Modulation of immune function by dietary lectins in rheumatoid arthritis

British Journal of Nutrition

Volumn 83, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 207-217

  Cordain, Loren ^a   Toohey, L ^a   Smith, M J ^a   Hickey, M S ^a  

^a Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; FOOD ANTIGEN; GLYCOPROTEIN; HLA ANTIGEN; LECTIN; RHEUMATOID FACTOR;

CHROMOSOME TRANSLOCATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; CROSS REACTION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ENTERITIS; GLUTEN FREE DIET; HUMAN; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOSTIMULATION; INTESTINE CELL; INTESTINE MUCOSA PERMEABILITY; LYMPHOCYTE FUNCTION; MOLECULAR MIMICRY; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN DIET; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS;

EID: 0034088071     PISSN: 00071145     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007114500000271     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Albani S & Carson DA (1996) A multistep molecular mimicry hypothesis for the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Immunology Today 17, 466-470.
2. Albani S, Tuckwell J, Esparza L, Carson DA & Roudier J (1992) The susceptibility sequence to rheumatoid arthritis is a cross-reactive B epitope shared by the Escherichia coli heat shock protein DnaJ and the HLA DRB1*0401 molecule. Journal of Clinical Investigation 89, 327-331.
3. Auger I & Roudier J (1997) A function for the QKRAA amino acid motif: mediating binding of DnaJ to DnaK. Implications for the association of rheumatoid arthritis with HLA-DR4. Journal of Clinical Investigation 99, 1818-1822.
4. Banwell JG, Howard R, Kabir I & Costerton JW (1988) Bacterial overgrowth by indigenous microflora in the phytohemagglutinin-fed rat. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 34, 1009-1013.
5. Baum H, Davies H & Peakman M (1996) Molecular mimicry in the MHC: hidden clues to autoimmunity. Immunology Today 17, 64-70.
6. + T-cell repertoire: implications for autoimmune disease. Cytokines, Cellular and Molecular Therapy 3, 115-126.
7. Benno P, Alam M, Henriksson K, Norin E, Uribe A & Midtvedt T (1994) Abnormal colonic microbial function in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 23, 311-315.
8. Berg RD (1992) Bacterial translocation from the gastrointestinal tract. Journal of Medicine 23, 217-244.
9. Ben D, Malaviya AN, Shandilya R & Singh RR (1988) Effect of dietary restrictions on disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 47, 69-77.
10. Bevan MJ, Hogquist KA & Jameson SC (1994) Selecting the T-cell repertoire. Science 264, 796-797.
11. Bjarnason I & Peters TJ (1996) Influence of anti-rheumatic drugs on gut permeability and on the gut associated lymphoid tissue. Baillières Clinical Rheumatology 10, 165-176.
12. Bjarnason I, Peters TJ & Wise RJ (1984) The leaky gut of alcoholism: possible route of entry for toxic compounds. Lancet i, 179-182.
13. Bourne JT, Kumar P, Huskison EC, Maged R, Unsworth DJ & Wojtulewski JA (1985) Arthritis and coeliac disease. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 44, 592-594.
14. Brady PG, Vannier AM & Banwell JG (1978) Identification of the dietary lectin, wheat germ agglutinin, in human intestinal contents. Gastroenterology 75, 236-239.
15. Brauer R, Thoss K, Henzgen S & Waldman G (1985) Lectininduced arthritis of rabbit as a model of rheumatoid arthritis. In Lectins, vol. IV, pp. 29-38 [TC Bog-Hansen and E van Driessche, editors]. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Company.
16. Buchanan HM, Preston SJ, Brooks PM & Buchanan WW (1991) Is diet important in rheumatoid arthritis? British Journal of Rheumatology 30, 125-134.
17. + T cells by a self-derived peptide. Nature 378, 295-298.
18. Charkravarty K & Scott DGI (1992) Oligoarthritis - a presenting feature of occult coeliac disease. British Journal of Rheumatology 31, 349-350.
19. Chicz RM, Urban RG, Gorga JC, Vignali DA, Lane WS & Strominger JL (1993) Specificity and promiscuity among naturally processed peptides bound to HLA-DR alleles. Journal of Experimental Medicine 178, 27-47.
20. Clevers HC, De Bresser A, Kleinveld H, Gmelig-Meyling FHJ & Ballieux RE (1986) Wheat germ agglutinin activates human T lymphocytes by stimulation of phosphoinositide hydrolysis. Journal of Immunology 136, 3180-3183.
21. Collin P & Maki M (1994) Associated disorders in coeliac disease: clinical aspects. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 29, 769-775.
22. Crissinger KD, Kvietys PR & Granger DN (1990) Pathophysiology of gastrointestinal mucosal permeability. Journal of Internal Medicine 732, (Suppl.), 145-154.
23. Dalton TA & Bennett JC (1992) Autoimmune disease and the major histocompatibility complex: therapeutic implications. American Journal of Medicine 92, 183-188.
24. Darlington LG, Ramsey NW & Mansfield JR (1986) Placebo-controlled, blind study of dietary manipulation therapy in rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet i, 236-238.
25. Doherty M & Barry RE (1981) Gluten-induced mucosal changes in subjects without overt small-bowel disease. Lancet i, 517-520.
26. Eerola E, Mottonen T, Hannonen P, Luukkainen R, Kantola I, Vuori K, Tuominen J & Toivanen P (1994) Intestinal flora in early rheumatoid arthritis. British Journal of Rheumatology 33, 1030-1038.
27. Fabia R, Ar'Rajab A, Johansson ML, Willen R, Andersson R, Molin G & Bengmark S (1993) The effect of exogenous administration of Lactobacillus reuteri R2LC and oat fiber on acetic acid-induced colitis in the rat. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 28, 155-162.
28. Firestein GS, Alvaro-Gracia JM & Maki R (1990) Quantitative analysis of cytokine gene expression in rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Immunology 144, 33347-33353.
29. Goronzy JJ & Weyland CM (1993) Interplay of T lymphocytes and HLA-DR molecules in rheumatoid arthritis. Current Opinion in Rheumatology 5, 169-177.
30. Grant G, More LJ, McKenzie NH & Pusztai A (1982) The effect of heating on the haemagglutinating activity and nutritional properties of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seeds. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 33, 1324-1326.
31. Greer F & Pusztai A (1985) Toxicity of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) in rats: changes in intestinal permeability. Digestion 32, 42-46.
32. Griffiths RJ (1992) Characterisation and pharmacological sensitivity of antigen arthritis induced by methylated bovine serum albumin in the rat. Agents and Actions 35, 88-95.
33. Grossman JM & Brahn E (1997) Rheumatoid arthritis: current clinical and research directions. Journal of Womens Health 6, 627-638.
34. Hamilton I, Cobden I, Rothwell J & Axon ATR (1982) Intestinal permeability in coeliac disease: the response to gluten withdrawal and single-dose gluten challenge. Gut 23, 202-210.
35. Haugen MA, Kjeldsen-Dragh J & Forre O (1994) A pilot study of the effect of an elemental diet in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology 12, 275-279.
36. Hazenberg MP, Klassen IS, Kool J, Ruseler-van Embden JG & Severijnen AJ (1992) Are intestinal bacteria involved in the etiology of rheumatoid arthritis? APMIS 100, 1-9.
37. Henriksson AE, Blomquist L, Nord CE, Midtvedt T & Uribe A (1993) Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 52, 503-510.
38. Husby S, Jensenius JC & Svehag SE (1985) Passage of undegraded dietary antigen into the blood of healthy adults. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 22, 83-92.
39. Jameson SC, Hogquist KA & Bevan MJ (1995) Positive selection and thymocytes. Annual Review of Immunology 13, 93-126.
40. Karska K, Tuckova L, Steiner L, Tlaskalova-Hogenova H & Michalak M (1995) Calreticulin - the potential autoantigen in celiac disease. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 209, 597-605.
41. Katz KD & Hollander D (1989) Intestinal mucosal permeability and rheumatological diseases. Baillières Clinical Rheumatology 3, 271-284.
42. Kavanaghi R, Workman E, Nash P, Smith M, Hazleman BL & Hunter JO (1995) The effects of elemental diet and subsequent food reintroduction on rheumatoid arthritis. British Journal of Rheumatology 34, 270-273.
43. Keshavarzian A, Fields JZ, Vaeth J & Holmes EW (1994) The differing effects of acute and chronic alcohol on gastric and intestinal permeability. American Journal of Gastroenterology 89, 2205-2211.
44. Kjeldsen-Kragh J, Haugen M, Borchgrevink CF, Laerum E, Eek M, Mowinkel P, Hovi K & Forre O (1991) Controlled trial of fasting and one-year vegetarian diet in rheumatoid arthritis. Lancet 338, 899-902.
45. Klasen IS, Melief MJ, van Halteren AG, Schouten WR, van Blankenstein M, Hoke G, de Visser H, Hooijkaas H & Hazenberg MP (1994) The presence of peptidoglycan-polysaccharide complexes in the bowel wall and the cellular responses to these complexes in Crohn's disease. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology 71, 303-308.
46. Koch AE, Shah MR, Harlow LA, Lovis RM & Pope RM (1994) Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in arthritis. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology 71, 208-215.
47. Kool J, Gerits-Boeye MY, Severijnen AJ & Hazenberg MP (1992) Immunohistology of joint inflammation induced in rats by cell wall fragments of Eubacterium aerofaciens. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 36, 497-506.
48. La Cava A, Nelson JL, Ollier WER, MacGregor A, Keystone EC, Thorne JC, Scavulli JF, Berry CC, Carson DA & Albani S (1997) Genetic bias in immune responses to a cassette shared by different microorganisms in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Clinical Investigation 100, 658-663.
49. Lepore L, Martelossi S, Pennesi M, Falcini F, Ermini ML, Ferrari R, Perticarari S, Presani G, Lucchesi A, Lapini M & Ventura A (1996) Prevalence of celiac disease in patients with juvenile arthritis. Journal of Pediatrics 129, 311-313.
50. Lepore L, Pennesi M, Ventura A, Torre G, Falcini F, Lucchesi A & Perticarari S (1993) Anti-alpha-gliadin antibodies are not predictive of coeliac disease in juvenile chronic arthritis. Acta Paediatrica 82, 569-573.
51. Liener IE (1986) Nutritional significance of lectins in the diet. In The Lectins: Properties, Functions and Applications in Biology and Medicine, pp. 527-552 [IE Liener, N Sharon and IJ Goldstein, editors]. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
52. Lowes JR, Radwan P, Priddle JD & Jewell DP (1992) Characterisation and quantification of mucosal cytokine that induces epithelial histocompatibility locus antigen-DR expression in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut 33, 315-319.
53. Lunardi C, Bambara LM, Biasi D, Venturini G, Nicholis F, Pachor ML & DeSandre G (1988) Food allergy and rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology 6, 423-426.
54. Mageed RA, Borretzen M, Moyes SP, Thompson KM & Natvig JB (1997) Rheumatoid factor autoantibodies in health and disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 815, 296-311.
55. Mehta SK, Kaur S, Avasthi G, Wig NN & Chhuttani PN (1972) Small intestinal deficit in pellagra. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 25, 545-549.
56. Mielants H (1990) Reflections on the link between intestinal permeability and inflammatory joint disease. Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology 8, 523-524.
57. Mowat AM (1987) The regulation of immune responses to dietary protein antigens. Immunology Today 8, 93-98.
58. Nardella FA, Oppliger IR, Stone GC, Sasso EH, Mannik M, Sjoquist J, Schroder AK, Christensen P, Johansson PJ & Bjork L (1998) Fc epitopes for human rheumatoid factors and the relationships of rheumatoid factors to the Fc binding proteins of microorganisms. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 75, (Suppl.), 190-198.
59. Nardella FA, Teller DC, Barber CV & Mannik M (1985) IgG rheumatoid factors and staphylococcal protein A bind to a common molecular site on IgG. Journal of Experimental Medicine 162, 1811-1824.
60. Nossal GJV (1994) Negative selection of lymphocytes. Cell 76, 229-239.
61. Odeh M (1997) New insights into the pathogenesis and treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology 83, 103-116.
62. O'dell JR, Haire CE, Palmer W, Drymalski W, Wees S, Blakely K, Churchill M, Eckhoff PJ, Weaver A, Doud D, Erikson N, Dietz F, Olson R, Maloley P, Klassen LW & Moore GF (1997) Treatment of early rheumatoid arthritis with minocylcline or placebo: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis and Rheumatism 40, 842-848.
63. O'Farrelly C, Marten D, Melcher D, McDougall B, Price R, Goldstein AJ, Sherwood R & Fernandes L (1988) Association between villous atrophy in rheumatoid arthritis and a rheumatoid factor and gliadin-specific IgG. Lancet ii, 819-822.
64. O'Farrelly C, Price R, McGillivray AJ & Fernandes L (1989) IgA rheumatoid factor and IgG dietary protein antibodies are associated in rheumatoid arthritis. Immunology Investigations 18, 753-764.
65. Ohashi F, Shimada T, Sakaurai M, Ishihara S, Kuwamura M, Yamate J & Ota M (1996) The production of arthritis in beagles by an immunological reaction to bovine serum albumin. Experimental Animals 45, 299-307.
66. Oldstone MBA (1987) Molecular mimicry and autoimmune disease. Cell 50, 819-820.
67. Ostenstad B, Dybwad A, Lea T, Forre O, Vinje O & Sioud M (1995) Evidence for monoclonal expansion of synovial T cells bearing V alpha 2.1/V beta 5.5 gene segments and recognizing a synthetic peptide that shares homology with a number of putative autoantigens. Immunology 86, 168-175.
68. Panush RS, Stroud RM & Webster EM (1986) Food-induced (allergic) arthritis. Inflammatory arthritis exacerbated by milk. Arthritis and Rheumatism 29, 220-226.
69. Parke AL & Hughes GRV (1981) Rheumatoid arthritis and food: a case study. British Medical Journal 282, 2027-2029.
70. Perez-Maceda B, Lopez-Bote JP, Langa C & Bernabeu C (1991) Antibodies to dietary antigens in rheumatoid arthritis - possible molecular mimicry mechanism. Clinica Chimica Acta 203, 153-165.
71. Peumans WJ & Cammue BPA (1986) Gramineae lectins: a special class of plant lectins. In Lectins - Biology, Biochemistry, Clinical Biochemistry, vol. 5, pp. 31-37 [TC Bog-Hansen and E van Driessche, editors]. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Company.
72. Piccinini LA, Mackenzie WA, Platzer M & Davis TF (1987) Lymphokine regulation of HLA-DR gene expression in human thyroid cell monolayers. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 64, 543-548.
73. Pusztai A (1989a) Transport of proteins through the membranes of the adult gastrointestinal tract - a potential for drug delivery? Advances in Drug Delivery Reviews 3, 215-228.
74. Pusztai A (19896) Lectins. In Toxicants of Plant Origin, vol. III, pp. 29-71 [PR Cheeke, editor]. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
75. Pusztai A (1993) Dietary lectins are metabolic signals for the gut and modulate immune and hormone functions. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 47, 691-699.
76. Pusztai A, Ewen SWB, Grant G, Brown DS, Stewart JC, Peumans WJ, Van Damme EJM & Bardocz S (1993a) Antinutritive effects of wheat-germ agglutinin and other N-acetylglucosamine-specific lectins. British Journal of Nutrition 70, 313-321.
77. Pusztai A, Ewen SWB, Grant G, Peumans WJ, Van Damme EJM, Rubio LA & Bardocz S (1991) Plant (food) lectins as signal molecules: effects on the morphology and bacterial ecology of the small intestine. In Lectin Reviews, vol. 1, pp. 1-15 [DC Kilpatrick, E Van Driessche and TC Bog-Hansen, editors]. St Louis, MO: Sigma.
78. Pusztai A, Grant G, Spencer RJ, Duguid TJ, Brown DS, Ewen SWB, Peumans WJ, Van Damme EJM & Bardocz S (1993b) Kidney bean lectin-induced Escherichia coli overgrowth in the small intestine is blocked by GNA, a mannose-specific lectin. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 75, 360-368.
79. Pusztai A, Greer F & Grant G (1989) Specific uptake of dietary lectins into the systemic circulation of rats. Biochemical Society Transcations 17, 527-528.
80. Rath HC, Herfarth H, Ikeda JS, Grenther WB, Hamm TE, Balish E, Taurog JD, Hammer RE, Wilson KH & Sartor B (1996) Normal luminal bacteria, especially bacteroides species, mediate chronic colitis, gastritis, and arthritis in HLA-B27/Human B2 microglobulin transgenic rats. Journal of Clinical Investigation 98, 945-953.
81. Rattray EAS, Palmer R & Pusztai A (1974) Toxicity of kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) to conventional and gnotobiotic rats. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 25, 1035-1040.
82. Riordan AM, Hunter JO, Cowan RE, Crampton JR, Davidson AR, Dickinson RJ, Dronfield MW, Fellows IW, Hishon S & Kerrigan GN (1993) Treatment of active Crohn's disease by exclusion diet: East Anglian multicentre controlled trial. Lancet 342, 1131-1134.
83. Roudier J, Petersen J, Rhodes G, Luka J & Carson DA (1989) Susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis maps to a T cell epitope shared by the HLA Dw4 DR beta 1 chain and the Epstein Barr virus glucoprotein gpl 10. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 86, 5104-5108.
84. Routsias JG, Tzioufas AG, Sakarellos-Daitsiotis M, Sakarellos C & Moutsopoulos HM (1993) Calreticulin synthetic peptide analogues: anti-peptide antibodies in autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Clinical and Experimental Immunology 91, 437-441.
85. Rowley MJ, Stockman A, Brand CA, Tait BD, Rowley GL, Sherritt MA, Mackay IR, Muirden KD & Bernard CC (1997) The effect of HLA-DRB1 disease susceptibility markers on the expression of RA. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 26, 448-455.
86. Ryder SD, Smith JA & Rhodes JM (1992) Peanut lectin: a mitogen for normal human colonic epithelium and human HT29 colorectal cancer cells. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 84, 1410-1416.
87. Sartor RB (1989) Importance of intestinal mucosal immunity and luminal bacterial cell wall polymers in the aetiology of inflammatory joint disease. Baillières Clinical Rheumatology 3, 223-245.
88. Sartor RB, Rath HC, Lichtman SN & van Tol EA (1996) Animal models of intestinal and joint inflammation. Baillières Clinical Rheumatology 10, 55-76.
89. Shatin R (1964) Preliminary report of the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with high protein gluten free diet and supplementation. Medical Journal of Australia 2, 169-172.
90. Shingú M, Hashimoto M, Nobunaga M, Isayama T, Yasutake C & Naono T (1994) Production of soluble ICAM-1 by mononuclear cells from patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Inflammation 18, 23-34.
91. Sjolander A, Magnusson KE & Latkovic S (1984) The effect of concanavalin A and wheat germ agglutinin on the ultrastructure and permeability of rat intestine. International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology 75, 230-236.
92. Sjolander A, Magnusson KE & Latkovic S (1986) Morphological changes of rat small intestine after short-time exposure to concanavalin A or wheat germ agglutinin. Cell Structure and Function 11, 285-293.
93. Smith MD, Gibson RA & Brooks PM (1985) Abnormal bowel permeability in ankylosing spondylitis and rheumatoid arthritis. Journal of Rheumatology 12, 299-305.
94. Sutton BJ, Corper AL, Sohi MK, Jefferis R, Beale D & Taussig MJ (1998) The structure of a human rheumatoid factor bound to IgG Fc. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 435, 41-50.
95. Taurog JD, Richardson JA, Croft JT, Simmons WA, Zhou M, Fernandez-Sueiro JL, Balish E & Hammer RE (1994) The germfree state prevents development of gut and joint inflammatory disease in HLA-B27 transgenic rats. Journal of Experimental Medicine 180, 2359-2364.
96. Thomsen P, Bjursten LM, Ahlstedt S, Bagge U & Ericson LE (1985) Proliferative synovitis in rabbit knee joints induced by antigen and preformed immune complexes. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology 14, 239-251.
97. Travis S & Menzies I (1992) Intestinal permeability: functional assessment and significance. Clinical Science 82, 471-488.
98. Trentham DE & Dynesius-Trentham RA (1995) Antibiotic therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Scientific and anecdotal appraisals. Rheumatic Disease Clinics in North America 21, 817-834.
99. Tsuda M (1979) Purification and characterization of a lectin from rice bran. Journal of Biochemistry 86, 1451-1461.
100. Udey MC, Chaplin DD, Wedner HJ & Parker CW (1980) Early activation events in lectin stimulated human lymphocytes: evidence that wheat germ agglutinin and mitogenic lectins cause similar early changes in lymphocyte metabolism. Journal of Immunology 125, 1544-1550.
101. van de Laar MA & van der Korst JK (1992) Food intolerance in rheumatoid arthritis. I. A double blind, controlled trial of the clinical effects of elimination of milk allergens and azo dyes. Annals of the Rheumatoid Diseases 51, 298-302.
102. van den Bourne BE, Kijkmans BA, de Rooij HH, le Cessie S & Verweij CL (1997) Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine equally affect tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6, and interferon-gamma production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Journal of Rheumatology 24, 55-60.
103. Verreck FA, Elferink D, Vermeulen CJ, Amons R, Breedveld F, de Vries RR & Koning F (1995) DR4Dw4/DR53 molecules contain a peptide from the autoantigen calreticulin. Tissue Antigens 45, 270-275.
104. von Herrath MG & Oldstone MBA (1995) Role of viruses in the loss of tolerance to self-antigens and in autoimmune diseases. Trends in Microbiology 3, 424-430.
105. Wagner U, Kaltenhauser S, Sauer H, Arnold S, Seidel W, Hantzschel H, Kalden JR & Wassmuth R (1997) HLA markers and prediction of clinical course and outcome in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 40, 341-351.
106. Weetman AP, Volkman DJ, Burman KD, Gerrard TL & Fauci AS (1985) The in vitro regulation of human thyrocyte HLA-DR antigen expression. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 61, 817-824.
107. Welsh CJ, Hanglow AC, Conn P, Barker TH & Coombs RR (1985) Early rheumatoid-like synovial lesions in rabbits drinking cow's milk. Joint pathology. International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology 78, 145-151.
108. Weyland CM & Goronzy JJ (1997) Pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Medical Clinics of North America 81, 29-55.
109. Williams R (1981) Rheumatoid arthritis and food: a case study. British Medical Journal 283, 563.
110. Williams RC (1992) Rheumatoid factors: historical perspective, origins and possible role in disease. Journal of Rheumatology 32 (Suppl.), 42-45.
111. Williams RC (1996) Autoimmune mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Advances in Dental Research 10, 47-51.
112. Wilson AB, King TP, Clarke EMW & Pusztai A (1980) Kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) lectin-induced lesions in the small intestine. II. Microbiological studies. Journal of Comparative Pathology 90, 597-602.
113. Wilson C, Tiwana H & Ebringer A (1997) HLA-DR4 restriction, molecular mimicry and rheumatoid arthritis. Immunology Today 18, 96-97.
114. Ziff M (1983) Diet in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism 26, 457-461.