Sectarianism in Pakistan: the radicalization of Shi'i and Sunni identities

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 689-716

  Zaman, Muhammad Qasim ^a  

^a BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNIC IDENTITY; ISLAMISM; RELIGIOUS CONFLICT; SECTARIANISM;

PAKISTAN;

EID: 0031751909     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X98003217     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. There are no precise figures on the number of the Shi'a: estimates about the size of the Shi'i population range from as much as a quarter to less than 2% of the population of Pakistan! (For the lower figure, see anon., Pakistan main mawjuda Shi'a abadi [n.p., n.d. (c. 1980], 16 pp.) Moojan Momen estimates the Twelver Shi'i population of Pakistan to have been about 12,000,000 in 1980, i.e. about 14.5% of the population (82,952,000). See An Introduction to Shi'i Islam (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 278, 282. All discussion of the Shi'a in this essay refers to the Ithna 'ashari, or 'Twelver' Shi'a. Though there are important, and often mutually hostile, subdivisions within the Sunnis of Pakistan, just as there are those (e.g., the Ahmadis) who consider themselves Muslims but are not recognized as such by either the Shi'a or the Sunnis, this study is concerned only with the conflict between the Shi'a and the Sunnis; and it is this conflict which, for want of a better characterization, is designated as 'sectarian' here.
2. There are no precise figures on the number of the Shi'a: estimates about the size of the Shi'i population range from as much as a quarter to less than 2% of the population of Pakistan! (For the lower figure, see anon., Pakistan main mawjuda Shi'a abadi [n.p., n.d. (c. 1980], 16 pp.) Moojan Momen estimates the Twelver Shi'i population of Pakistan to have been about 12,000,000 in 1980, i.e. about 14.5% of the population (82,952,000). See An Introduction to Shi'i Islam (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), 278, 282. All discussion of the Shi'a in this essay refers to the Ithna 'ashari, or 'Twelver' Shi'a. Though there are important, and often mutually hostile, subdivisions within the Sunnis of Pakistan, just as there are those (e.g., the Ahmadis) who consider themselves Muslims but are not recognized as such by either the Shi'a or the Sunnis, this study is concerned only with the conflict between the Shi'a and the Sunnis; and it is this conflict which, for want of a better characterization, is designated as 'sectarian' here.
3. On the history of the emergence, growth and crystallization of Sunni and Shi'ite Islam, see, inter alia, W. Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1973); Momen, Shi'i Islam.
4. On the history of the emergence, growth and crystallization of Sunni and Shi'ite Islam, see, inter alia, W. Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1973); Momen, Shi'i Islam.
5. On the history of the emergence, growth and crystallization of Sunni and Shi'ite Islam, see, inter alia, W. Montgomery Watt, The Formative Period of Islamic Thought (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1973); Momen, Shi'i Islam.
6. Cf. Etan Kohlberg, 'Some Imami Shi'ite Views on the Sahaba', Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam, V (1984), 143-75.
7. W. C. Smith's justification for having little to say on the Shi'a in his study of modern trends in Indian Islam is worth quoting here: 'We have not given the Shi'ah group separate treatment in our study of the changes wrought in Islam by modern social processes, because there is nothing in the differences between Sunni and Shi'i fundamentally relevant to those processes. The two groups diverge over what answers are to be given to questions which to-day do not arise.' Modern Islam in India (Lahore: Minerva, 1947), 399.
8. The phrase comes from Bryan Wilson, The Social Dimensions of Sectarianism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), 180.
9. On the Ahmadis, see Yohanan Friedmann, Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and its Medieval Background (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). For a description of the most violent agitation against the Ahmadis, see Report of the Court of Inquiry . . . into the Punjab Disturbances of 1953 (Lahore: Government Printing, 1954).
10. On the Ahmadis, see Yohanan Friedmann, Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and its Medieval Background (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). For a description of the most violent agitation against the Ahmadis, see Report of the Court of Inquiry . . . into the Punjab Disturbances of 1953 (Lahore: Government Printing, 1954).
11. On these developments, see Friedmann, Prophecy Continuous, 40-6.
12. See Mawlana Muhammad Ilyas Balakoti, Amir-i 'Animat: Hazrat Mawlana Haq Nawaz Jhangavi Shahid (Jami'a 'Uthmania, Jhang Sadar, n.d. [c. 1990?]), 29-31; Khilafat-i Rashida (Faisalabad), vol. 4, nr. 7 (December 1993), 5.
13. See Mawlana Muhammad Ilyas Balakoti, Amir-i 'Animat: Hazrat Mawlana Haq Nawaz Jhangavi Shahid (Jami'a 'Uthmania, Jhang Sadar, n.d. [c. 1990?]), 29-31; Khilafat-i Rashida (Faisalabad), vol. 4, nr. 7 (December 1993), 5.
14. On some aspects of this programme of Islamization see Anita M. Weiss (ed.), Islamic Reassertion in Pakistan: The Application of Islamic Laws in a Modern State (Lahore: Vanguard, 1987); S. Jamal Malik, Islamisierung in Pakistan 1977-84; Untersuchungen zur Auflösung autochthoner Strukturen (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1989);
15. On some aspects of this programme of Islamization see Anita M. Weiss (ed.), Islamic Reassertion in Pakistan: The Application of Islamic Laws in a Modern State (Lahore: Vanguard, 1987); S. Jamal Malik, Islamisierung in Pakistan 1977-84; Untersuchungen zur Auflösung autochthoner Strukturen (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1989);
16. Rudolph Peters, 'The Islamization of Criminal Law: A Comparative Analysis', Die Welt des Islams, 34 (1994), 246-74, especially 256ff.
17. On the differences between Sunni and Shi'i schools of law, see N. J. Coulson, A History of Islamic Law (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1964), 113-19.
18. Formative developments in Shi'i law are believed to have taken place in the time, and under the guidance, of Ja'far al-Sadiq (d. 765), the sixth imam in the reckoning of the Twelver Shi'a. Shi'i law (fiqh) is therefore often designated as 'Ja'fari'.
19. The demand for 'adequate' or 'effective' representation in the political system, irrespective of the actual numerical strength of the people on whose behalf that demand was made, was of course a familiar theme of Muslim political discourse in British India. See Farzana Shaikh, Community and Consensus in Islam: Muslim Representation in Colonial India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
20. See anon., 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, az wiladat ta shahadat (Qumm: Sazman-i Tablighat-i Islami, 1369 A.H), 36ff. and passim. Also see Munir D. Ahmed, 'The Shi'is of Paksitan', in Shi'ism, Resistance, and Revolution, ed. M. Kramer (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), 281ff.; Afak Haydar, 'The Politicization of the Shias and the Development of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria in Pakistan', in Charles H. Kennedy (ed.), Pakistan 1992 (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993), 75-93.
21. See anon., 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, az wiladat ta shahadat (Qumm: Sazman-i Tablighat-i Islami, 1369 A.H), 36ff. and passim. Also see Munir D. Ahmed, 'The Shi'is of Paksitan', in Shi'ism, Resistance, and Revolution, ed. M. Kramer (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), 281ff.; Afak Haydar, 'The Politicization of the Shias and the Development of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria in Pakistan', in Charles H. Kennedy (ed.), Pakistan 1992 (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993), 75-93.
22. See anon., 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, az wiladat ta shahadat (Qumm: Sazman-i Tablighat-i Islami, 1369 A.H), 36ff. and passim. Also see Munir D. Ahmed, 'The Shi'is of Paksitan', in Shi'ism, Resistance, and Revolution, ed. M. Kramer (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1987), 281ff.; Afak Haydar, 'The Politicization of the Shias and the Development of the Tehrik-e-Nifaz-e-Fiqh-e-Jafaria in Pakistan', in Charles H. Kennedy (ed.), Pakistan 1992 (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1993), 75-93.
23. Interview with 'Allama Sajid Naqvi, chief of the Tahrik-i Ja'fariyya Pakistan, in Takbir (Karachi: 30 March 1995), 27-35.
24. On institutionalized Shi'i learning in Najaf, see Chibli Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law: Muhammad Baqer as-Sadr, Najaf and the Shi'i International (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
25. On Mufti Ta'far Husayn, see Sayyid 'Arif Husayn Naqvi, Tadhkira-yi 'Ulama'-i Imamiyya-i Pakistan (Islamabad: Markaz-i Tahqiqat-i Farsi-yi Iran wa Pakistan, 1984), 73-6; anon., 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, 43ff.
26. On Mufti Ta'far Husayn, see Sayyid 'Arif Husayn Naqvi, Tadhkira-yi 'Ulama'-i Imamiyya-i Pakistan (Islamabad: Markaz-i Tahqiqat-i Farsi-yi Iran wa Pakistan, 1984), 73-6; anon., 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, 43ff.
27. Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law, 1-58 and passim.
28. 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, 24-5.
29. Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law, 4ff. and passim.
30. 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, 25.
31. Michael M. J. Fischer, Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980).
32. On the life and career of al-Husayni, see 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, passim; Naqvi, Tadhkira-yi 'Ulama'-i Imamiyya, 483-91; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: An Interview with Arif Hussaini', Third World Quarterly (1988), 806-17. Also cf. Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law, 188f.
33. On the life and career of al-Husayni, see 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, passim; Naqvi, Tadhkira-yi 'Ulama'-i Imamiyya, 483-91; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: An Interview with Arif Hussaini', Third World Quarterly (1988), 806-17. Also cf. Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law, 188f.
34. On the life and career of al-Husayni, see 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, passim; Naqvi, Tadhkira-yi 'Ulama'-i Imamiyya, 483-91; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: An Interview with Arif Hussaini', Third World Quarterly (1988), 806-17. Also cf. Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law, 188f.
35. On the life and career of al-Husayni, see 'Allama Shahid Sayyid 'Arif Husayn al-Husayni, passim; Naqvi, Tadhkira-yi 'Ulama'-i Imamiyya, 483-91; Maleeha Lodhi, 'Pakistan's Shia Movement: An Interview with Arif Hussaini', Third World Quarterly (1988), 806-17. Also cf. Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law, 188f.
36. For the text of this manifesto, entitled 'Hamara Rasta' (Our Path), see Muhammad 'Usman and Mas'ud Ash'ar (eds), Pakistan ki Siyasi Jama'atain (Lahore: Sang-i Mil Publications, 1988), 774-811.
37. Ibid., 783.
38. Ibid., 786.
39. Ibid., 805.
40. Ibid., 802-4.
41. Biographical notices of the Shi'i 'ulama' of Pakistan are replete with claims of successful proselytizing: see Naqvi, Tadhkira-yi 'ulama'-i Imamiyya-i Pakistan, 7, 9, 24, 26, 28, 33, 34, 38, 39, 41, 45-6, 48, 51, 53, 55, 56, 65, 69-70, 71, 94, 109, 118, 122, 123, 125, 131, 135, 150, 156, 159, 164, 170, 173, 199, 206, 209, 211, 213, 218, 222, 232-3, 246, 252, 262, 265, 278, 291, 298, 299, 305, 306, 310, 323, 324, 330, 343, 346, 349, 371, 400, 420, 422, 449, 463, 474-5.
42. On the Sipah-i Muhammad, see Aamer A. Khan, 'The Rise of Sectarian Mafias', Herald (Karachi: June 1994), 27-37; M. Hanif et al., 'In the Name of Religion', Newsline (Karachi: September 1994), 24-41. Zindagi (Lahore: 25 May 1995), interview with 'Allama Murid 'Abbas Yazdani, 'Chief Commander' (Salar-i A'la) of the Sipah-i Muhammad Pakistan, 35-8.
43. On the Sipah-i Muhammad, see Aamer A. Khan, 'The Rise of Sectarian Mafias', Herald (Karachi: June 1994), 27-37; M. Hanif et al., 'In the Name of Religion', Newsline (Karachi: September 1994), 24-41. Zindagi (Lahore: 25 May 1995), interview with 'Allama Murid 'Abbas Yazdani, 'Chief Commander' (Salar-i A'la) of the Sipah-i Muhammad Pakistan, 35-8.
44. On the Sipah-i Muhammad, see Aamer A. Khan, 'The Rise of Sectarian Mafias', Herald (Karachi: June 1994), 27-37; M. Hanif et al., 'In the Name of Religion', Newsline (Karachi: September 1994), 24-41. Zindagi (Lahore: 25 May 1995), interview with 'Allama Murid 'Abbas Yazdani, 'Chief Commander' (Salar-i A'la) of the Sipah-i Muhammad Pakistan, 35-8.
45. Ghulam Riza Naqvi of the Sipah-i Muhammad (see below) claimed in July 1995 that nearly two thousand Pakistani Shi'a were studying in the madrasas of Qumm alone: see his interview in Zindagi (20 July 1995), 21.
46. On the career of Sayyid Ghulam Riza Naqvi, see M. Zaidi, 'The Godfather', Newsline (February 1995), 52-3; and the interview with Naqvi in Zindagi (20 July 1995), 20-3.
47. On the career of Sayyid Ghulam Riza Naqvi, see M. Zaidi, 'The Godfather', Newsline (February 1995), 52-3; and the interview with Naqvi in Zindagi (20 July 1995), 20-3.
48. Herald (June 1994), 37; Newsline (February 1995), 50-4.
49. Herald (June 1994), 37; Newsline (February 1995), 50-4.
50. According to the Census of 1981, the total population of the district was 1,978,263, of which 22.6% lived in urban areas. The city of Jhang had a population of 195,558. Population Census Organization, Government of Pakistan, 1981 District Census Report of Jhang (Islamabad: Statistics Division, Government of Pakistan, 1984), 5, 19.
51. The Deobandis are one of the major sub-groups of Sunni Islam in the Indian subcontinent. They are so called on account of their association with the reformist principles and practices typified by a madrasa (established in 1867) at Deoband in the United Provinces. The other major groups of Sunni Muslims in India and Pakistan are the Barelawis and the Ahl-i Hadith. On the madrasa at Deoband, and on other nineteenth-century Muslim religious movements, see Barbara D. Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982).
52. See Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat. The author of this book is the editor of the Sipah-i Sahaba's monthly journal, the Khilafat-i Rashida, and the brother of Mawlana Zia al-Rahman Faruqi, a former head of the organization. The book may therefore considered as the Sipah-i Sahaba's 'official' biography of its founder.
53. Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, 20-3 (abbreviated in translation).
54. Cf. Metcalf, Islamic Revival, 68ff, 252ff and passim; this theme is strikingly conspicuous in the speeches delivered at the second annual convention of the Nadwat al-'Ulama' in Lucknow, 1895: see Madamin-i thalatha (Kanpur: Intizami Press, n.d. [c. 1895]), 25ff and passim. Also see n. 90 below.
55. Cf. Metcalf, Islamic Revival, 68ff, 252ff and passim; this theme is strikingly conspicuous in the speeches delivered at the second annual convention of the Nadwat al-'Ulama' in Lucknow, 1895: see Madamin-i thalatha (Kanpur: Intizami Press, n.d. [c. 1895]), 25ff and passim. Also see n. 90 below.
56. Cf. Malcolm Darling, The Punjab Peasant in Prosperity and Debt (London: Oxford University Press, 1925); some of the themes in this description of the peasant's plight in the early twentieth century continue to resonate in the Sipah-i Sahaba's rhetoric.
57. There were only 13 Shi'i madrasas in the Punjab in 1971 but 100 in 1994. On the other hand, Deobandi madrasas grew from, 173 in 1971 to 972 in 1994 and Barelawi madrasas from 93 in 1971 to 1216 in 1994. I have compiled these figures from: Hafiz Nadhr Ahmad, Ja'izah-yi Madaris-i 'Arabiyya-i Maghribi Pakistan (Lahore: Muslim Academy, 1972), 693; The News (Islamabad: 7 March 1995), 11; Zindagi (17 February 1995), 38-9. Also see Table 1, below.
58. There were only 13 Shi'i madrasas in the Punjab in 1971 but 100 in 1994. On the other hand, Deobandi madrasas grew from, 173 in 1971 to 972 in 1994 and Barelawi madrasas from 93 in 1971 to 1216 in 1994. I have compiled these figures from: Hafiz Nadhr Ahmad, Ja'izah-yi Madaris-i 'Arabiyya-i Maghribi Pakistan (Lahore: Muslim Academy, 1972), 693; The News (Islamabad: 7 March 1995), 11; Zindagi (17 February 1995), 38-9. Also see Table 1, below.
59. There were only 13 Shi'i madrasas in the Punjab in 1971 but 100 in 1994. On the other hand, Deobandi madrasas grew from, 173 in 1971 to 972 in 1994 and Barelawi madrasas from 93 in 1971 to 1216 in 1994. I have compiled these figures from: Hafiz Nadhr Ahmad, Ja'izah-yi Madaris-i 'Arabiyya-i Maghribi Pakistan (Lahore: Muslim Academy, 1972), 693; The News (Islamabad: 7 March 1995), 11; Zindagi (17 February 1995), 38-9. Also see Table 1, below.
60. I owe this suggestion to Professor David Gilmartin. On 'the structure of rural Islam' in the Punjab see David Gilmartin, Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), esp. 39-72.
61. In July 1992, Mawlana Muhammad A'zam Tariq of the Sipah-i Sahaba initiated a bill in the lower house of the Pakistani parliament which proposes to make any attack on the 'honour' (namus) of the Companions (Sahaba) of the Prophet and of members of his family (ahl al-bayt) a criminal offence punishable by death. The bill is yet to be debated. See Khilafat-i Rashida (the official monthly organ of the Sipah-i Sahaba), vol. 3, nos 9-10 (September-October 1992), 25. In July 1994, the same bill was moved, but defeated, in the upper house of the Pakistani parliament. For the text of this bill, and of the debate on it in the Senate, see al-Haqq (Peshawar), vol. 29, no. 11 (August 1994),2-15. The bill does not say that the Shi'a are unbelievers for vilifying the Companions, only that to vilify the Companions is an offence punishable by death. The Sipah-i Sahaba's position has, in fact, been that this bill would guarantee sectarian harmony in Paksitan, because the cause of sectarian riots - vilification of the Companions - would be eliminated.
62. In July 1992, Mawlana Muhammad A'zam Tariq of the Sipah-i Sahaba initiated a bill in the lower house of the Pakistani parliament which proposes to make any attack on the 'honour' (namus) of the Companions (Sahaba) of the Prophet and of members of his family (ahl al-bayt) a criminal offence punishable by death. The bill is yet to be debated. See Khilafat-i Rashida (the official monthly organ of the Sipah-i Sahaba), vol. 3, nos 9-10 (September-October 1992), 25. In July 1994, the same bill was moved, but defeated, in the upper house of the Pakistani parliament. For the text of this bill, and of the debate on it in the Senate, see al-Haqq (Peshawar), vol. 29, no. 11 (August 1994),2-15. The bill does not say that the Shi'a are unbelievers for vilifying the Companions, only that to vilify the Companions is an offence punishable by death. The Sipah-i Sahaba's position has, in fact, been that this bill would guarantee sectarian harmony in Paksitan, because the cause of sectarian riots - vilification of the Companions - would be eliminated.
63. Cf. W. C. Smith, Islam in Modern History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 245-6, on the fascination with this ideal polity especially in Pakistan's early years.
64. For the goals of the Sipah-i Sahaba see Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, 139-52; also see the following collection of speeches by the organization's founder: Mawlana Haq Nawaz Jhangawi ki pandara ta'rikh-saz taqrirain (Lahore: Idara-i Nashriyyat-i Islam, 1991), passim.
65. For the goals of the Sipah-i Sahaba see Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, 139-52; also see the following collection of speeches by the organization's founder: Mawlana Haq Nawaz Jhangawi ki pandara ta'rikh-saz taqrirain (Lahore: Idara-i Nashriyyat-i Islam, 1991), passim.
66. Following his assassination, Mawlana Haqq Nawaz has himself been given something of a saintly image: see Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, esp. 317-18, for dreams in which he is seen in heaven in the company of the Sahaba.
67. Four of the stars have the names of the four Rashidun caliphs written on them, and on the fifth appear the names of Hasan, Husayn (two sons of 'Ali) and Mu'awiya. The latter, also a Companion of the Prophet, was the founder of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750) which the Shi'a hold responsible for the tribulations of no fewer than six of their twelve imams (including 'Ali, Hasan and Husayn). Conjoining Hasan, Husayn, and Mu'awiya is of course not an initiative towards sectarian harmony, but only a vivid reminder that Mu'awiya is no less venerable to Sunnis than Hasan and Husayn, and that the latter, as well as 'Ali, belong properly with other figures revered by the Sunnis, not with the later imams of the Shi'a. For the Sipah-i Sahaba's flag as well as other symbolism, see Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, 147-52.
68. Muharram processions have been known to attract much Sunni, and even non-Muslim participation in the past. See J. N. Hollister, The Shi'a of India (London: Luzac, 1953), 177ff; Sandria B. Freitag, Collective Action and Community: Public Arenas and the Emergence of Communalism in North India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 249-79.
69. Muharram processions have been known to attract much Sunni, and even non- Muslim participation in the past. See J. N. Hollister, The Shi'a of India (London: Luzac, 1953), 177ff; Sandria B. Freitag, Collective Action and Community: Public Arenas and the Emergence of Communalism in North India (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 249-79.
70. E. Sivan, 'Sunni Radicalism in the Middle East and the Iranian Revolution', International Journal of Middle East Studies, 21 (1989), 1-30; Werner Ende, 'Sunni Polemical Writings on the Shi'a and the Iranian Revolution', in D. Menashri (ed.), The Iranian Revolution and the Muslim World (Boulder: The Westview Press, 1990), 219-32.
71. E. Sivan, 'Sunni Radicalism in the Middle East and the Iranian Revolution', International Journal of Middle East Studies, 21 (1989), 1-30; Werner Ende, 'Sunni Polemical Writings on the Shi'a and the Iranian Revolution', in D. Menashri (ed.), The Iranian Revolution and the Muslim World (Boulder: The Westview Press, 1990), 219-32.
72. Such centres have consequently been targeted for sectarian attacks. In December 1990, an Iranian diplomat who was the director of the Iranian Cultural Centre in Lahore was assassinated by militants from the Sipah-i Sahaba. Newsline (April 1991), 44. Also cf. Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, 144-5.
73. Such centres have consequently been targeted for sectarian attacks. In December 1990, an Iranian diplomat who was the director of the Iranian Cultural Centre in Lahore was assassinated by militants from the Sipah-i Sahaba. Newsline (April 1991), 44. Also cf. Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, 144-5.
74. Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, 69.
75. Jhangawi would often lace his fiery speeches with detailed quotations from Shi'i books to document such sacrileges. For some instances, see Mawlana Haq Nawaz Jhangawi ki pandara ta'rikh-saz taqrirain, 99ff, 122ff, 278-94. These speeches are also available on cassette.
76. The Sipah-i Sahaba, as well as Shi'i organizations, now have branches in the Middle East, and even in Europe and North America. Cf. Khilafat-i Rashida, vol. 3, no. 4 (April 1992), 50, 52; and see n. 52 below.
77. Khilafat-i Rashida, vol. 5, no. 6 (November 1994), interview with Mawlana Zia al-Rahman Faruqi (part iv), 30.
78. Mawlana Zia al-Rahman Faruqi, the head of the Sipah-i Sahaba, stated in late 1994 that 'about 14,000 party units' were then functioning in Pakistan and abroad, compared to only about 300 such 'units' at the time of Jhangawi's assassination in February 1990. See Khilafat-i Rashida, vol. 5, no. 5 (October 1994), 6.
79. For the phrase 'imagined community' and on the role of print in forging the ties which constitute it, see Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. edn. (London: Verso, 1991). For wide-ranging observations on the impact of print on Muslim societies, see Francis Robinson, 'Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the Impact of Print', Modern Asian Studies, 27 (1993), 229-51; on the media other than print, see Lawrence A. Babb and Susan S. Wadley (eds), Media and the Transformation of Religion in South Asia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).
80. For the phrase 'imagined community' and on the role of print in forging the ties which constitute it, see Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. edn. (London: Verso, 1991). For wide-ranging observations on the impact of print on Muslim societies, see Francis Robinson, 'Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the Impact of Print', Modern Asian Studies, 27 (1993), 229-51; on the media other than print, see Lawrence A. Babb and Susan S. Wadley (eds), Media and the Transformation of Religion in South Asia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).
81. For the phrase 'imagined community' and on the role of print in forging the ties which constitute it, see Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. edn. (London: Verso, 1991). For wide-ranging observations on the impact of print on Muslim societies, see Francis Robinson, 'Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the Impact of Print', Modern Asian Studies, 27 (1993), 229-51; on the media other than print, see Lawrence A. Babb and Susan S. Wadley (eds), Media and the Transformation of Religion in South Asia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).
82. Cf. Newsline (September 1994), 36.
83. The most famous and successful of businessmen from Jhang are the Chiniotis, known as such by association with Chiniot, a town in the district. Chinioti business families had migrated to Calcutta and elsewhere, but returned (or migrated back) to the Punjab after the establishment of Pakistan to become one of the most important business groups in Pakistan's economy. See Stanley Kochanek, Interest Groups and Development: Business and Politics in Pakistan (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983), 23-4. For one early instance of the support of Chinioti businessmen for Sunni madrasas of Jhang (and elsewhere), see Al-Jami'a (the monthly journal of the Jami' Muhammadi), vol. 1, no. 3 (December 1948), 5.
84. The most famous and successful of businessmen from Jhang are the Chiniotis, known as such by association with Chiniot, a town in the district. Chinioti business families had migrated to Calcutta and elsewhere, but returned (or migrated back) to the Punjab after the establishment of Pakistan to become one of the most important business groups in Pakistan's economy. See Stanley Kochanek, Interest Groups and Development: Business and Politics in Pakistan (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983), 23-4. For one early instance of the support of Chinioti businessmen for Sunni madrasas of Jhang (and elsewhere), see Al-Jami'a (the monthly journal of the Jami' Muhammadi), vol. 1, no. 3 (December 1948), 5.
85. Newsline (September 1994), 36.
86. Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, 15.
87. Mian Iqbal Husayn, a leader of the Sipah-i Sahaba, who was assassinated in Jhang in August 1991 owned a textile mill in Jhang. The Muslim, 14 August 1991; also cf. The Herald (March 1995), 57. On the Punjabi industrial bourgeoisie in general, see Anita M. Weiss, Culture, Class, and Development: The Emergence of an Industrial Bourgeoisie in Punjab (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991).
88. Mian Iqbal Husayn, a leader of the Sipah-i Sahaba, who was assassinated in Jhang in August 1991 owned a textile mill in Jhang. The Muslim, 14 August 1991; also cf. The Herald (March 1995), 57. On the Punjabi industrial bourgeoisie in general, see Anita M. Weiss, Culture, Class, and Development: The Emergence of an Industrial Bourgeoisie in Punjab (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991).
89. Mian Iqbal Husayn, a leader of the Sipah-i Sahaba, who was assassinated in Jhang in August 1991 owned a textile mill in Jhang. The Muslim, 14 August 1991; also cf. The Herald (March 1995), 57. On the Punjabi industrial bourgeoisie in general, see Anita M. Weiss, Culture, Class, and Development: The Emergence of an Industrial Bourgeoisie in Punjab (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991).
90. News reports about protests and strikes on the assassination of Sipah-i Sahaba leaders Haq Nawaz Jhangawi and Isar al-Haq Qasimi, both in Jhang, in February 1990 and January 1991 respectively, provide much illustrative material in this regard. See The Muslim (Islamabad), 26 March 1990; The Nation (Islamabad), 10 April 1990; Dawn (Karachi), 12 January 1991; The Muslim, 12 January and 10 February 1991; Nawa-i- Waqt (Lahore), 12 January 1991; The Frontier Post (Lahore), 9 February 1991. (I am grateful to Shahina Shaikh of The News [Islamabad] for enabling me to consult some of these materials).
91. News reports about protests and strikes on the assassination of Sipah-i Sahaba leaders Haq Nawaz Jhangawi and Isar al-Haq Qasimi, both in Jhang, in February 1990 and January 1991 respectively, provide much illustrative material in this regard. See The Muslim (Islamabad), 26 March 1990; The Nation (Islamabad), 10 April 1990; Dawn (Karachi), 12 January 1991; The Muslim, 12 January and 10 February 1991; Nawa-i- Waqt (Lahore), 12 January 1991; The Frontier Post (Lahore), 9 February 1991. (I am grateful to Shahina Shaikh of The News [Islamabad] for enabling me to consult some of these materials).
92. News reports about protests and strikes on the assassination of Sipah-i Sahaba leaders Haq Nawaz Jhangawi and Isar al-Haq Qasimi, both in Jhang, in February 1990 and January 1991 respectively, provide much illustrative material in this regard. See The Muslim (Islamabad), 26 March 1990; The Nation (Islamabad), 10 April 1990; Dawn (Karachi), 12 January 1991; The Muslim, 12 January and 10 February 1991; Nawa-i- Waqt (Lahore), 12 January 1991; The Frontier Post (Lahore), 9 February 1991. (I am grateful to Shahina Shaikh of The News [Islamabad] for enabling me to consult some of these materials).
93. News reports about protests and strikes on the assassination of Sipah-i Sahaba leaders Haq Nawaz Jhangawi and Isar al-Haq Qasimi, both in Jhang, in February 1990 and January 1991 respectively, provide much illustrative material in this regard. See The Muslim (Islamabad), 26 March 1990; The Nation (Islamabad), 10 April 1990; Dawn (Karachi), 12 January 1991; The Muslim, 12 January and 10 February 1991; Nawa-i- Waqt (Lahore), 12 January 1991; The Frontier Post (Lahore), 9 February 1991. (I am grateful to Shahina Shaikh of The News [Islamabad] for enabling me to consult some of these materials).
94. News reports about protests and strikes on the assassination of Sipah-i Sahaba leaders Haq Nawaz Jhangawi and Isar al-Haq Qasimi, both in Jhang, in February 1990 and January 1991 respectively, provide much illustrative material in this regard. See The Muslim (Islamabad), 26 March 1990; The Nation (Islamabad), 10 April 1990; Dawn (Karachi), 12 January 1991; The Muslim, 12 January and 10 February 1991; Nawa-i- Waqt (Lahore), 12 January 1991; The Frontier Post (Lahore), 9 February 1991. (I am grateful to Shahina Shaikh of The News [Islamabad] for enabling me to consult some of these materials).
95. News reports about protests and strikes on the assassination of Sipah-i Sahaba leaders Haq Nawaz Jhangawi and Isar al-Haq Qasimi, both in Jhang, in February 1990 and January 1991 respectively, provide much illustrative material in this regard. See The Muslim (Islamabad), 26 March 1990; The Nation (Islamabad), 10 April 1990; Dawn (Karachi), 12 January 1991; The Muslim, 12 January and 10 February 1991; Nawa-i- Waqt (Lahore), 12 January 1991; The Frontier Post (Lahore), 9 February 1991. (I am grateful to Shahina Shaikh of The News [Islamabad] for enabling me to consult some of these materials).
96. News reports about protests and strikes on the assassination of Sipah-i Sahaba leaders Haq Nawaz Jhangawi and Isar al-Haq Qasimi, both in Jhang, in February 1990 and January 1991 respectively, provide much illustrative material in this regard. See The Muslim (Islamabad), 26 March 1990; The Nation (Islamabad), 10 April 1990; Dawn (Karachi), 12 January 1991; The Muslim, 12 January and 10 February 1991; Nawa-i- Waqt (Lahore), 12 January 1991; The Frontier Post (Lahore), 9 February 1991. (I am grateful to Shahina Shaikh of The News [Islamabad] for enabling me to consult some of these materials).
97. Cf. Nikki R. Keddie, Iran and the Muslim World: Resistance and Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 208f.
98. Keddie, ibid., exaggerates the 'secular' attitudes of the middle-class Shi'a of Pakistan. To consider only the case of one of the most recent casualties of sectarian violence in Pakistan, Muhammad 'Ali Naqvi (d. 1995), the secretary-general of the Tahrik-i Ja'fariyya, was a professor and medical practitioner at a teaching hospital in Lahore. He is not typical of other middle class Shi'a in the extent of his involvement with Shi'i sectarian mobilization but may nevertheless typify middle-class Shi'i support for such organizations. On Naqvi, who was assassinated in Lahore in March 1995, see The News (8 March 1995); The Herald (March 1995), 57-8. The following statement by Ghulam Riza Naqvi of the Sipah-i Muhammad is also instructive: 'We do not need any [financial] assistance from other countries [read: Iran], for our own people are very generous in helping us. Indeed, if our people pay all the Khums [a Shi'i wealth-tax] they are obliged to, there will be so much money as to create a new Pakistan.' (Zindagi (20 July 1995), 23.)
99. Keddie, ibid., exaggerates the 'secular' attitudes of the middle-class Shi'a of Pakistan. To consider only the case of one of the most recent casualties of sectarian violence in Pakistan, Muhammad 'Ali Naqvi (d. 1995), the secretary-general of the Tahrik-i Ja'fariyya, was a professor and medical practitioner at a teaching hospital in Lahore. He is not typical of other middle class Shi'a in the extent of his involvement with Shi'i sectarian mobilization but may nevertheless typify middle-class Shi'i support for such organizations. On Naqvi, who was assassinated in Lahore in March 1995, see The News (8 March 1995); The Herald (March 1995), 57-8. The following statement by Ghulam Riza Naqvi of the Sipah-i Muhammad is also instructive: 'We do not need any [financial] assistance from other countries [read: Iran], for our own people are very generous in helping us. Indeed, if our people pay all the Khums [a Shi'i wealth-tax] they are obliged to, there will be so much money as to create a new Pakistan.' (Zindagi (20 July 1995), 23.)
100. Keddie, ibid., exaggerates the 'secular' attitudes of the middle-class Shi'a of Pakistan. To consider only the case of one of the most recent casualties of sectarian violence in Pakistan, Muhammad 'Ali Naqvi (d. 1995), the secretary-general of the Tahrik-i Ja'fariyya, was a professor and medical practitioner at a teaching hospital in Lahore. He is not typical of other middle class Shi'a in the extent of his involvement with Shi'i sectarian mobilization but may nevertheless typify middle-class Shi'i support for such organizations. On Naqvi, who was assassinated in Lahore in March 1995, see The News (8 March 1995); The Herald (March 1995), 57-8. The following statement by Ghulam Riza Naqvi of the Sipah-i Muhammad is also instructive: 'We do not need any [financial] assistance from other countries [read: Iran], for our own people are very generous in helping us. Indeed, if our people pay all the Khums [a Shi'i wealth-tax] they are obliged to, there will be so much money as to create a new Pakistan.' (Zindagi (20 July 1995), 23.)
101. Keddie, ibid., exaggerates the 'secular' attitudes of the middle-class Shi'a of Pakistan. To consider only the case of one of the most recent casualties of sectarian violence in Pakistan, Muhammad 'Ali Naqvi (d. 1995), the secretary-general of the Tahrik-i Ja'fariyya, was a professor and medical practitioner at a teaching hospital in Lahore. He is not typical of other middle class Shi'a in the extent of his involvement with Shi'i sectarian mobilization but may nevertheless typify middle-class Shi'i support for such organizations. On Naqvi, who was assassinated in Lahore in March 1995, see The News (8 March 1995); The Herald (March 1995), 57-8. The following statement by Ghulam Riza Naqvi of the Sipah-i Muhammad is also instructive: 'We do not need any [financial] assistance from other countries [read: Iran], for our own people are very generous in helping us. Indeed, if our people pay all the Khums [a Shi'i wealth-tax] they are obliged to, there will be so much money as to create a new Pakistan.' (Zindagi (20 July 1995), 23.)
102. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), 187ff. Also cf. Martin Riesebrodt, Pious Passion: The Emergence of Modern Fundamentalism in the United States and Iran (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 185ff.
103. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994), 187ff. Also cf. Martin Riesebrodt, Pious Passion: The Emergence of Modern Fundamentalism in the United States and Iran (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 185ff.
104. Omar Noman, 'The Impact of Migration on Pakistan's Economy and Society', in H. Donnan and P. Werbner (eds), Economy and Culture in Pakistan: Migrants and Cities in a Muslim Society (London: Macmillan, 1991), 83.
105. Jonathan Addleton, Undermining the Centre: The Gulf Migration and Pakistan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1992), 88ff. My discussion here of overseas labour migrants is largely based on Addleton's findings.
106. Ibid., 190, 197.
107. Noman, 'Impact of Migration', 90.
108. Addleton, Undermining the Centre, 187-201.
109. One residential colony of about ten thousand people in Jhang was reported in April 1991 to have thirty-five mosques, many of them of recent origin. See Newsline (April 1991), 45. A survey conducted in August 1994 reported the existence of 160 mosques in Okara city in the Punjab which belong to the Barelawis alone; there had been only one Sunni mosque there in the early 1950s: Newsline (September 1994), 33. The larger towns and cities can have several thousand mosques: Herald (March 1995), 71 (report on Faisalabad city in the Punjab).
110. One residential colony of about ten thousand people in Jhang was reported in April 1991 to have thirty-five mosques, many of them of recent origin. See Newsline (April 1991), 45. A survey conducted in August 1994 reported the existence of 160 mosques in Okara city in the Punjab which belong to the Barelawis alone; there had been only one Sunni mosque there in the early 1950s: Newsline (September 1994), 33. The larger towns and cities can have several thousand mosques: Herald (March 1995), 71 (report on Faisalabad city in the Punjab).
111. One residential colony of about ten thousand people in Jhang was reported in April 1991 to have thirty-five mosques, many of them of recent origin. See Newsline (April 1991), 45. A survey conducted in August 1994 reported the existence of 160 mosques in Okara city in the Punjab which belong to the Barelawis alone; there had been only one Sunni mosque there in the early 1950s: Newsline (September 1994), 33. The larger towns and cities can have several thousand mosques: Herald (March 1995), 71 (report on Faisalabad city in the Punjab).
112. al-Balagh (Dar al-'Ulum, Karachi); Al-Bayyinat (Jami'at al-'Ulum al-Islamiyya, Karachi); Al-Haqq (Dar al-'Ulum Haqqaniyya, Peshawar); Al- Sa'id (Jami'a Anwar Al-'Ulum, Multan); Zia-i Haram (Lahore); Misaq (Tanzim-i Islami, Lahore); Ishraq (al-Mawrid, Lahore); Khilafat-i Rashida (Sipah-i Sahaba, Faisalabad); Majallat al-Da'wa (al-Da'wa wa'l-Irshad, Lahore).
113. al-Balagh (Dar al-'Ulum, Karachi); Al-Bayyinat (Jami'at al-'Ulum al-Islamiyya, Karachi); Al-Haqq (Dar al-'Ulum Haqqaniyya, Peshawar); Al- Sa'id (Jami'a Anwar Al-'Ulum, Multan); Zia-i Haram (Lahore); Misaq (Tanzim-i Islami, Lahore); Ishraq (al-Mawrid, Lahore); Khilafat-i Rashida (Sipah-i Sahaba, Faisalabad); Majallat al-Da'wa (al-Da'wa wa'l-Irshad, Lahore).
114. al-Balagh (Dar al-'Ulum, Karachi); Al-Bayyinat (Jami'at al-'Ulum al-Islamiyya, Karachi); Al-Haqq (Dar al-'Ulum Haqqaniyya, Peshawar); Al- Sa'id (Jami'a Anwar Al-'Ulum, Multan); Zia-i Haram (Lahore); Misaq (Tanzim-i Islami, Lahore); Ishraq (al-Mawrid, Lahore); Khilafat-i Rashida (Sipah-i Sahaba, Faisalabad); Majallat al-Da'wa (al-Da'wa wa'l-Irshad, Lahore).
115. al-Balagh (Dar al-'Ulum, Karachi); Al-Bayyinat (Jami'at al-'Ulum al-Islamiyya, Karachi); Al-Haqq (Dar al-'Ulum Haqqaniyya, Peshawar); Al- Sa'id (Jami'a Anwar Al-'Ulum, Multan); Zia-i Haram (Lahore); Misaq (Tanzim-i Islami, Lahore); Ishraq (al-Mawrid, Lahore); Khilafat-i Rashida (Sipah-i Sahaba, Faisalabad); Majallat al-Da'wa (al-Da'wa wa'l-Irshad, Lahore).
116. al-Balagh (Dar al-'Ulum, Karachi); Al-Bayyinat (Jami'at al-'Ulum al-Islamiyya, Karachi); Al-Haqq (Dar al-'Ulum Haqqaniyya, Peshawar); Al- Sa'id (Jami'a Anwar Al-'Ulum, Multan); Zia-i Haram (Lahore); Misaq (Tanzim-i Islami, Lahore); Ishraq (al-Mawrid, Lahore); Khilafat-i Rashida (Sipah-i Sahaba, Faisalabad); Majallat al-Da'wa (al-Da'wa wa'l-Irshad, Lahore).
117. al-Balagh (Dar al-'Ulum, Karachi); Al-Bayyinat (Jami'at al-'Ulum al-Islamiyya, Karachi); Al-Haqq (Dar al-'Ulum Haqqaniyya, Peshawar); Al- Sa'id (Jami'a Anwar Al-'Ulum, Multan); Zia-i Haram (Lahore); Misaq (Tanzim-i Islami, Lahore); Ishraq (al-Mawrid, Lahore); Khilafat-i Rashida (Sipah-i Sahaba, Faisalabad); Majallat al-Da'wa (al-Da'wa wa'l-Irshad, Lahore).
118. al-Balagh (Dar al-'Ulum, Karachi); Al-Bayyinat (Jami'at al-'Ulum al-Islamiyya, Karachi); Al-Haqq (Dar al-'Ulum Haqqaniyya, Peshawar); Al- Sa'id (Jami'a Anwar Al-'Ulum, Multan); Zia-i Haram (Lahore); Misaq (Tanzim-i Islami, Lahore); Ishraq (al-Mawrid, Lahore); Khilafat-i Rashida (Sipah-i Sahaba, Faisalabad); Majallat al-Da'wa (al-Da'wa wa'l-Irshad, Lahore).
119. al-Balagh (Dar al-'Ulum, Karachi); Al-Bayyinat (Jami'at al-'Ulum al-Islamiyya, Karachi); Al-Haqq (Dar al-'Ulum Haqqaniyya, Peshawar); Al- Sa'id (Jami'a Anwar Al-'Ulum, Multan); Zia-i Haram (Lahore); Misaq (Tanzim-i Islami, Lahore); Ishraq (al-Mawrid, Lahore); Khilafat-i Rashida (Sipah-i Sahaba, Faisalabad); Majallat al-Da'wa (al-Da'wa wa'l-Irshad, Lahore).
120. al-Balagh (Dar al-'Ulum, Karachi); Al-Bayyinat (Jami'at al-'Ulum al-Islamiyya, Karachi); Al-Haqq (Dar al-'Ulum Haqqaniyya, Peshawar); Al- Sa'id (Jami'a Anwar Al-'Ulum, Multan); Zia-i Haram (Lahore); Misaq (Tanzim-i Islami, Lahore); Ishraq (al-Mawrid, Lahore); Khilafat-i Rashida (Sipah-i Sahaba, Faisalabad); Majallat al-Da'wa (al-Da'wa wa'l-Irshad, Lahore).
121. Cf. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 77; compare the 'mechanisms of integration' in the making of Shi'i fundamentalism in Iran: Riesebrodt, Pious Passion, 160ff.
122. Cf. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 77; compare the 'mechanisms of integration' in the making of Shi'i fundamentalism in Iran: Riesebrodt, Pious Passion, 160ff.
123. See Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 167ff. on the empowering of 'marginal peoples' in religious nationalism, inter alia, through the sanctification of religious violence.
124. Khilafat-i Rashida, vol. 4, no. 1 (January 1993), 20; Mawlana Haq Nawaz Jhangawi ki pandara ta'rikh-saz taqrirain, 132, 136.
125. Khilafat-i Rashida, vol. 4, no. 1 (January 1993), 20; Mawlana Haq Nawaz Jhangawi ki pandara ta'rikh-saz taqrirain, 132, 136.
126. It is worth noting that one of Zia al-Rahman Faruqi's brothers also works in Saudi Arabia; another is the editor of the Sipah-i Sahaba's journal, the Khilafat-i Rashida. See Khilafat-i Rashida, vol. 5, no. 3 (August 1994), 6.
127. On the Sials of Jhang, see L. Griffin and C. F. Massy, Chiefs and Families of Note in the Punjab (Lahore: Government Printing, Punjab, 1940), II, 365-71.
128. Mawlana Haq Nawaz Jhangawi ki pandara ta'rikh-saz taqrirain, 166-79.
129. This account is based on a biographical notice in Khilafat-i Rashida, vol. 4, no. 1 (January 1993), 20.
130. As one example among many, see Balakoti, Amir-i 'Azimat, 72-4, for a list of 'the martyrs of Jhang' (till 1990?).
131. On religiously sanctioned violence and its place in religious nationalism, see Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War, 153-70.
132. Cf. Stanley J. Tambiah, 'Reflections on Communal Violence in South Asia', Journal of Asian Studies, 49 (1990), 741-60.
133. On the career of Mawlana A'zam Tariq, see Khilafat-i Rashida, vol. 3, nos 9-10 (September-October 1992), 27-8.
134. Also see the detailed interview with him in ibid., vol. 4, no. 7 (December 1993), 5-8;
135. ibid., vol. 4, no. 8 (January 1994), 4-10.
136. According to figures released by the government, a total of 1,134 people were killed and 1,705 injured in Karachi between the beginning of October 1994 and the end of May 1995 alone. Among those killed, there were 103 Sunni activists and 104 Shi'i ones. For these figures, see the report of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, Karachi - Buhran ke hal ki talash (Lahore: Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, 1995), 17-18.
137. Newsline (February 1995), 95.
138. Frits Selier, 'Family and Rural-Urban Migration in Pakistan: The Case of Karachi', in J. van der Linden and Frits Selier, Karachi: Migrants, Housing and Housing Policy (Lahore: Vanguard, 1991), p. 5; Jan van der Linden, 'Security and Value: Squatter Dwellings in Karachi', in Donnan and Werbner, Economy and Culture in Pakistan, 62-76.
139. Frits Selier, 'Family and Rural-Urban Migration in Pakistan: The Case of Karachi', in J. van der Linden and Frits Selier, Karachi: Migrants, Housing and Housing Policy (Lahore: Vanguard, 1991), p. 5; Jan van der Linden, 'Security and Value: Squatter Dwellings in Karachi', in Donnan and Werbner, Economy and Culture in Pakistan, 62-76.
140. For a brief review of the major instances of rioting in Karachi till the mid-1980s, see Fareeda Shaheed, 'The Pathan-Muhajir Conflict, 1985-86: A National Perspective', in Veena Das (ed.), Mirrors of Violence: Communities, Riots, and Survivors in South Asia (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990), 194-214.
141. Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War, 191.
142. Cf. Mawlana Haq Nawaz Jhangawi ki pandara ta'rikh-saz taqrirain, esp. 268-94, for Jhangavi's insistence that the 'ulama' must assume an aggressive political role in the 'defence' of Sunnism.
143. On the 'Iranianization' of non-Iranian Shi'ite clergy in the Middle East (but also elsewhere), see Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 185ff.
144. Cf. Naqvi, Tadhkira-yi 'Ulama'-i Imamiyya-i Pakistan, 291, 320, 340, 403, 411 for instances of Shi'i preachers striving to 'reform' local beliefs and customs.