatrics 93: 764-768.
58. 58. WITT, E.H., A.Z. REZNICK, C.A. VIGUIE, P.E. STARKE-REED & L. PACKER. 1992. Exercise, oxidative damage, and effects of antioxidant manipulation. J. Nutr. 122: 766-773.
59. 59. MICKEL, H.S., C.N. OLIVER & P.E. STARKE-REED. 1990. Protein oxidation and myelinolysis occur in brain following rapid correction of hyponatremia. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 172: 92-97.
60. 60. STAFFORD, R.E., I.T. MAK, J.H. KRAMER & W.W. WEGLICKI. 1993. Protein oxidation in magnesium deficient rat brains and kidney. Biochem. Biophys.I Res. Commun. 196: 596-600.
61. 61. OLIVER, C.N. 1987. Inactivation of enzymes and oxidative modification of proteins by stimulated neutrophils. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 253: 62-72.
62. 62. KARSEK-STAPLES, J.A. & R.O. WEBSTER. 1993. Ceruloplasmin inhibits carbonyl formation in endogenous proteins. Free Rad.1 Biol. Med. 14: 115-125.
63. 63. CIOLINO, H.P. & R.L. LEVINE. 1997. Modification of proteins in endothelial cell death during oxidative stress. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 22: 1277-1282.
64. 64. HENSLEY, K., J.M. CARNEY, M.P. MATTSON, M. AKSENOVA, M. HARRIS, J.F. WU, R.A. FLOYD & D.A. BUTTERFIELD. 1994. A model for beta-amyloid aggregation and neurotoxicity based on free radical generation by the peptide: relevance to Alzheimer disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 3270-3274.
65. 65. HENSLEY, K., N. HALL, R. SUBRAMANIAM, P. COLE, M. HARRIS, M. AKSENOV, M. AKSENOVA, S.P. GABBITA, J.F. WU & J.M. CARNEY. 1995. Brain regional correspondence between Alzheimer's disease histopathology and biomarkers of protein oxidation. J. Neurochem. 65: 2146-2156.
66. 66. SMITH, M.A., L.M. SAYRE, V.E. ANDERSON, P.L. HARRIS, M.F. BEAL, N. KOWALL & G. PERRY. 1998. Cytochemical demonstration of oxidative damage in Alzheimer disease by immunochemical enhancement of the carbonyl reaction with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 46: 731-735.
67. 67. ALAM, Z.I., S.E. DANIEL, A.J. LEES, D.C. MARSDEN, P. JENNER & B. HALLIWELL. 1997. A generalised increase in protein carbonyls in the brain in Parkinson's but not incidental Lewy body disease. J. Neurochem. 69: 1326-1329.
68. 68. FLOOR, E. & M.G. WETZEL. 1998. Increased protein oxidation in human substantia nigra pars compacta in comparison with basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex measured with an improved dinitrophenylhydrazine assay. J. Neurochem. 70: 268-275.
69. 69. JONES, R.H. & J.S. HOTHERSALL. 1993. The effect of diabetes and dietary ascorbate supplementation on the oxidative modification of rat lens beta L crystallin. Biochem. Med. Metab. Biol. 50: 197-209.
70. 70. UCHIDA, K., M. KANEMATSU, K. SAKAI, T. MATSUDA, N. HATTORI, Y. MIZUNO, D. SUZUKI, T. MIYATA, N. NOGUCHI, E. NIKI & T. OSAWA. 1998. Protein-bound acrolein: potential markers for oxidative stress. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 4882-4887.
71. 71. CHAPMAN, M.L., B.R. RUBIN & R.W. GRACY. 1989. Increased carbonyl content of proteins in synovial fluid from patients with rhematoid arthritis. J. Rheumatol. 16: 15-18.
72. 72. MURPHY, M.E. & J.P. KEHRER. 1989. Oxidation state of tissue thiol groups and content of protein carbonyl groups in chickens with inherited muscular dystrophy. Biochemical Journal 260: 359-364.
73. 73. GARLAND, D., P. RUSSELL & J.S. ZIGLER. 1988. Oxidative modification of lens proteins. M.G. Simic, K.S. Taylor, J.F. Ward & V. von Sontag, Eds. :347-353. Oxygen radicals in biology and medicine. Plenum. New York.
74. 74. UCHIDA, K., A. FUKUDA, S. KAWAKISHI, H. HIAI & S. TOYOKUNI. 1995. A renal carcinogen ferric nitriloacetate mediates a temporary accumulation of aldehyde-modified proteins within cytosolic compartment of rat kidney. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 317: 405-411.
75. 2 peptide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 3377-3382.
76. 76. GRATTAGLIANO, I., G. VENDEMIALE, C. SABBA, P. BUONAMICO & E. ALTOMARE. 1996. Oxidation of circulating proteins in alcoholics: role of acetaldehyde and xanthine oxidase. J. Hepatol. 25: 28-36.
77. 77. VENDEMIALE, G., I. GRATTAGLIANO, A. SIGNORILE & E. ALTOMARE. 1998. Ethanol-induced changes of intracellular thiol compartmentation and protein redox status in the rat liver: effect of tauroursodeoxycholate. J. Hepatol. 28: 46-53.
78. 78. SUNDARI, P.N. & B. RAMAKRISHNA. 1997. Does oxidative protein damage play a role in the pathogenesis of carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in the rat? Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1362: 169-176.
79. 79. COMPORTI, M. 1998. Lipid peroxidation and biogenic aldehydes: from the identification of 4-hydroxynonenal to further achievements in biopathology. Free Rad. Res. 28: 623-635.
80. 80. BOWLING, A.C., J.B. SCHULZ, R.H. BROWN, JR. & M.F. BEAL. 1993. Superoxide dismutase activity, oxidative damage, and mitochondrial energy metabolism in familial and sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. J. Neurochem. 61: 2322-2325.
81. 81. OLIVER, C.N., B.W. AHN, E.J. MOERMAN, S. GOLDSTEIN & E.R. STADTMAN. 1987. Age-related changes in oxidized proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 262: 5488-5491.
82. 82. SMITH, C.D., J.M. CARNEY, P.E. STARKE-REED, C.N. OLIVER, E.R. STADTMAN, R.A. FLOYD & W.R. MARKESBERY. 1991. Excess brain protein oxidation and enzyme dysfunction in normal aging and Alzheimer disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88: 10540-10543.
83. 83. BALAZS, L. & M. LEON. 1994. Evidence of an oxidative challenge in the Alzheimer's brain. Neurochem. Res. 19: 1131-1137.
84. 84. VITEK, M.P., K. BHATTACHARYA, J.M. GLENDENING, E. STOPA, H. VLASSARA, R. BUCALA, K. MANOGUE & A. CERAMI. 1994. Advanced glycation end products contribute to amyloidosis in Alzheimer disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 4766-4770.
85. 85. MONTINE, K.S., E. REICH, M.D. NEELY, K.R. SIDELL, S.J. OLSON, W.R. MARKESBERY & T.J. MONTINE. 1998. Distribution of reducible 4-hydroxynonenal adduct immunoreactivity in Alzheimer disease is associated with APOE genotype. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol. 57: 415-425.
86. 86. ANDO, Y., T. BRANNSTROM, K. UCHIDA, N. NYHLIN, B. NASMAN, O. SUHR, T. YAMASHITA, T. OLSSON, M. EL SALHY, M. UCHINO & M. ANDO. 1998. Histochemical detection of 4-hydroxynonenal protein in Alzheimer amyloid. J. Neurol. Sci. 156: 172-176.
87. 87. MARKESBERY, W.R. & M.A. LOVELL. 1998. Four-hydroxynonenal, a product of lipid peroxidation, is increased in the brain in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol. Aging 19: 33-36.
88. 88. SAYRE, L.M., D.A. ZELASKO, P.L. HARRIS, G. PERRY, R.G. SALOMON & M.A. SMITH. 1997. 4-Hydroxynonenal-derived advanced lipid peroxidation end products are increased in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurochem. 68: 2092-2097.
89. 89. GOOD, P.F., P. WERNER, A. HSU, C.W. OLANOW & D.P. PERL. 1996. Evidence of neuronal oxidative damage in Alzheimer's disease. Am. J. Pathol. 149: 21-28.
90. 90. SMITH, M.A., H.P. RICHEY, L.M. SAYRE, J.S. BECKMAN & G. PERRY. 1997. Widespread peroxynitrite-mediated damage in Alzheimer's disease. J. Neurosci. 17: 2653-2657.
91. 91. SMITH, M. A., P.L. HARRIS, L.M. SAYRE & G. PERRY. 1997. Iron accumulation in Alzheimer disease is a source of redox-generated free radicals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 9866-9868.
92. 92. LUND, A.L., J.B. SMITH & D.L. SMITH. 1996. Modifications of the water-insoluble human lens alpha-crystallins. Exp. Eye Res. 63: 661-672.
93. 93. GARNER, M.H. & A. SPECTOR. 1980. Selective oxidation of cysteine and methionine in normal and senile cataractous lenses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77: 1274-1277.
94. 94. ALAM, Z.I., S.E. DANIEL, A.J. LEES, D.C. MARSDEN, P. JENNER & B. HALLIWELL. 1997. A generalised increase in protein carbonyls in the brain in Parkinson's but not incidental Lewy body disease. J. Neurochem. 69: 1326-1329.
95. 95. YORITAKA, A., N. HATTORI, K. UCHIDA, M. TANAKA, E.R. STADTMAN & Y. MIZUNO. 1996. Immunochemical detection of 4-hydroxynonenal protein adducts in Parkinson's disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:.
96. 96. LAVOIE, M.J. & T.G. HASTINGS. 1999. Dopamine quinone formation and protein modification associated with the striatal neurotoxicity of methamphetamine: evidence against a role for extracellular dopamine. J. Neurosci. 19: 1484-1491.
97. 97. DREYFUS, J.C., A. KAHN & F. SCHAPIRA. 1978. Post translational modifications of enzymes. Curr. Topics Cell Reg. 14: 243-297.
98. 98. ROTHSTEIN, M. 1977. Recent developments in the age-related alteration of enzymes: a review. Mech. Ageing Dev. 6: 241-257.
99. 99. GAFNI, A. 1981. Purification and comparative study of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from the muscles of young and old rats. Biochemistry 20: 6035-6040.
100. 100. ROTHSTEIN, M. 1982. Biochemical Approaches to Aging. New York. Academic Press.
101. 101. DE LA CRUZ, C.P., E. REVILLA, J.L. VENERO, A. AYALA, J. CANO & A. MACHADO. 1996. Oxidative inactivation of tyrosine hydroxylase in substantia nigra of aged rat. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 20: 53-61.
102. 102. GORDILLO, E., A. AYALA, M.-F. LOBATO, J. BAUTISTA & A. MACHADO. 1988. Possible involvement of histidine residues in the loss of enzymatic activity of rat liver malic enzyme during aging. J. Biol.1 Chem. 263: 8053-8057.
103. 103. MORDENTE, A., G.E. MARTORANA, G.A. MIGGIANO, E. MEUCCI, S.A. SANTINI & A. CASTELLI. 1988. Mixed function oxidation and enzymes: kinetic and structural properties of an oxidatively modified alkaline phosphatase. Arch Biochem. Biophys. 264: 502-509.
104. 104. MUSCI, G., M. C.B. DI PATTI, U. FAGIOLO & L. CALABRESE. 1993. Age-related changes in human ceruloplasmin. Evidence for oxidative modifications. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 13388-13395.
105. 105. RIVETT, A.J. & R.L. LEVINE. 1990. Metal-catalyzed oxidation of Escherichia coli glutamine synthetase: Correlation of structural and functional changes. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 278: 26-34.
106. 106. TABORSKY, G. 1973. Oxidative modification of proteins in the presence of ferrous iron and air. Effect of ionic constituents of the reaction medium on the nature of the oxidation products. Biochemistry 12: 1341-1348.
107. 107. TAKAHASHI, R. & S. GOTO. 1990. Alteration of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase with age: Heat labilization of the enzyme by oxidative damage. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 277: 228-233.
108. 108. ZHOU, J.Q. & A. GAFNI. 1991. Exposure of rat muscle phosphoglycerate kinase to a nonenzymatic MFO system generates the old form of enzyme. J. Gerontol. 46: B217-B221.
109. 109. STARKE, P.E., C.N. OLIVER & E.R. STADTMAN. 1987. Modification of hepatic proteins in rats exposed to high oxygen concentration. FASEB J. 1: 36-39.
110. 110. SOHAL, R.S., S. AGARWAL & B.H. SOHAL. 1995. Oxidative stress and aging in the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus). Mech. Ageing Dev. 81: 15-25.
111. 111. YOUNGMAN, L.D., J.Y. PARK & B.N. AMES. 1992. Protein oxidation associated with aging is reduced by dietary restriction of protein or calories. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 9112-9116.
112. 112. AGARWAL, S. & R.S. SOHAL. 1993. Relationship between aging and susceptibility to protein oxidative damage. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 194: 1203-1206.
113. 113. BOHLEY, P. & S. RIEMANN. 1977. Intracellular protein catabolism. IX. Hydrophobicity of substrate proteins is a molecular basis of selectivity. Acta Biol. Med. Ger. 36: 1823-1827.
114. 114. SEGAL, H.L., D.M. ROTHSTEIN & J.R. WINKLER. 1976. A correlation between turnover rates and lipophilic affinities of soluble rat liver proteins. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 73: 79-84.
115. 115. GARLAND, D. 1990. Role of site-specific, metal-catalyzed oxidation in lens-aging and cataract: a hypothesis. Exp. Eye Res. 50: 677-682.
116. 116. MECOCCI, P., G. FANO, S. FULLE, U. MACGARVEY, L. SHINOBU, M.C. POLIDORI, A. CHERUBINI, J. VECCHIET, U. SENIN & M.F. BEAL. 1999. Age-dependent increases in oxidative damage to DNA, lipids, and proteins in human skeletal muscle. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 26: 303-308.
117. 117. MUDD, J.B., R. LEAVITT, A. ONGUN & T.T. MCMANUS. 1969. Reaction of ozone with amino acids and proteins. Atmos. Environ. 3: 669-682.
118. 118. BERLETT, B.S., R.L. LEVINE & E.R. STADTMAN. 1996. Comparison of the effects of ozone on the modification of amino acid residues in glutamine synthetase and bovine serum albumin. J. Biol. Chem. 271: 4177-4182.
119. 119. KIDO, K. & B. KASSELL. 1975. Oxidation of methionine residues of porcine and ovine pepsins. Biochemistry 14: 631-635.
120. 120. PENNER, M.H., R.B. YAMASAKI, D.T. OSUGA, D.R. BABIN, C.F. MEARES & R.E. FEENEY. 1983. Comparative oxidations of tyrosines and methionines in transferrins: human serum transferrin, human lactotransferrin, and chicken ovotransferrin. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 225: 740-747.
121. 121. CHAO, C.C., Y.S. MA & E.R. STADTMAN. 1997. Modification of protein surface hydrophobicity and methionine oxidation by oxidative systems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 2969-2974.
122. 122. PRYOR, W.A., X. JIN & G.L. SQUADRITO. 1994. One-and two-electron oxidations of methionine by peroxynitrite. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 11173-11177.
123. 123. MORENO, J.J. & W.A. PRYOR. 1992. Inactivation of alpha 1-proteinase inhibitor by peroxynitrite. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 5: 425-431.
124. 124. SCHONEICH, C., F. ZHAO, G.S. WILSON & R.T. BORCHARDT. 1993. Iron-thiolate induced oxidation of methionine to methionine sulfoxide in small model peptides. Intramolecular catalysis by histidine. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1158: 307-322.
125. 125. SCHONEICH, C. & J. YANG. 1996. Oxidation of methionine peptides by Fenton systems: the importance of peptide sequence, neighboring groups, and EDTA. J. Chem. Soc. Perkin Trans. 2: 915-923.
126. 126. MOSKOVITZ, J., E. FLESCHER, B.S. BERLETT, J. AZARE, J.M. POSTON & E.R. STADTMAN. 1998. Overexpression of peptide-methionine sulfoxide reductase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and human T cells provides them with high resistance to oxidative stress. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 14071-14075.
127. 127. STADTMAN, E.R., P.Z. SMYRNIOTIS, J.N. DAVIS & M.E. WITTENBERGER. 1979. Enzymic procedures for determining the average state of adenylylation of Escherichia coli glutamine synthetase. Anal. Biochem. 95: 275-285.
128. 128. LYMAR, S.V. & J.K. HURST. 1995. Rapid reaction between peroxynitrite ion and carbon dioxide: Implication for biological activity. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 117: 8867-8868.
129. 129. LYMAR, S.V. & J.K. HURST. 1996. Carbon dioxide: physiological catalyst for peroxynitrite-mediated cellular damage or cellular protectant? Chem. Res. Toxicol. 9: 845-850.