Transitional statistics: Internal migration and urban growth in post-Soviet Estonia

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 51, Issue 5, 1999, Pages 821-842

  Sjöberg, Örjan ^a   Tammaru, Tiit ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INTERNAL MIGRATION; TRANSITIONAL ECONOMY; URBAN GROWTH;

ARTICLE; DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS; DEMOGRAPHIC IMPACT; DEMOGRAPHY; DEVELOPED COUNTRY; EASTERN EUROPE; EPIDEMIOLOGY; ESTONIA; EUROPE; GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS; GEOGRAPHY; INFORMATION PROCESSING; METHODOLOGY; MIGRATION; MIGRATION, INTERNAL; NEW INDEPENDENT STATES; POPULATION; POPULATION DYNAMICS; RESEARCH; RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION; SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION; STATISTICAL STUDIES; STATISTICS; STUDIES; SURVEYS; TECHNICAL REPORT; URBAN POPULATION; URBAN SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION; URBANIZATION;

DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS; DEMOGRAPHIC IMPACT; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; EASTERN EUROPE; ESTONIA; EUROPE; GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS; MIGRATION; MIGRATION, INTERNAL; NEW INDEPENDENT STATES; POPULATION; POPULATION DYNAMICS; RESEARCH METHODOLOGY; RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION; SAMPLING STUDIES; SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION; STATISTICAL STUDIES; STUDIES; SURVEYS; TECHNICAL REPORT; URBAN SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION; URBANIZATION;

DATA COLLECTION; DEMOGRAPHY; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; EMIGRATION AND IMMIGRATION; ESTONIA; EUROPE; EUROPE, EASTERN; GEOGRAPHY; POPULATION; POPULATION DYNAMICS; RESEARCH; RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY; SAMPLING STUDIES; STATISTICS; URBAN POPULATION; URBANIZATION;

ESTONIA;

EID: 0032853920     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668139998732     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Cynthia Buckley, 'The Myth of Managed Migration: Migration Control and Market in the Soviet Period,' Slavic Review, 54, 4, 1995, pp. 896-916.
2. György Enyedi, 'Specific Urbanization in East-Central Europe', Geoforum, 21, 2, 1990, pp. 163-172; György Enyedi, 'Urbanisation in East Central Europe: Social Processes and Societal Responses in the State Socialist Systems', Urban Studies, 29, 6, 1992, pp. 869-880; György Enyedi, 'Urbanization under Socialism', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 100-118; Piotr Korcelli, 'Eastern-Central Europe', in Urban Challenges. Report to the Commission on Metropolitan Problems (Statens Offentliga Utredningar, 1990: 33, Stockholm, 1990), pp. 159-177; Jiri Musil, 'Changing Urban Systems in Post-communist Societies in Central Europe: Analysis and Prediction', Urban Studies, 30, 6, 1993, pp. 899-905; and Ivan Szelenyi, 'Cities under Socialism - and After', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 286-317.
3. György Enyedi, 'Specific Urbanization in East-Central Europe', Geoforum, 21, 2, 1990, pp. 163-172; György Enyedi, 'Urbanisation in East Central Europe: Social Processes and Societal Responses in the State Socialist Systems', Urban Studies, 29, 6, 1992, pp. 869-880; György Enyedi, 'Urbanization under Socialism', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 100-118; Piotr Korcelli, 'Eastern-Central Europe', in Urban Challenges. Report to the Commission on Metropolitan Problems (Statens Offentliga Utredningar, 1990: 33, Stockholm, 1990), pp. 159-177; Jiri Musil, 'Changing Urban Systems in Post-communist Societies in Central Europe: Analysis and Prediction', Urban Studies, 30, 6, 1993, pp. 899-905; and Ivan Szelenyi, 'Cities under Socialism - and After', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 286-317.
4. György Enyedi, 'Specific Urbanization in East-Central Europe', Geoforum, 21, 2, 1990, pp. 163-172; György Enyedi, 'Urbanisation in East Central Europe: Social Processes and Societal Responses in the State Socialist Systems', Urban Studies, 29, 6, 1992, pp. 869-880; György Enyedi, 'Urbanization under Socialism', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 100-118; Piotr Korcelli, 'Eastern-Central Europe', in Urban Challenges. Report to the Commission on Metropolitan Problems (Statens Offentliga Utredningar, 1990: 33, Stockholm, 1990), pp. 159-177; Jiri Musil, 'Changing Urban Systems in Post-communist Societies in Central Europe: Analysis and Prediction', Urban Studies, 30, 6, 1993, pp. 899-905; and Ivan Szelenyi, 'Cities under Socialism - and After', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 286-317.
5. György Enyedi, 'Specific Urbanization in East-Central Europe', Geoforum, 21, 2, 1990, pp. 163-172; György Enyedi, 'Urbanisation in East Central Europe: Social Processes and Societal Responses in the State Socialist Systems', Urban Studies, 29, 6, 1992, pp. 869-880; György Enyedi, 'Urbanization under Socialism', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 100-118; Piotr Korcelli, 'Eastern-Central Europe', in Urban Challenges. Report to the Commission on Metropolitan Problems (Statens Offentliga Utredningar, 1990: 33, Stockholm, 1990), pp. 159-177; Jiri Musil, 'Changing Urban Systems in Post-communist Societies in Central Europe: Analysis and Prediction', Urban Studies, 30, 6, 1993, pp. 899-905; and Ivan Szelenyi, 'Cities under Socialism - and After', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 286-317.
6. György Enyedi, 'Specific Urbanization in East-Central Europe', Geoforum, 21, 2, 1990, pp. 163-172; György Enyedi, 'Urbanisation in East Central Europe: Social Processes and Societal Responses in the State Socialist Systems', Urban Studies, 29, 6, 1992, pp. 869-880; György Enyedi, 'Urbanization under Socialism', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 100-118; Piotr Korcelli, 'Eastern-Central Europe', in Urban Challenges. Report to the Commission on Metropolitan Problems (Statens Offentliga Utredningar, 1990: 33, Stockholm, 1990), pp. 159-177; Jiri Musil, 'Changing Urban Systems in Post-communist Societies in Central Europe: Analysis and Prediction', Urban Studies, 30, 6, 1993, pp. 899-905; and Ivan Szelenyi, 'Cities under Socialism - and After', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 286-317.
7. György Enyedi, 'Specific Urbanization in East-Central Europe', Geoforum, 21, 2, 1990, pp. 163-172; György Enyedi, 'Urbanisation in East Central Europe: Social Processes and Societal Responses in the State Socialist Systems', Urban Studies, 29, 6, 1992, pp. 869-880; György Enyedi, 'Urbanization under Socialism', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 100-118; Piotr Korcelli, 'Eastern-Central Europe', in Urban Challenges. Report to the Commission on Metropolitan Problems (Statens Offentliga Utredningar, 1990: 33, Stockholm, 1990), pp. 159-177; Jiri Musil, 'Changing Urban Systems in Post-communist Societies in Central Europe: Analysis and Prediction', Urban Studies, 30, 6, 1993, pp. 899-905; and Ivan Szelenyi, 'Cities under Socialism - and After', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), pp. 286-317.
8. John P. Cole & Igor V. Filatotchev, 'Some Observations on Migration Within and From the Former USSR in the 1990s', Post-Soviet Geography, 33, 7, 1992, pp. 432-453, esp. pp. 445-450; and Szelenyi, 'Cities under Socialism', p. 288.
9. John P. Cole & Igor V. Filatotchev, 'Some Observations on Migration Within and From the Former USSR in the 1990s', Post-Soviet Geography, 33, 7, 1992, pp. 432-453, esp. pp. 445-450; and Szelenyi, 'Cities under Socialism', p. 288.
10. Beth Mitchneck & David A. Plane, 'Migration and the Quasi-labor Market in Russia', International Regional Science Review, 18, 3, 1995, pp. 267-288, at p. 286.
11. Barbara A. Anderson, Kalev Katus & Brian D. Silver, 'Developments and Prospects for Population Statistics in Countries of the Former Soviet Union', Population Index, 60, 1, 1994, pp. 4-20.
12. E.g., Barbara A. Anderson & Brian D. Silver, ' "Permanent" and "Present" Population in Soviet Statistics', Soviet Studies, 37, 3, 1985, pp. 386-402.
13. On transition and internal migration in Soviet successor states see, e.g., Mitchneck & Plane, 'Migration and the Quasi-labor Market'; Kazuhiro Kumo, 'Economic System Conversion and Migration Transition in Russia', Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies, 9, 1, 1997, pp. 20-36; Timothy Heleniak, 'Internal Migration in Russia During the Economic Transition', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 38, 2, 1997, pp. 81-104; Annette N. Brown, The Economic Determinants of Internal Migration Flows in Russia during Transition (William Davidson Institute Working Paper, 89, Ann Arbor, MI, July 1997); Zhanna Zayonchkovskaja & Pavel Polian, 'Migration in Russia and the Former Soviet Union', in Joachim Burdack, Frank-Dieter Grimm & Leo Paul (eds), The Political Geography of Current East-West Relations (Beiträge zur regionalen Geographie, 47, Leipzig, 1998), pp. 159-176; and Jörg Pohlan, 'Spatial Structures and Migration Processes in the Districts of the Republic of Latvia', paper presented at the 5th Nordic-Baltic Conference in Regional Science, Parnu, Estonia, 1-4 October 1998.
14. On transition and internal migration in Soviet successor states see, e.g., Mitchneck & Plane, 'Migration and the Quasi-labor Market'; Kazuhiro Kumo, 'Economic System Conversion and Migration Transition in Russia', Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies, 9, 1, 1997, pp. 20-36; Timothy Heleniak, 'Internal Migration in Russia During the Economic Transition', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 38, 2, 1997, pp. 81-104; Annette N. Brown, The Economic Determinants of Internal Migration Flows in Russia during Transition (William Davidson Institute Working Paper, 89, Ann Arbor, MI, July 1997); Zhanna Zayonchkovskaja & Pavel Polian, 'Migration in Russia and the Former Soviet Union', in Joachim Burdack, Frank-Dieter Grimm & Leo Paul (eds), The Political Geography of Current East-West Relations (Beiträge zur regionalen Geographie, 47, Leipzig, 1998), pp. 159-176; and Jörg Pohlan, 'Spatial Structures and Migration Processes in the Districts of the Republic of Latvia', paper presented at the 5th Nordic-Baltic Conference in Regional Science, Parnu, Estonia, 1-4 October 1998.
15. On transition and internal migration in Soviet successor states see, e.g., Mitchneck & Plane, 'Migration and the Quasi-labor Market'; Kazuhiro Kumo, 'Economic System Conversion and Migration Transition in Russia', Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies, 9, 1, 1997, pp. 20-36; Timothy Heleniak, 'Internal Migration in Russia During the Economic Transition', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 38, 2, 1997, pp. 81-104; Annette N. Brown, The Economic Determinants of Internal Migration Flows in Russia during Transition (William Davidson Institute Working Paper, 89, Ann Arbor, MI, July 1997); Zhanna Zayonchkovskaja & Pavel Polian, 'Migration in Russia and the Former Soviet Union', in Joachim Burdack, Frank-Dieter Grimm & Leo Paul (eds), The Political Geography of Current East-West Relations (Beiträge zur regionalen Geographie, 47, Leipzig, 1998), pp. 159-176; and Jörg Pohlan, 'Spatial Structures and Migration Processes in the Districts of the Republic of Latvia', paper presented at the 5th Nordic-Baltic Conference in Regional Science, Parnu, Estonia, 1-4 October 1998.
16. On transition and internal migration in Soviet successor states see, e.g., Mitchneck & Plane, 'Migration and the Quasi-labor Market'; Kazuhiro Kumo, 'Economic System Conversion and Migration Transition in Russia', Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies, 9, 1, 1997, pp. 20-36; Timothy Heleniak, 'Internal Migration in Russia During the Economic Transition', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 38, 2, 1997, pp. 81-104; Annette N. Brown, The Economic Determinants of Internal Migration Flows in Russia during Transition (William Davidson Institute Working Paper, 89, Ann Arbor, MI, July 1997); Zhanna Zayonchkovskaja & Pavel Polian, 'Migration in Russia and the Former Soviet Union', in Joachim Burdack, Frank-Dieter Grimm & Leo Paul (eds), The Political Geography of Current East-West Relations (Beiträge zur regionalen Geographie, 47, Leipzig, 1998), pp. 159-176; and Jörg Pohlan, 'Spatial Structures and Migration Processes in the Districts of the Republic of Latvia', paper presented at the 5th Nordic-Baltic Conference in Regional Science, Parnu, Estonia, 1-4 October 1998.
17. On transition and internal migration in Soviet successor states see, e.g., Mitchneck & Plane, 'Migration and the Quasi-labor Market'; Kazuhiro Kumo, 'Economic System Conversion and Migration Transition in Russia', Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies, 9, 1, 1997, pp. 20-36; Timothy Heleniak, 'Internal Migration in Russia During the Economic Transition', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 38, 2, 1997, pp. 81-104; Annette N. Brown, The Economic Determinants of Internal Migration Flows in Russia during Transition (William Davidson Institute Working Paper, 89, Ann Arbor, MI, July 1997); Zhanna Zayonchkovskaja & Pavel Polian, 'Migration in Russia and the Former Soviet Union', in Joachim Burdack, Frank-Dieter Grimm & Leo Paul (eds), The Political Geography of Current East-West Relations (Beiträge zur regionalen Geographie, 47, Leipzig, 1998), pp. 159-176; and Jörg Pohlan, 'Spatial Structures and Migration Processes in the Districts of the Republic of Latvia', paper presented at the 5th Nordic-Baltic Conference in Regional Science, Parnu, Estonia, 1-4 October 1998.
18. On transition and internal migration in Soviet successor states see, e.g., Mitchneck & Plane, 'Migration and the Quasi-labor Market'; Kazuhiro Kumo, 'Economic System Conversion and Migration Transition in Russia', Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies, 9, 1, 1997, pp. 20-36; Timothy Heleniak, 'Internal Migration in Russia During the Economic Transition', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, 38, 2, 1997, pp. 81-104; Annette N. Brown, The Economic Determinants of Internal Migration Flows in Russia during Transition (William Davidson Institute Working Paper, 89, Ann Arbor, MI, July 1997); Zhanna Zayonchkovskaja & Pavel Polian, 'Migration in Russia and the Former Soviet Union', in Joachim Burdack, Frank-Dieter Grimm & Leo Paul (eds), The Political Geography of Current East-West Relations (Beiträge zur regionalen Geographie, 47, Leipzig, 1998), pp. 159-176; and Jörg Pohlan, 'Spatial Structures and Migration Processes in the Districts of the Republic of Latvia', paper presented at the 5th Nordic-Baltic Conference in Regional Science, Parnu, Estonia, 1-4 October 1998.
19. At that point, the previous pattern of continuous urbanisation changed as, for the first time, internal migration flows indicated a net outflow of domestic migrants from urban areas. As the net increase through in-migration from areas other than Estonia itself continued throughout most of the 1980s, this change - often characterised as de-concentration or counter-urbanisation (Ann Marksoo, 'Estonian Urban System in Transition', in Mauri J. Palomäki & J.A. Karunaratne (eds), Urban Development and Urban Life (Acta Wasaenisa, 45; Geography, 6, Vaasa, 1995), pp. 179-192) - was only partial and difficult to detect. According to official statistics, only in 1990 did out-migration flows eclipse both internally generated urban in-migration and immigration from areas beyond the borders of Estonia. Within a year or so, net urban out-migration to other parts of the former Soviet Union had gained momentum.
20. Ann Marksoo, 'Role of External Migration in Urbanization of Estonia', paper presented at the 28th International Geographical Congress, The Hague, 4-10 August 1996.
21. Marksoo, 'Estonian urban system'.
22. In fact, the ESO is in the process of introducing a new system of registration. However, public debate on the issue has been scant and the chances are that objections will be raised as compulsory registration may be considered a vestige of the past and not in tune with the liberal ideas now much in favour in Estonia.
23. That this might be of some consequence can be shown by referring to the practice of denying recent in-migrants registration on the grounds of not owning the dwelling to which they have in fact recently moved.
24. Eesti rahvastik 1994, 2.osa (The Estonian population in 1994, 2nd part) (Tallinn, 1996), p. 13.
25. E.g., Ieva Marga Markausa, 'Spatial Peculiarities of Internal Migration in Latvia', in Institute of Economics, Latvian Academy of Sciences: Activities in 1996 (Riga, 1997), pp. 15-19; and Pohlan, 'Spatial Structures'.
26. E.g., leva Marga Markausa, 'Spatial Peculiarities of Internal Migration in Latvia', in Institute of Economics, Latvian Academy of Sciences: Activities in 1996 (Riga, 1997), pp. 15-19; and Pohlan, 'Spatial Structures'.
27. Antanas Buračas, 'Demographic Trends', in Antanas Buracas (ed.), Lithuanian Economic Reforms: Practice and Perspectives (Vilnius, 1997), pp. 91-100, at p. 99.
28. E.g., Beth Mitchneck & David A. Plane, 'Migration Patterns During a Period of Political and Economic Shocks in the Former Soviet Union: A Case Study of Yaroslavl' Oblast', Professional Geographer, 47, 1, 1995, pp. 17-30, at pp. 26-27; and Stephen Wegren, 'Rural Migration and Agrarian Reform in Russia', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 5, 1995, pp. 877-888, at pp. 880-885; but see E. Krasinets, 'Migratsiya naseleniya', Ekonomist, 1997, 8, pp. 48-59, esp. pp. 58-59.
29. E.g., Beth Mitchneck & David A. Plane, 'Migration Patterns During a Period of Political and Economic Shocks in the Former Soviet Union: A Case Study of Yaroslavl' Oblast', Professional Geographer, 47, 1, 1995, pp. 17-30, at pp. 26-27; and Stephen Wegren, 'Rural Migration and Agrarian Reform in Russia', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 5, 1995, pp. 877-888, at pp. 880-885; but see E. Krasinets, 'Migratsiya naseleniya', Ekonomist, 1997, 8, pp. 48-59, esp. pp. 58-59.
30. E.g., Beth Mitchneck & David A. Plane, 'Migration Patterns During a Period of Political and Economic Shocks in the Former Soviet Union: A Case Study of Yaroslavl' Oblast', Professional Geographer, 47, 1, 1995, pp. 17-30, at pp. 26-27; and Stephen Wegren, 'Rural Migration and Agrarian Reform in Russia', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 5, 1995, pp. 877-888, at pp. 880-885; but see E. Krasinets, 'Migratsiya naseleniya', Ekonomist, 1997, 8, pp. 48-59, esp. pp. 58-59.
31. Musil, 'Changing Urban Systems', pp. 903-904.
32. Marksoo, 'Role of External Migration'.
33. E.g., Kavita Pandit, 'Cohort and Period Effects in U.S. Migration: How Demographic and Economic Cycles Influence the Migration Schedule', Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 87, 3, 1997, pp. 439-450.
34. William J. Milne, 'Macroeconomic Influences on Migration', Regional Studies, 27, 4, 1993, pp. 365-373.
35. E.g., Peter A. Rogerson, 'Changes in U.S. National Mobility Levels', Professional Geographer, 39, 3, 1987, pp. 344-351; Marc C. Berger, 'Demographic Cycles, Cohort Size, and Earnings', Demography, 26, 2, 1989, pp. 311-321.
36. E.g., Peter A. Rogerson, 'Changes in U.S. National Mobility Levels', Professional Geographer, 39, 3, 1987, pp. 344-351; Marc C. Berger, 'Demographic Cycles, Cohort Size, and Earnings', Demography, 26, 2, 1989, pp. 311-321.
37. Raul Eamets, 'Comparative Employment Structures and Unemployment in Eastern Europe', paper presented at the 5th Nordic-Baltic Conference in Regional Science, Pärnu, Estonia, 1-4 October 1998, pp. 6, 9 and 14.
38. Ann Marksoo, 'Restructuring of Urban and Rural Settlement in Estonia', in F. W. Carter & Wieslaw Maik (eds), Shock-Shift in an Enlarged Europe: the Geography of Socio-economic Change in East-Central Europe after 1989 (Aldershot, 1999), pp. 81-102, at p. 84.
39. Eesti rahvastik, p. 13.
40. Kalev Katus, Eesti rahvastiku vananemise põhijooned (Main features of ageing in Estonia) (Rahvastiku-uuringud, seeria B, 27, Tallinn, 1995).
41. L. van den Berg, R. Drewett, L.H. Klaassen, A. Rossi & C.H.T. Vijverberg, Urban Europe: a Study of Growth and Decline, Vol. 1 (Oxford, 1982).
42. Eesti rahvastik, p. 13.
43. Marksoo, 'Restructuring'.
44. Statistically significant on the 5% level.
45. Kalev Katus, Mitmerahvuseline Eesti (Multiethnic Estonia) (Rahvastiku-uuringud, seeria B, 16, Tallinn, 1991).
46. It should be noted that a follow-up conducted in 1998 arrived at the figure of 50%; this survey is not only more recent but also probably more accurate on account of covering a larger Tallinn sample.
47. This observation can be seen as an additional input to the study of the adaptive behaviour of ethnic non-Estonians, a topic that has received extensive attention in Estonia since the re-establishment of independence. See, e.g., Priit Järve (ed.), Vene noored Eestis: sotsioloogiline mosaiik (Russian youth in Estonia: a sociological mosaic) (Tartu, 1997); Tiit Tammaru, 'Venelased Eestis. Ränne ja kohanemine' (Russians in Estonia: migration and adaption), Akadeemia, 9, 8, 1997, pp. 1657-1677.
48. This observation can be seen as an additional input to the study of the adaptive behaviour of ethnic non-Estonians, a topic that has received extensive attention in Estonia since the re-establishment of independence. See, e.g., Priit Järve (ed.), Vene noored Eestis: sotsioloogiline mosaiik (Russian youth in Estonia: a sociological mosaic) (Tartu, 1997); Tiit Tammaru, 'Venelased Eestis. Ränne ja kohanemine' (Russians in Estonia: migration and adaption), Akadeemia, 9, 8, 1997, pp. 1657-1677.
49. This impression is further reinforced by the results of a recent case study among non-Estonians living in Sillamäe, a town that remained 'closed' throughout most of the Soviet period; Klaara Hallik, 'Opening of Sillamäe City', in The Integration of National Communities in Ida-Virumaa in Estonian Society (Jõhvi, 1997), pp. 152-161.
50. One reason for this state of affairs could be the relative location of Pärnu, which is located closer to the capital than any other regional centre. Another (possibly related) reason is that housing is hard to come by, with prices almost on a par with Tallinn itself.
51. Marksoo, 'Estonian Urban System', p. 180.
52. Örjan Sjöberg, 'Shortage, Priority and Urban Growth: Towards a Theory of Urbanisation Under Central Planning', Urban Studies (forthcoming).
53. Cf. Musil, 'Changing Urban Systems', p. 904.
54. See, in a voluminous literature, e.g., Buckley, 'The Myth of Managed Migration'; Cecil J. Houston, 'Administrative Control of Migration to Moscow, 1959-75', Canadian Geographer, 23, 1, 1979, pp. 32-44; Karel Kansky, Urbanization under Socialism: the Case of Czechoslovakia (New York, 1976); Mervyn Matthews, The Passport Society: Controlling Movement in Russia and the USSR (Boulder, CO, 1993); Per Ronnås, Urbanization in Romania: a Geography of Social and Economic Change since Independence (Stockholm, 1984); Örjan Sjöberg, 'Underurbanisation and the Zero Urban Growth Hypothesis: Diverted Migration in Albania', Geografiska Annaler, 74B, 1, 1992, pp. 3-19; Victor Zaslavsky, The Neo-Stalinist State: Class, Ethnicity, and Consensus in Soviet Society (Armonk, NY, 1994, 2nd edn).
55. See, in a voluminous literature, e.g., Buckley, 'The Myth of Managed Migration'; Cecil J. Houston, 'Administrative Control of Migration to Moscow, 1959-75', Canadian Geographer, 23, 1, 1979, pp. 32-44; Karel Kansky, Urbanization under Socialism: the Case of Czechoslovakia (New York, 1976); Mervyn Matthews, The Passport Society: Controlling Movement in Russia and the USSR (Boulder, CO, 1993); Per Ronnås, Urbanization in Romania: a Geography of Social and Economic Change since Independence (Stockholm, 1984); Örjan Sjöberg, 'Underurbanisation and the Zero Urban Growth Hypothesis: Diverted Migration in Albania', Geografiska Annaler, 74B, 1, 1992, pp. 3-19; Victor Zaslavsky, The Neo-Stalinist State: Class, Ethnicity, and Consensus in Soviet Society (Armonk, NY, 1994, 2nd edn).
56. See, in a voluminous literature, e.g., Buckley, 'The Myth of Managed Migration'; Cecil J. Houston, 'Administrative Control of Migration to Moscow, 1959-75', Canadian Geographer, 23, 1, 1979, pp. 32-44; Karel Kansky, Urbanization under Socialism: the Case of Czechoslovakia (New York, 1976); Mervyn Matthews, The Passport Society: Controlling Movement in Russia and the USSR (Boulder, CO, 1993); Per Ronnås, Urbanization in Romania: a Geography of Social and Economic Change since Independence (Stockholm, 1984); Örjan Sjöberg, 'Underurbanisation and the Zero Urban Growth Hypothesis: Diverted Migration in Albania', Geografiska Annaler, 74B, 1, 1992, pp. 3-19; Victor Zaslavsky, The Neo-Stalinist State: Class, Ethnicity, and Consensus in Soviet Society (Armonk, NY, 1994, 2nd edn).
57. See, in a voluminous literature, e.g., Buckley, 'The Myth of Managed Migration'; Cecil J. Houston, 'Administrative Control of Migration to Moscow, 1959-75', Canadian Geographer, 23, 1, 1979, pp. 32-44; Karel Kansky, Urbanization under Socialism: the Case of Czechoslovakia (New York, 1976); Mervyn Matthews, The Passport Society: Controlling Movement in Russia and the USSR (Boulder, CO, 1993); Per Ronnås, Urbanization in Romania: a Geography of Social and Economic Change since Independence (Stockholm, 1984); Örjan Sjöberg, 'Underurbanisation and the Zero Urban Growth Hypothesis: Diverted Migration in Albania', Geografiska Annaler, 74B, 1, 1992, pp. 3-19; Victor Zaslavsky, The Neo-Stalinist State: Class, Ethnicity, and Consensus in Soviet Society (Armonk, NY, 1994, 2nd edn).
58. See, in a voluminous literature, e.g., Buckley, 'The Myth of Managed Migration'; Cecil J. Houston, 'Administrative Control of Migration to Moscow, 1959-75', Canadian Geographer, 23, 1, 1979, pp. 32-44; Karel Kansky, Urbanization under Socialism: the Case of Czechoslovakia (New York, 1976); Mervyn Matthews, The Passport Society: Controlling Movement in Russia and the USSR (Boulder, CO, 1993); Per Ronnås, Urbanization in Romania: a Geography of Social and Economic Change since Independence (Stockholm, 1984); Örjan Sjöberg, 'Underurbanisation and the Zero Urban Growth Hypothesis: Diverted Migration in Albania', Geografiska Annaler, 74B, 1, 1992, pp. 3-19; Victor Zaslavsky, The Neo-Stalinist State: Class, Ethnicity, and Consensus in Soviet Society (Armonk, NY, 1994, 2nd edn).
59. See, in a voluminous literature, e.g., Buckley, 'The Myth of Managed Migration'; Cecil J. Houston, 'Administrative Control of Migration to Moscow, 1959-75', Canadian Geographer, 23, 1, 1979, pp. 32-44; Karel Kansky, Urbanization under Socialism: the Case of Czechoslovakia (New York, 1976); Mervyn Matthews, The Passport Society: Controlling Movement in Russia and the USSR (Boulder, CO, 1993); Per Ronnås, Urbanization in Romania: a Geography of Social and Economic Change since Independence (Stockholm, 1984); Örjan Sjöberg, 'Underurbanisation and the Zero Urban Growth Hypothesis: Diverted Migration in Albania', Geografiska Annaler, 74B, 1, 1992, pp. 3-19; Victor Zaslavsky, The Neo-Stalinist State: Class, Ethnicity, and Consensus in Soviet Society (Armonk, NY, 1994, 2nd edn).
60. See, in a voluminous literature, e.g., Buckley, 'The Myth of Managed Migration'; Cecil J. Houston, 'Administrative Control of Migration to Moscow, 1959-75', Canadian Geographer, 23, 1, 1979, pp. 32-44; Karel Kansky, Urbanization under Socialism: the Case of Czechoslovakia (New York, 1976); Mervyn Matthews, The Passport Society: Controlling Movement in Russia and the USSR (Boulder, CO, 1993); Per Ronnås, Urbanization in Romania: a Geography of Social and Economic Change since Independence (Stockholm, 1984); Örjan Sjöberg, 'Underurbanisation and the Zero Urban Growth Hypothesis: Diverted Migration in Albania', Geografiska Annaler, 74B, 1, 1992, pp. 3-19; Victor Zaslavsky, The Neo-Stalinist State: Class, Ethnicity, and Consensus in Soviet Society (Armonk, NY, 1994, 2nd edn).
61. Musil, 'Changing Urban Systems', p. 904
62. Ibid., pp. 903-904, and Jiri Musil, 'Stability and Change in Settlement Systems: Polarization Processes in the Czech Lands', Geoforum, 21, 2, 1990, pp. 185-191.
63. Ibid., pp. 903-904, and Jiri Musil, 'Stability and Change in Settlement Systems: Polarization Processes in the Czech Lands', Geoforum, 21, 2, 1990, pp. 185-191.
64. Van den Berg et al., Urban Europe.
65. Perttu Vartiainen, 'Seutuistuminen yhdyskuntasuunnittelun haasteena' (The city region based development of the settlement system: a challenge to local planning), Terra, 103, 2, 1991, pp. 75-86; Perttu Vartiainen, 'A Structuration-theoretical Perspective of Urban Population Dynamics: The Case of Finland 1975-1990', in Mauri J. Palomäki & J.A. Karunaratne (eds), Urban Development and Urban Life (Acta Wasaenisa, 45; Geography, 6, Vaasa, 1995), pp. 245-260.
66. Perttu Vartiainen, 'Seutuistuminen yhdyskuntasuunnittelun haasteena' (The city region based development of the settlement system: a challenge to local planning), Terra, 103, 2, 1991, pp. 75-86; Perttu Vartiainen, 'A Structuration-theoretical Perspective of Urban Population Dynamics: The Case of Finland 1975-1990', in Mauri J. Palomäki & J.A. Karunaratne (eds), Urban Development and Urban Life (Acta Wasaenisa, 45; Geography, 6, Vaasa, 1995), pp. 245-260.
67. Jan Nyström, 'The Cyclical Urbanization Model: A Critical Analysis', Geografiska Annaler, 74B, 2,1992, pp. 133-144;
68. cf. Susan Roberts, 'A Critical Evaluation of the City Life Cycle Idea', Urban Geography, 12, 5, 1991, pp. 431-449.
69. Ronald J. Fuchs & George J. Demko, 'The Postwar Mobility Transition in Eastern Europe', Geographical Review, 68, 2, 1978, pp. 171-182, and Wilbur Zelinsky, 'The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition', Geographical Review, 61, 2, 1971, pp. 219-249, respectively.
70. Ronald J. Fuchs & George J. Demko, 'The Postwar Mobility Transition in Eastern Europe', Geographical Review, 68, 2, 1978, pp. 171-182, and Wilbur Zelinsky, 'The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition', Geographical Review, 61, 2, 1971, pp. 219-249, respectively.