The rise of Sunni militancy in Pakistan: The changing role of Islamism and the Ulama in society and politics

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 139-180

  Nasr, S V R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SAN DIEGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ISLAMISM; POLITICAL SYSTEM; STATE ROLE; VIOLENCE;

PAKISTAN;

EID: 0034006269     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X00003565     Document Type: Article

References (134)

1. The International Herald Tribune, Aug. 16-17, 1997, p. 1.
2. The Nation (Islamabad), Sept. 1, 1994.
3. The official death toll was ninety-five; the actual number according to eyewitness estimates stood at 200. Newsline (Karachi) (Oct. 1996), p. 72.
4. Herald (Karachi) (Sept. 1992), p. 34.
5. The News (Islamabad), March 2, 1995, p. 1.
6. Zindagi (Lahore), Febr. 15, 1995, p. 39; and Herald (Oct. 1996), p. 56.
7. Zindagi (Lahore), Febr. 15, 1995, p. 39; and Herald (Oct. 1996), p. 56.
8. Herald (Oct. 1996), p. 56.
9. Ibid.
10. Anwar H. Syed, The Discourse and Politics of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (New York: St Martin's Press, 1992), pp. 205-24; Stanley Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 214-29; and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, The Vanguard of Islamic Revolution: the Jama 'at-i Islami of Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 179.
11. Anwar H. Syed, The Discourse and Politics of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (New York: St Martin's Press, 1992), pp. 205-24; Stanley Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 214-29; and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, The Vanguard of Islamic Revolution: the Jama 'at-i Islami of Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 179.
12. Anwar H. Syed, The Discourse and Politics of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (New York: St Martin's Press, 1992), pp. 205-24; Stanley Wolpert, Zulfi Bhutto of Pakistan (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 214-29; and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, The Vanguard of Islamic Revolution: the Jama 'at-i Islami of Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 179.
13. Herald (Oct. 1996), p. 54.
14. On Arab support for the Afghan war, see: Barnett R. Rubin, The Fragmentation of Afghanistan; State Formation and Collapse in the International System (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), pp. 196-7; idem, 'Arab Islamists in Afghanistan,' in John L. Esposito (ed.), Political Islam: Revolution, Radicalism, or Reform? (Boulder: Lynnc Rienner, 1997), pp. 179-206.
15. On Arab support for the Afghan war, see: Barnett R. Rubin, The Fragmentation of Afghanistan; State Formation and Collapse in the International System (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), pp. 196-7; idem, 'Arab Islamists in Afghanistan,' in John L. Esposito (ed.), Political Islam: Revolution, Radicalism, or Reform? (Boulder: Lynnc Rienner, 1997), pp. 179-206.
16. On the Zia regime's Islamization policies, see: Afzal Iqbal, Islamisation in Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1986); Shahidjaved Burki and Craig Baxter, Pakistan Under the Military: Eleven years of Zia ul-Haq (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991); Charles Kennedy, 'Islamization and Legal Reform in Pakistan, 1979-89,' Pacific Affairs, 63:1 (Spring 1990), pp. 62-77; Mumtaz Ahmad, 'Islam and the State: The Case of Pakistan,' in Matthew Moen and Lowell Gustafson (eds), The Religious Challenge to the State (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), pp. 239-67; Anita Weiss (ed.), Islamic Reassertion in Pakistan: Application of Islamic Laws in a Modern State (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986); Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, 'Islamic Opposition to the Islamic State: the Jama 'at-i Islami 1977-1988,' International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25, 2 (May 1993), pp. 261-83.
17. On the Zia regime's Islamization policies, see: Afzal Iqbal, Islamisation in Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1986); Shahidjaved Burki and Craig Baxter, Pakistan Under the Military: Eleven years of Zia ul-Haq (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991); Charles Kennedy, 'Islamization and Legal Reform in Pakistan, 1979-89,' Pacific Affairs, 63:1 (Spring 1990), pp. 62-77; Mumtaz Ahmad, 'Islam and the State: The Case of Pakistan,' in Matthew Moen and Lowell Gustafson (eds), The Religious Challenge to the State (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), pp. 239-67; Anita Weiss (ed.), Islamic Reassertion in Pakistan: Application of Islamic Laws in a Modern State (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986); Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, 'Islamic Opposition to the Islamic State: the Jama 'at-i Islami 1977-1988,' International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25, 2 (May 1993), pp. 261-83.
18. On the Zia regime's Islamization policies, see: Afzal Iqbal, Islamisation in Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1986); Shahidjaved Burki and Craig Baxter, Pakistan Under the Military: Eleven years of Zia ul-Haq (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991); Charles Kennedy, 'Islamization and Legal Reform in Pakistan, 1979-89,' Pacific Affairs, 63:1 (Spring 1990), pp. 62-77; Mumtaz Ahmad, 'Islam and the State: The Case of Pakistan,' in Matthew Moen and Lowell Gustafson (eds), The Religious Challenge to the State (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), pp. 239-67; Anita Weiss (ed.), Islamic Reassertion in Pakistan: Application of Islamic Laws in a Modern State (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986); Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, 'Islamic Opposition to the Islamic State: the Jama 'at-i Islami 1977-1988,' International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25, 2 (May 1993), pp. 261-83.
19. On the Zia regime's Islamization policies, see: Afzal Iqbal, Islamisation in Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1986); Shahidjaved Burki and Craig Baxter, Pakistan Under the Military: Eleven years of Zia ul-Haq (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991); Charles Kennedy, 'Islamization and Legal Reform in Pakistan, 1979-89,' Pacific Affairs, 63:1 (Spring 1990), pp. 62-77; Mumtaz Ahmad, 'Islam and the State: The Case of Pakistan,' in Matthew Moen and Lowell Gustafson (eds), The Religious Challenge to the State (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), pp. 239-67; Anita Weiss (ed.), Islamic Reassertion in Pakistan: Application of Islamic Laws in a Modern State (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986); Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, 'Islamic Opposition to the Islamic State: the Jama 'at-i Islami 1977-1988,' International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25, 2 (May 1993), pp. 261-83.
20. On the Zia regime's Islamization policies, see: Afzal Iqbal, Islamisation in Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1986); Shahidjaved Burki and Craig Baxter, Pakistan Under the Military: Eleven years of Zia ul-Haq (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991); Charles Kennedy, 'Islamization and Legal Reform in Pakistan, 1979-89,' Pacific Affairs, 63:1 (Spring 1990), pp. 62-77; Mumtaz Ahmad, 'Islam and the State: The Case of Pakistan,' in Matthew Moen and Lowell Gustafson (eds), The Religious Challenge to the State (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), pp. 239-67; Anita Weiss (ed.), Islamic Reassertion in Pakistan: Application of Islamic Laws in a Modern State (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986); Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, 'Islamic Opposition to the Islamic State: the Jama 'at-i Islami 1977-1988,' International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25, 2 (May 1993), pp. 261-83.
21. On the Zia regime's Islamization policies, see: Afzal Iqbal, Islamisation in Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1986); Shahidjaved Burki and Craig Baxter, Pakistan Under the Military: Eleven years of Zia ul-Haq (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991); Charles Kennedy, 'Islamization and Legal Reform in Pakistan, 1979-89,' Pacific Affairs, 63:1 (Spring 1990), pp. 62-77; Mumtaz Ahmad, 'Islam and the State: The Case of Pakistan,' in Matthew Moen and Lowell Gustafson (eds), The Religious Challenge to the State (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), pp. 239-67; Anita Weiss (ed.), Islamic Reassertion in Pakistan: Application of Islamic Laws in a Modern State (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986); Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, 'Islamic Opposition to the Islamic State: the Jama 'at-i Islami 1977-1988,' International Journal of Middle East Studies, 25, 2 (May 1993), pp. 261-83.
22. S. Jamal Malik, Colonization of Islam: Dissolution of Traditional Institutions in Pakistan (New Delhi: Manohar, 1996), pp. 85-119.
23. Idem, 'Islamization in Pakistan 1977-1985: the Ulama and their Places of Learning,' Islamic Studies, 28, 1 (Spring 1989), p. 13.
24. Economist, Jan. 28, 1996, p. 37.
25. Malik, 'Islamization,' pp. 9-10.
26. Muhammad Qasim Zaman, 'The Reform of the Madrasah in British India and Pakistan,' unpublished paper presented at the Rockefeller Foundation, Duke University, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, and North Carolina State University's 'Transformations of the South Asian Islamicate Community in the 19th and 20th Centuries' conference in May 1996.
27. Malik, 'Islamization,' pp. 11-12.
28. The government also established the International Islamic University in Islamabad with the financial assistance of Saudi Arabia for this very purpose.
29. On the dars-i nizami, see Barbara Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), p. 31; and Shaikh Muhammad Ikram, Rud-i Kawthar, reprint (Lahore: Idarah-i Thaqafat-i Islam, 1988), pp. 605-9.
30. On the dars-i nizami, see Barbara Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), p. 31; and Shaikh Muhammad Ikram, Rud-i Kawthar, reprint (Lahore: Idarah-i Thaqafat-i Islam, 1988), pp. 605-9.
31. Malik, 'Islamization,' p. 16.
32. Ibid., p. 12.
33. See, for instance, Maryam Jameelah, A Manifesto of the Islamic Movement (Lahore: Mohammad Yusuf Khan, 1969), and idem, Islam in Theory and Practice (Lahore: Mohammad Yusuf Khan, 1973).
34. See, for instance, Maryam Jameelah, A Manifesto of the Islamic Movement (Lahore: Mohammad Yusuf Khan, 1969), and idem, Islam in Theory and Practice (Lahore: Mohammad Yusuf Khan, 1973).
35. On Mawdudi's views on the ulama, see Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr, Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 110-22.
36. Ijtima 'se ijtima 'tak (1963-1974): rudad-i Jama 'at-i Islami, Pakistan (From Convention to Convention (1963-1974): Proceedings of the Jama'at-i Islami of Pakistan) (Lahore: Jama'at-i Islami, 1989); Jan Muhammad Abbasi, Ulama convention ki rudad (Proceedings of the Ulama Convention) (Lahore: Jama 'at-i Islami, 1989); and Herald (Sept. 1992), pp. 32-3.
37. Ijtima 'se ijtima 'tak (1963-1974): rudad-i Jama 'at-i Islami, Pakistan (From Convention to Convention (1963-1974): Proceedings of the Jama'at-i Islami of Pakistan) (Lahore: Jama'at-i Islami, 1989); Jan Muhammad Abbasi, Ulama convention ki rudad (Proceedings of the Ulama Convention) (Lahore: Jama 'at-i Islami, 1989); and Herald (Sept. 1992), pp. 32-3.
38. Ijtima 'se ijtima 'tak (1963-1974): rudad-i Jama 'at-i Islami, Pakistan (From Convention to Convention (1963-1974): Proceedings of the Jama'at-i Islami of Pakistan) (Lahore: Jama'at-i Islami, 1989); Jan Muhammad Abbasi, Ulama convention ki rudad (Proceedings of the Ulama Convention) (Lahore: Jama 'at-i Islami, 1989); and Herald (Sept. 1992), pp. 32-3.
39. Scyycd Vali Reza Nasr, '"Organization" in Islamic Revivalist Movements,' in Charles H. Kennedy and Rasul B. Rais (eds), Pakistan 1995 (Boulder: Wcstview Press, 1995), pp. 61-82.
40. Mumtaz Ahmad, 'Revivalism, Islamization, Sectarianism and Violence in Pakistan,' in Craig Baxter and Charles H. Kennedy (eds), Pakistan 1997 (Boulder CO: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 101-21.
41. Newsline (Oct. 1996), p. 75.
42. Herald (June 1994), p. 30.
43. Olivier Roy refers to this class as the 'lumpen intelligentsia', Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 89-106.
44. Herald (Dec. 1997), p. 64.
45. Jamal Malik, 'Dynamics Among Traditional Religious Scholars and their Institutions in Contemporary South Asia,' The Muslim World, 87, 3-4 (July-Oct. 1997), pp. 216-17.
46. Idem, 'Islamization,' p. 22.
47. Nasr, 'Islamic Opposition to the Islamic State,' pp. 261-83.
48. On the confrontation between Shi'i and Sunni Islamism, see Roy, The Failure of Political Islam, pp. 123-4, and Chibli Mallat, 'Religious Militancy in Contemporary Iraq: Muhammad Baqer as-Sadr and the Sunni-Shi'i Paradigm,' Third World Quarterly, 10, 2 (April 1988), pp. 699-729.
49. On the confrontation between Shi'i and Sunni Islamism, see Roy, The Failure of Political Islam, pp. 123-4, and Chibli Mallat, 'Religious Militancy in Contemporary Iraq: Muhammad Baqer as-Sadr and the Sunni-Shi'i Paradigm,' Third World Quarterly, 10, 2 (April 1988), pp. 699-729.
50. Herald (Aug. 1992), p. 67.
51. On April 12, 1983 the Sunni activists attacked Markazi Imambarah in Liaqatabad, producing clashes that led to the arrest of 135 people by the police. On April 15 there was another attack on an Imambarah in Golimar; cited in Syed M. Zaidi, 'Shi'i Activism in Islam: An Overview,' unpublished manuscript, p. 36.
52. On Shi'i politics in Pakistan, see Nikki Keddie, The Shi'a of Pakistan: Reflections and Problems for Further Research, Working Paper 23 (Los Angeles: The G. E. von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, 1993); Saleem Qureshi, 'the Politics of the Shia Minority in Pakistan: Context and Developments,' in D. Vajpeyi and Y. Malik, Religious and Ethnic Minority Politics in South Asia (Delhi: Manohar, 1989), pp. 109-38; Afak Haydar, 'The Politicization of the Shias and the Development of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria in Pakistan,' in Charles H. Kennedy (ed.), Pakistan 1992 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 75-93; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: an Interview with Arif Hussaini,' Third World Quarterly (1988), pp. 806-17; Muhammad Qasim Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan: the Radicalization of Shi'i and Sunni Identities,' Modern Asian Studies, 32, 3 (1998), pp. 687-716; and Munir D. Ahmad, 'The Shi'is of Pakistan,' in Martin Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism: Resistance and Revolution (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 275-87.
53. On Shi'i politics in Pakistan, see Nikki Keddie, The Shi'a of Pakistan: Reflections and Problems for Further Research, Working Paper 23 (Los Angeles: The G. E. von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, 1993); Saleem Qureshi, 'the Politics of the Shia Minority in Pakistan: Context and Developments,' in D. Vajpeyi and Y. Malik, Religious and Ethnic Minority Politics in South Asia (Delhi: Manohar, 1989), pp. 109-38; Afak Haydar, 'The Politicization of the Shias and the Development of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria in Pakistan,' in Charles H. Kennedy (ed.), Pakistan 1992 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 75-93; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: an Interview with Arif Hussaini,' Third World Quarterly (1988), pp. 806-17; Muhammad Qasim Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan: the Radicalization of Shi'i and Sunni Identities,' Modern Asian Studies, 32, 3 (1998), pp. 687-716; and Munir D. Ahmad, 'The Shi'is of Pakistan,' in Martin Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism: Resistance and Revolution (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 275-87.
54. On Shi'i politics in Pakistan, see Nikki Keddie, The Shi'a of Pakistan: Reflections and Problems for Further Research, Working Paper 23 (Los Angeles: The G. E. von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, 1993); Saleem Qureshi, 'the Politics of the Shia Minority in Pakistan: Context and Developments,' in D. Vajpeyi and Y. Malik, Religious and Ethnic Minority Politics in South Asia (Delhi: Manohar, 1989), pp. 109-38; Afak Haydar, 'The Politicization of the Shias and the Development of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria in Pakistan,' in Charles H. Kennedy (ed.), Pakistan 1992 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 75-93; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: an Interview with Arif Hussaini,' Third World Quarterly (1988), pp. 806-17; Muhammad Qasim Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan: the Radicalization of Shi'i and Sunni Identities,' Modern Asian Studies, 32, 3 (1998), pp. 687-716; and Munir D. Ahmad, 'The Shi'is of Pakistan,' in Martin Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism: Resistance and Revolution (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 275-87.
55. On Shi'i politics in Pakistan, see Nikki Keddie, The Shi'a of Pakistan: Reflections and Problems for Further Research, Working Paper 23 (Los Angeles: The G. E. von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, 1993); Saleem Qureshi, 'the Politics of the Shia Minority in Pakistan: Context and Developments,' in D. Vajpeyi and Y. Malik, Religious and Ethnic Minority Politics in South Asia (Delhi: Manohar, 1989), pp. 109-38; Afak Haydar, 'The Politicization of the Shias and the Development of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria in Pakistan,' in Charles H. Kennedy (ed.), Pakistan 1992 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 75-93; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: an Interview with Arif Hussaini,' Third World Quarterly (1988), pp. 806-17; Muhammad Qasim Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan: the Radicalization of Shi'i and Sunni Identities,' Modern Asian Studies, 32, 3 (1998), pp. 687-716; and Munir D. Ahmad, 'The Shi'is of Pakistan,' in Martin Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism: Resistance and Revolution (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 275-87.
56. On Shi'i politics in Pakistan, see Nikki Keddie, The Shi'a of Pakistan: Reflections and Problems for Further Research, Working Paper 23 (Los Angeles: The G. E. von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, 1993); Saleem Qureshi, 'the Politics of the Shia Minority in Pakistan: Context and Developments,' in D. Vajpeyi and Y. Malik, Religious and Ethnic Minority Politics in South Asia (Delhi: Manohar, 1989), pp. 109-38; Afak Haydar, 'The Politicization of the Shias and the Development of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria in Pakistan,' in Charles H. Kennedy (ed.), Pakistan 1992 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 75-93; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: an Interview with Arif Hussaini,' Third World Quarterly (1988), pp. 806-17; Muhammad Qasim Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan: the Radicalization of Shi'i and Sunni Identities,' Modern Asian Studies, 32, 3 (1998), pp. 687-716; and Munir D. Ahmad, 'The Shi'is of Pakistan,' in Martin Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism: Resistance and Revolution (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 275-87.
57. On Shi'i politics in Pakistan, see Nikki Keddie, The Shi'a of Pakistan: Reflections and Problems for Further Research, Working Paper 23 (Los Angeles: The G. E. von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, University of California, Los Angeles, 1993); Saleem Qureshi, 'the Politics of the Shia Minority in Pakistan: Context and Developments,' in D. Vajpeyi and Y. Malik, Religious and Ethnic Minority Politics in South Asia (Delhi: Manohar, 1989), pp. 109-38; Afak Haydar, 'The Politicization of the Shias and the Development of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria in Pakistan,' in Charles H. Kennedy (ed.), Pakistan 1992 (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), pp. 75-93; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: an Interview with Arif Hussaini,' Third World Quarterly (1988), pp. 806-17; Muhammad Qasim Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan: the Radicalization of Shi'i and Sunni Identities,' Modern Asian Studies, 32, 3 (1998), pp. 687-716; and Munir D. Ahmad, 'The Shi'is of Pakistan,' in Martin Kramer (ed.), Shi'ism: Resistance and Revolution (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 275-87.
58. Many Pakistani Shi'is in fact believe that Husaini was assassinated by the powers-that-be for that very reason.
59. Zia still sought to placate Shi'is and Iran through symbolic gestures. For instance, between 1985 and 1988 the Speaker of the National Assembly was a Shi'i, S. Fakhr Imam; and throughout the 1980s, Shi'i generals held prominent positions in the military, albeit none were placed in charge of sensitive operations.
60. This charge is often leveled by Shi'i community leaders, and is echoed by some of my interlocutors in the military as well.
61. Herald (Sept. 1992), p. 34.
62. For a general discussion of recent Shi'i-Sunni polemics, see Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought (London: Macmillan, 1982), pp. 18-51.
63. Sayyid Abu'l-A'la Mawdudi, Shahadat-i Imam Husain (Imam Husain's Martyrdom) (Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1984), and Muhammad Tahiru'l-Qadri, Shahadat-i Imam Husain (Imam Husain's Martyrdom) (Lahore: Idarah-i Minhaju'l-Qur'an, 1989).
64. Sayyid Abu'l-A'la Mawdudi, Shahadat-i Imam Husain (Imam Husain's Martyrdom) (Lahore: Islamic Publications, 1984), and Muhammad Tahiru'l-Qadri, Shahadat-i Imam Husain (Imam Husain's Martyrdom) (Lahore: Idarah-i Minhaju'l-Qur'an, 1989).
65. Abu'l-Kalam Azad, Shahid-i A'zam (the Grand Martyr) (Lahore: Maktabah-i Adab-i Islami, 1981).
66. Qaumi Digest, Ali Number (Aug. 1988).
67. Abu'l-Hasan Ali Nadwi, Al-Murtza (Lucknow, 1989).
68. I am indebted to Mumtaz Ahmad for this information which he had gathered through numerous interviews with ulama and Sunni activists.
69. Personal interview with Jama'at leaders, Qazi Husain Ahmad, Khurram Murad, Khurshid Ahmad, and Chaudhry Aslam Salimi.
70. Herald (June 1995), p. 46.
71. On the council see Herald (June 1995), pp. 46-50. When Qazi Husain Ahmad arrived at the funeral of SSP leaders killed in a bomb blast in Lahore in January 1997, he was man handled by the crowd and branded a sell-out for having sought to bring about a reconciliation between SSP and the Shi'i militant organizations.
72. See, for instance, Israr Ahmad, Sanihah-i Karbala (The Karbala Tragedy) (Lahore: Maktabah-i Markazi Anjuman Khuddamu'l-Qur'an, 1983).
73. On the Ahl-i Hadith see Barbara Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 268-80.
74. Rubin, 'Arab Islamists', p. 187.
75. The government has begun to view stopping the dissemination of this literature as central to ending sectarian strife; Nawa'-i Waqt (Lahore), Aug. 29, 1997.
76. See, for instance, Mawlana Abdu'l-Ghaffar Hasan, Din Main Ghulluw (Extremism Within Religion) (Karachi: Ribatu'l-'Ulum'u'l-Islamiyah, 1983).
77. Ah̄mad, 'Revivalism,' p. 17.
78. For instance, both Israr Ahmad and Mawlana Haqnawaz Jhangvi named their sons Mu'awiyah and Yazid, and Israr Ahmad insisted on celebrating his daughter's wedding on the Shi'i day of mourning for Husain ibn Ali, Ashura (tenth of Muharram).
79. Sec, for instance, Mawlana Muhammad Tayyib, Shahid Karbala awr Yazid (Martyr of Karbala and Yazid) (Lahore: Idarah-i Islamiyat, 1976).
80. Herald (Aug. 1992), p. 66.
81. Azhar Nadim, Shi'i Hazrat ki Qur'an se Baghavat (Revolt of Shi'is Against the Qur'an) (Lahore: Tahrik-i Nifaz Fiqh-i Hanafiyah, nd).
82. Hasan, Din.
83. Azhar Nadim, Shi'i Hazrat ki Islam se Baghavat (Shi'is Revolt Against Islam) (Jhang: Anjuman-i Sipah-i Sahabah Pakistan, nd).
84. Herald (May 1994), p. 46.
85. Muhammad Manzur Nu'mani, Irani Inqilab: Imam Khumayni awr Shi'iyyat (Iranian Revolution: Imam Khomeini and Shi'ism) (Lahore: Imran Academy, nd).
86. On Shi'i-Sunni conflict in Lucknow, see Theodore P. Wright, 'The Politics of Muslim Sectarian Conflict in India,'Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, 3 (1980), pp. 67-73; and Imtiaz Ahmad, 'The Shia-Sunni Dispute in Lucknow, 1905-1980,' in Milton Israel and N. K. Wagle (eds), Islamic Society and Culture: Essays in Honour of Professor Aziz Ahmad (New Delhi: Manohar, 1983), pp. 335-50.
87. On Shi'i-Sunni conflict in Lucknow, see Theodore P. Wright, 'The Politics of Muslim Sectarian Conflict in India,'Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, 3 (1980), pp. 67-73; and Imtiaz Ahmad, 'The Shia-Sunni Dispute in Lucknow, 1905-1980,' in Milton Israel and N. K. Wagle (eds), Islamic Society and Culture: Essays in Honour of Professor Aziz Ahmad (New Delhi: Manohar, 1983), pp. 335-50.
88. Metcalf, Islamic Revival, pp. 40-2.
89. Muhammad Munir, From Jinnah to Zia (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1979), p. 46.
90. Ahmad, 'Revivalism,' pp. 14-15.
91. Cited in ibid., p. 13.
92. Ibid., p. 15.
93. Aghaz (Karachi), March 26, 1983.
94. Sec a biographical sketch of Jhangvi in Herald (March 1990), pp. 39-40.
95. Herald (March 1995), p. 36b.
96. Herald (Jan. 1991), pp. 69-70.
97. Conflicts over local power structures and land are also at the heart of sectarian conflict in Kurram valley of NWFP. The Pachinar confrontation of 1996 was directly tied to disputes over land, and the fact that the most fertile land in the Kurram valley belongs to the Shi'is who profit far more from tomato production in the region: Newsline (Oct. 1996), p. 75. Dawn (Karachi), Sept. 20, 1997.
98. Conflicts over local power structures and land are also at the heart of sectarian conflict in Kurram valley of NWFP. The Pachinar confrontation of 1996 was directly tied to disputes over land, and the fact that the most fertile land in the Kurram valley belongs to the Shi'is who profit far more from tomato production in the region: Newsline (Oct. 1996), p. 75. Dawn (Karachi), Sept. 20, 1997.
99. Herald (Dec. 1997), p. 66.
100. Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan,' p. 705.
101. Ibid., p. 19.
102. Nasr, Vanguard, pp. 131-7.
103. Ibid., pp. 132-3.
104. Ayesha Jalal, The State of Martial Rule: The Origins of Pakistan's Political Economy of Defence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 144-51; and Syed Ahmad Nur, From Martial Law to Martial Law: Politics in the Punjab, 1919-1958, Craig Baxter, ed., Mahmud Ali, trans. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), pp. 315-16.
105. Ayesha Jalal, The State of Martial Rule: The Origins of Pakistan's Political Economy of Defence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 144-51; and Syed Ahmad Nur, From Martial Law to Martial Law: Politics in the Punjab, 1919-1958, Craig Baxter, ed., Mahmud Ali, trans. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), pp. 315-16.
106. Mawlana Iliyas Balakuti, Amir-i Azimat: Hazrat Mawlana Haqnawaz Jhangvi (Leader of the Movement: Honorable Mawlana Haqnawaz Jhangvi) (Jhang, nd), pp. 20-5.
107. Herald (Aug. 1992), p. 68.
108. Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan,' pp. 705-14.
109. Ziya-ul-Hasan Faruqi, The Deoband School and the Demand for Pakistan (Bombay, 1963); and I. H. Qureshi, Ulema in Politics: A Study Relating to the Political Activities of the Ulema in South Asian Subcontinent From 1566 to 1947 (Karachi: Ma'aref, 1972), pp. 351-3.
110. Ziya-ul-Hasan Faruqi, The Deoband School and the Demand for Pakistan (Bombay, 1963); and I. H. Qureshi, Ulema in Politics: A Study Relating to the Political Activities of the Ulema in South Asian Subcontinent From 1566 to 1947 (Karachi: Ma'aref, 1972), pp. 351-3.
111. On JUI see Charles Kennedy, 'Jami'iyatul Ulama-i Islam' in John L Esposito, The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 364-5.
112. Leonard Binder, Religion and Politics in Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961), pp. 111-234.
113. In religious circles in Pakistan today the division among Deobandis is widely acknowledged, and the terms 'Madani group' and 'Thanwi group' are used with frequency by Deobandis themselves as well as members of other religious organizations and traditions.
114. For an exposition of Thanwi's views on politics, see Mawlana Muhammad Taqi Uthmani, 'Hakimu'l-ummat ke siaysi afkar' (Political Ideas of the Sage of the [Islamic] Community [Ashraf Ali Thanwi]), Al-Balagh (Karachi) (March 1990), pp. 23-53. It has also been argued that 'Thanwi group' refers to Mawlana Ihtishamu'l-Haq Thanwi who was Shabbir Ahmad Uthmani's close associate after the partition; Kennedy, 'Jami'iyatul Ulama-i Islam', pp. 364-5. Still, popularly the term 'Thanwi group' draws legitimacy by claiming connection to Ashraf Ali Thanwi rather than Ihtishamu'l-Haq Thanwi, who at any rate belonged to Ashraf Ali's school of thought.
115. For an exposition of Thanwi's views on politics, see Mawlana Muhammad Taqi Uthmani, 'Hakimu'l-ummat ke siaysi afkar' (Political Ideas of the Sage of the [Islamic] Community [Ashraf Ali Thanwi]), Al-Balagh (Karachi) (March 1990), pp. 23-53. It has also been argued that 'Thanwi group' refers to Mawlana Ihtishamu'l-Haq Thanwi who was Shabbir Ahmad Uthmani's close associate after the partition; Kennedy, 'Jami'iyatul Ulama-i Islam', pp. 364-5. Still, popularly the term 'Thanwi group' draws legitimacy by claiming connection to Ashraf Ali Thanwi rather than Ihtishamu'l-Haq Thanwi, who at any rate belonged to Ashraf Ali's school of thought.
116. Mushirul Hasan, Legacy of a Divided Nation; India's Muslims Since Independence (London: Hurst, 1997), p. 95.
117. Uthmani, 'Hakimu'l-ummat ke siaysi afkar', pp. 23-53.
118. Hasan, Legacy of a Divided Nation, p. 95.
119. Khurram Badr, Qazi Husain Ahmad (Karachi: Saba Publications, 1988), pp. 1-2.
120. The Thanwi group has continued to criticize the overt political activism of the Madani group; sec, for instance, Thanwi, 'Hakimu'l-ummat,' pp. 23-53.
121. I am indebted to Mumtaz Ahmad for the details of this episode.
122. Cited in two separate interviews with Deobandi ulama who chose to remain anonymous.
123. On Mawdudi and Madani's debates over support for Congress party see Nasr, Mawdudi, pp. 32-3; Qureshi, Ulema in Politics, pp. 330-9.
124. On Mawdudi and Madani's debates over support for Congress party see Nasr, Mawdudi, pp. 32-3; Qureshi, Ulema in Politics, pp. 330-9.
125. Chief Martial Law Administrator between 1969 and 1971, General Yahya Khan; and prime ministers, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (1971-77), and Benazir Bhutto (1988-90 and 1993-96) can be added to this list.
126. For a discussion of this issue see, Nasr, Vanguard, pp. 131-41.
127. Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan,' p. 692.
128. Interviews.
129. Interviews.
130. Zaman, 'Sectarianism in Pakistan,' pp. 699-705.
131. It is interesting to note that from 1942 on, the Muslim League too had sought to develop political control in Punjab by entering the rural areas and wresting control of its power structure from the landed elite and pirs. In its bid to convert local power structures into Muslim League ones it used biradri networks and local factional divisions; Ian Talbot, Freedom's Cry: The Papular Dimensions in the Pakistan Movement and Partition Experience in North-West India (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 85-6.
132. Economist, May 10, 1997, p. 34.
133. Dawn, Feb. 16, 1998.
134. In May 1998 following a Christian bishop's self-immolation in protest to treatment of Christians in Pakistan some fifty activists attacked a Christian neighborhood in Faisalabad, burning houses and shops; see the Dawn between May 9 and 13, 1998.