Principles for management of aquatic-breeding amphibians

Journal of Wildlife Management

Volumn 64, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 615-631

  Semlitsch, Raymond D ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

Author keywords

Amphibian; Connectivity; Dispersal; Diversity; Ecosystem management; Fish predation; Metapopulation; Pond hydroperiod; Source sink; Wetlands

Indexed keywords

AMPHIBIA; ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; POPULATION DYNAMICS; SPECIES CONSERVATION; SPECIES DIVERSITY; WETLAND;

AMPHIBIAN; BIODIVERSITY; WETLAND;

AMPHIBIA; CAPRA HIRCUS; VERTEBRATA;

EID: 0033938461     PISSN: 0022541X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3802732     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. AKER, L. M. 1998. The effect of native and non-native fish on amphibian populations in northeastern Washington. Thesis, Eastern Washington University, Cheney, Washington, USA.
2. ALFORD, R. A., AND R. N. HARRIS. 1988. Effects of larval growth history on anuran metamorphosis. American Naturalist 131:91-106.
3. _, AND S. J. RICHARDS. 1999. Global amphibian declines: a problem in applied ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 30:133-165.
4. ANDERSON, P. D., AND S. D'APOLLONIA. 1978. Aquatic animals. Pages 187-221 in G. C. Butler, editor. Principles of ecotoxicology. John Wiley & Sons, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
5. ANDREN, C., L. HENRIKSON, M. OLSSON, AND G. NILSON. 1988. Effects of pH and aluminum on embryonic and early larval stages of Swedish brown frogs Rana arvalis, R. temporaria and R. dalmatina. Holarctic Ecology 11:127-135.
6. ASH, A. N. 1988. Disappearance of salamanders from clearcut plots. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Science Society 104:116-122.
7. _. 1997. Disappearance and return of Plethodontid salamanders to clearcut plots in the southern Blue Ridge Mountains. Conservation Biology 11:983-989.
8. AZEVEDOS-RAMOS, C., VV. E. MAGNUSSON, AND P. BAYLISS. 1999. Predation as the key factor structuring tadpole assemblages in a savanna area in central Amazonia. Copeia 1999:22-33.
9. BAKER, J. M. R., AND V. WAIGHTS. 1994. The effects of nitrates on tadpoles of the treefrog (Litoria caerulea). Herpetological Journal 4:106-108.
10. BARINAGA, M. 1990. Where have all the froggies gone? Science 247:1033-10.34.
11. BERVEN, K. A. 1988. Factors affecting variation in reproductive traits within a population of wood frogs (Rana sylvatica). Copeia 1988:605-615.
12. _. 1990. Factors affecting population flucuations in larval and adult stages of the wood frog (Rana sylvatica). Ecology 71:1599-1608.
13. _, AND D. E. GILL. 1983. Interpreting geographic variation in life-history traits. American Zoologist 23:85-97.
14. _, AND T. A. GRUDZIEN. 1990. Dispersal in the wood frog (Rana sylvatica): implications for genetic population structure. Evolution 44:2047-2056.
15. BISHOP, C. A. 1992. The effects of pesticides on amphibians and the implications for determining causes of declines in amphibian populations. Pages 67-70 in C. A. Bishop and K. E. Pettit, editors. Declines in Canadian amphibian populations: designing a national monitoring strategy. Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Paper 76.
16. BLAUSTEIN, A. R., AND D. B. WAKE. 1990. Declining amphibian populations: a global phenomenon? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5:203-204.
17. _, D. B. WAKE, AND W. P. SOUSA. 1994a. Amphibian declines: judging stability, persistence, and susceptibility of populations to local and global extinctions. Conservation Biology 8:60-71.
18. _, P. D. HOFFMAN, D. G. HOKIT, J. M. KIESECKER, S. C. WALLS, AND J. B. HAYS. 1994b. UV repair and resistance to solar UV-B in amphibian eggs: a link to population declines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91: 1791-1795.
19. BOONE, M. D., AND C. M. BRIDGES. 1999. The effect of temperature on the potency of carbaryl for survival of tadpoles of the green frog (Rana clamitans). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 18:1482-1484.
20. BRADFORD, D. F. 1989. Allopatric distribution of native frogs and introduced fishes in high Sierra Nevada lakes of California: implication of the negative effect of fish introductions. Copeia 1989:775-778.
21. _, AND D. M. GRABER. 1993. Isolation of remaining populations of the native frog, Rana muscosa, by introduced fishes in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, California. Conservation Biology 7:882-888.
22. _, C. SWANSON, AND M. S. GORDON. 1994. Effects of low pH and aluminum on amphibians at high elevation in the Sierra Nevada, California. Canadian Journal of Zoology 72:1272-1279.
23. BREDEN, F. 1987. The effect of post-metamorphic dispersal on the population genetic structure of Fowler's toad, Bufo woodhousei fowleri. Copeia 1987:386-395.
24. BRISTOW, C. E. 1991. Interactions between phylogenetically distant predators: Notophthalmus viridescens and Enneacanthus abesus. Copeia 1991: 1-8.
25. BRONMARK, C., AND P. EDENHAMM. 1994. Does the presence of fish affect the distribution of tree frogs (Hyla arborea)? Conservation Biology 8: 841-845.
26. BROWN, J. H., AND A. KODRIC-BROWN. 1977. Turnover rates in insular biogeography: effect of immigration on extinction. Ecology 58:445-449.
27. CALDWELL, J. P., J. H. THORP, AND T. O. JERVEY. 1980. Predator-prey relationships among larval dragonflies, salamanders, and frogs. Oecologia 46: 285-289.
28. CAREY, C. L. 1993. Hypothesis concerning the causes of the disappearance of boreal toads from the mountains of Colorado. Conservation Biology 7: 355-362.
29. _, N. COHEN, AND L. ROLLINS-SMITH. 1999. Amphibian declines: an immunological perspective. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 23:459-172.
30. CLARK, K. L., AND R. J. HALL. 1985. Effects of elevated hydrogen and aluminum concentrations on the survival of amphibian embryos and larvae. Canadian Journal of Zoology 63:116-123.
31. COLLINS, J. P., AND J. E. CHEEK. 1983. Effect of food and density on development of typical and cannibalistic salamander larvae in Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum. American Zoologist 23:77-84.
32. CONNELL, J. H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199:1302-1310.
33. CORN, P. S., AND R. B. BURY. 1989. Logging in western Oregon: responses of headwater habitats and stream amphibians. Forest Ecology and Management 29:39-57.
34. COWARDIN, L. M., V. CARTER, F. C. GOLET, AND E. T. LAROE. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Publication, FWS/OBS-79/31.
35. DAHL, T. E. 1990. Wetlands: losses in the United States 1780's to 1980s. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C., USA.
36. DEMAYNADIER, P. G. 1999. Forest canopy closure and juvenile emigration by pool-breeding amphibians in Maine. Journal of Wildlife Management 63: 441-450.
37. _, AND M L. HUNTER, JR. 1995. The relationship between forest management and amphibian ecology: a review of the North American literature. Environmental Reviews 3:230-261.
38. DENTON, J. S., S. P. HITCHINGS, T. J. C. BEEBEE, AND A. GENT. 1997. A recovery program for the Natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) in Britain. Conservation Biology 11:1329-1338.
39. DODD, C. K., JR. 1992. Biological diversity of a temporary pond herpetofauna in north Florida sandhills. Biodiversity and Conservation 1:125-142.
40. _. 1993. Cost of living in an unpredictable environment: the ecology of striped newts Notophthalmus perstriatus during a prolonged drought. Copeia 1993:605-614.
41. _. 1995. The ecology of a sandhills population of the eastern narrow-mouthed toad, Gastrophryne carolinensis, during a drought. Bulletin of the Florida Museum of Natural History 38:11-41.
42. _. 1997. Imperiled amphibians: a historical perspective. Pages 165-200 in G. W. Benz and D. E. Collins, editors. Aquatic fauna in peril: the southeastern perspective. Special Publication 1 Southeast Aquatic Research Institute. Lenz Design and Communications. Decatur, Georgia, USA.
43. DONNELLY, M. A., AND M. L. CRUMP. 1998. Potential effects of climate change on two neotropical amphibian assemblages. Climate Change 39:541-561.
44. DROST, C. A., AND G. M. FELLERS. 1996. Collapse of a regional frog fauna in the Yosemite area of the California Sierra Nevada, USA. Conservation Biology 10:414-425.
45. DUNSON, W. A., AND J. CONNELL. 1982. Specific inhibition of hatching in amphibian embryos by low pH. Journal of Herpetology 16:314-316.
46. FAHRIG, L., J. H. PEDLAR, S. E. POPE, P. D. TAYLOR, AND J. F. WEGNER. 1995. Effect of road traffic on amphibian density. Biological Conservation 73:177-182.
47. FRRDA, J. 1986. The influence of acidic pond water on amphibians: a review. Water. Air, and Soil Pollution 30:439-450.
48. _. 1991. The effects of aluminum and other metals on amphibians. Environmental Pollution 71:305-328.
49. _. AND D. H. TAYLOR. 1992. Behavioral responses of amphibian larvae to acidic water. Journal of Herpetology 26:429-433.
50. FREED, P. S., AND K. NEITMAN. 1938. Notes on predation on the endangered Houston toad, Bufo houstonensis. Texas Journal of Science 40:454-450.
51. GARROTT, R. A., P. J. WHITE, AND C. A. V. WHITE. 1993. Overabundance: an issue for conservation biologists? Conservation Biologv 7:946-949.
52. GIBBONS, J. W. 1976. Thermal alteration and the enhancement of species populations. Pages 27-31 in G. W. Esch and R. W. McFarlane, editors. Thermal ecology II. Energy Research and Development Administration symposium series (CONF-750425). National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia, USA.
53. GIBBS, E. L., G. W. NACE, AND M. B. EMMONS. 1971. The live frog is almost dead. Bioscience 21:1027-1034.
54. GIBBS, J. P. 1993. Importance of small wetlands for the persistence of local populations of wetland-associated animals. Wetlands 13:25-31.
55. _. 1998. Amphibian movements in response to forest edges, roads, and streambeds in southern New England. Journal of Wildlife Management 62:584-589.
56. GILL, D. E. 1978. The metapopulation ecology of the red-spotted newt, Notophthalmun viridescens (Rafinesque). Ecological Monographs 48:145-166.
57. GOATER, C. P., R. D. SEMLITSCH, AND M. V. BERNASCONI. 1993. Effects of body size and parasite infection on the locomotory performance of juvenile toads, Bufa bufo. Oikos 66:129-136.
58. GOODRICH, J. M., AND S. W. BUSKIRK. 1995. Control of abundant native vertebrates for conservation of endangered species. Conservation Biology 9: 1357-1364.
59. GRANT, P. H., AND B. R. GRANT. 1996. Finch communities in a climatically fluctuating environment. Pages 343-390 in M. L. Cody and J. A. Smallwood, editors. Long-term studies of vertebrate communities. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
60. HALL, R. J., AND P. F. P. HENRY. 1992. Assessing effects of pesticides on amphibians and reptiles: status and needs. Herpetological Journal 2:65-71.
61. _, AND E. KOLBE. 1980. Bioconcentration of organophosphorus pesticides to harzardous levels by amphibians. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 6:853-860.
62. HALLEY, J. M., R. S. OLDHAM, AND J. W. ARNTZEN. 1996. Predicting the persistence of amphibian populations with the help of a spatial model. Journal of Applied Ecology 33:455-470.
63. HANSKI, I., AND M. E. GILPIN. 1991. Metapopulation dynamics. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom.
64. HARFENIST, A., T POWER, K. L. CLARK, AND D. B. PEAKALL. 1989. A review and evaluation of the amphibian toxicological literature. Canadian Wildlife Service Technical Report Series Number 61.
65. HAYES, M. P., AND M. R. JENNINGS. 1986. Decline of ranid frog species in western North America: are bullfrogs (Rnna catesbeiana) responsible? Journal of Herpetology 20:490-509.
66. HAYS, J. B., A. R. BLAUSTEIN, J. M. KIESECKER, P. D. HUFFMAN, I. PANDELOVA, D. COYLE, AND T. RICHARDSON. 1996. Developmental responses of amphibians to solar and artificial UVB sources: a comparative study. Photochemistry and Photobiology 64:449-455.
67. HECNAR, S. J., AND R. T. M'CLOSKEY. 1996. Regional dynamics and the status of amphibians. Ecology 77:2091-2097.
68. _. 1997. The effects of predatory fish on amphibian species richness and distribution. Biological Conservation 79:123-131.
69. HERBECK, L. A., AND D. R. LARSEN. 1999. Plethodontid salamander response to silvicultural practices in Missouri Ozark forests. Conservation Biology 13:623-632.
70. HERREID, C. F., AND S. KINNEY. 1966. Survival of Alaskan woodfrog (Rana sylvatica) larvae. Ecology 47:1039-1041.
71. HEWS, D. K. 1995. Overall predator feeding rates and relative susceptibility of large and small tadpoles to fish predation depend on microhabitat: a laboratory study. Journal of Herpetology 29:142-145.
72. HEVER, W. R., R. W. MCDIARMID, AND D. L. WEIGMANN. 1975. Tadpoles, predation, and pond habitats in the tropics. Biotropica 7:100-111.
73. HOLBROOK, S. J., AND R. J. SCHMITT. 1996. On the structure and dynamics of temperate reef fish assemblages. Pages 19-48 in M. L. Cody and J. A. Smallwood, editors. Long-term studies of vertebrate communities. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
74. HORNE, M. T., AND W. A. DUNSON. 1995. Effects of low pH, metals, and water hardness on larval amphibians. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 29:500-505.
75. ISTOCK, C. A. 1967. The evolution of complex life cycle phenomena: an ecological perspective. Evolution 21:592-605.
76. JUNG, R. E., AND C. H. JACOE. 1995. Effects of low pH and aluminum on body size, swimming performance, and susceptability to predation of green tree frog (Hyla cinerea) tadpoles. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:2171-2183.
77. KAISER, J. 1998. New wetlands proposal draws flak. Science 279:980.
78. KATS, L. B., AND L. M. DILL. 1998. The scent of death: chemosensory assessment of predation risk by prey animals. Ecoscience 5:361-394.
79. _, J. PETRANKA, AND A. SIH. 1988. Antipredator defenses and the persistence of amphibian larvae with fishes. Ecology 69:1865-1870.
80. KIESECKER, J. M., AND A. R. BLAUSTEIN. 1997. Population differences in responses of red-legged frogs (Rana aurora) to introduced bullfrogs. Ecology 78:1752-1760.
81. KUPFERBERG, S. J. 1995. Hydrologic and trophic factors affecting the invasion of alien bullfrogs (Rana catenbeiana) and recruitment of native frogs (Rana boylii and Hyla regilla) in a northern California watershed. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA.
82. LACLAIRE, L. V., AND R. FRANZ. 1990. Importance of isolated wetlands in upland landscapes. Pages 9-15 in M. Kelly, editor. The role of aquatic plants in Florida's lakes and rivers. Proceedings second annual meeting of the Florida Lake Management Society, Winter Haven, Florida, USA.
83. LAMOUREUX, V. S., AND D. M. MADISON. 1999. Overwintering habitats of radio-implanted green frogs, Rana clamitans. Journal of Herpetology 33:430-435.
84. LANGTON, T. E. S., editor. 1989. Amphibians and roads. Proceedings of the toad tunnel conference, Rendsburg, Federal Republic of Germany. ACO Polymer Products, Shefford, England.
85. LAURANCE, W. F., K. R. MCDONALD, AND R. SPEARE. 1996. Epidemic disease and the catastrophic decline of Australian rainforest frogs. Conservation Biology 10:406-413.
86. LAWLER, S. P. 1989. Behavioural responses to predators and predation risk in four species of larval anurans. Animal Behavior 38:1039-1047.
87. _, D. DRITZ, T. STRANGE, AND M. HOLYOAK. 1999. Effects of introduced mosquitofish and bullfrogs on the threatened California red-legged frog. Conservation Biology 13:613-622.
88. LEFTWICH, K. N., AND P. D. LILLY. 1992. Effects of duration of exposure to acidic conditions on the survival of Bufo americanus embryos. Journal of Herpetology 26:70-71.
89. LEVIN, S. A.. AND R. T PAINE. 1974. Disturbance, patch formation and community structure. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 71: 2744-2747.
90. LICHT, L. E. 1974. Survival of embryos, tadpoles, and adults of the frogs Rana aurora aurora and Rana pretiosa pretiosa sympatric in southwestern British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Zoology 52: 613-627.
91. LIPS, K. R. 1998. Decline of a tropical montane amphibian fauna. Conservation Biology 12:106-117.
92. LONG, L. E., L. S. SAYLOR, AND M. E. SOULE. 1995. A pH/UV-B synergism in amphibians. Conservation Biology 9:1301-1303.
93. MADISON, D. M. 1997. The emigration of radio-implanted spotted salamanders, Ambystoma maculatum. Journal of Herpetology 31:542-552.
94. MAYER, F.L., AND M.R. ELLERSIECK. 1986. Manual of acute toxicity: interpretation and data base for 410 chemicals and 66 species of freshwater animals. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publication No. 160.
95. MCCOMB, W. C., K. MCGARIGAL, AND R. C. ANTHONY. 1993. Small mammal and amphibian abundance in streamside and upslope habitats of mature Douglas-fir stands, western Oregon. Northwest Science 67:7-15.
96. MOLER, P. E., AND R. FRANZ. 1987. Wildlife values of small, isolated wetlands in the southeastern coastal plain. Pages 234-241 in R. R. Odum, K. A. Riddleberger, and J. C. Ozier, editors. Proceedings of the third southeastern nongame and endangered wildlife symposium. Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
97. MORIN, P. J. 1981. Predatory salamanders reverse the outcome of competition among three species of anuran tadpoles. Science 212:1284-1286.
98. _. 1983. Predation, competition, and the composition of larval anuran guilds. Ecological Monographs 53:119-138.
99. _. 1986. Interactions between intraspecific competition and predation in an amphibian predatorprey system. Ecology 67:713-720.
100. NEWMAN, R.A. 1988a. Genetic variation for larval anuran (Scaphiopus couchii) development time in an uncertain environment. Evolution 42:763-773.
101. _. 1988b. Adaptive plasticity in development of Scaphiopus couchii tadpoles in desert ponds. Evolution 42:774-783.
102. _. 1989. Developmental plasticity of Scaphiopus couchii tadpoles in an unpredictable environment. Ecology 70:1775-1787.
103. ODUM, E. P., J. T. FINN, AND E. H. FRANZ. 1979. Perturbation theory and the subsidy-stress gradient. Bioscience 29:349-352.
104. OLDHAM, R. S. 1966. Spring movement in the American toad, Bufo americamis. Canadian Journal of Zoology 44:63-100.
105. OZA, G. M. 1990. Ecological effects of the frog's legs trade. Environmentalist 10:39-41.
106. PECHMANN, J. H. K. 1994. Population regulation in complex life cycles: aquatic and terrestrial density-dependence in pond-breeding amphibians. Dissertation, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.
107. _, D. E. SCOTT, J. W. GIBBONS, AND R. D. SEMLITSCH. 1989. Influence of wetland hydroperiod on diversity and abundance of metamorphosing juvenile amphibians. Wetlands Ecology and Management 1:3-11.
108. _, _, R. D. SEMLITSCH, J. P. CALDWELL, L. J. VITT, AND J. W. GIBBONS 1991. Declining amphibian populations: the problem of separating human impacts from natural fluctuations. Science 253:892-895.
109. PETRANKA, J. W. 1983. Fish predation: a factor affecting the spatial distribution of a stream-breeding salamander. Copeia 1983:624-628.
110. _. 1989. Density-dependent growth and survival of larval Ambystoma: evidence from whole-pond manipulations. Ecology 70:1752-1767.
111. _, AND A. SIH. 1986. Environmental instabilsty, competition, and density-dependent growth and survivorship of a stream-dwelling salamander. Ecology 67:729-736.
112. PFENNIG, D. W. 1990. The adaptive significance of an environmentally-cued developmental switch in an anuran tadpole. Oecologia 85:101-107.
113. PIERCE, B. A. 1985. Acid tolerance in amphibians. Bioscience 35:239-243.
114. POUNDS, J. A., AND M. L. CHUMP. 1994. Amphibian declines and climate disturbance: the case of the golden toad and harlequin frog. Conservation Biology 8:72-85.
115. POUGH, F. H., AND S. KAMEL. 1984. Post-metamorphic change in activity metabolism of anurans in relation to life history. Oecologia 65:138-144.
116. PULLIAM, H. R. 1988. Sources, sinks, and population regulation. American Naturalist 132:652-661.
117. RAND, G. M. 1995. Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology, effects, environmental fate, and risk assessment. Taylor and Francis, Washington, D.C., USA.
118. RAYMOND, L. R., AND L. M. HARDY. 1991. Effects of a clearcut on a population of the mole salamander, Ambystoma talpoideum, in an adjacent unaltered forest. Journal of Herpetology 25:509-512.
119. RUDOLPH, D. C., AND J. G. DICKSON. 1990. Stream-side zone width and amphibian and reptile abundance. Southwestern Naturalist 35:472-476.
120. SAUNDERS, D. A., AND R. J. HOBBS. 1991. The role of corridors in conservation: what do we know and where do we go? Pages 421-427 in D. A. Saunders and R. J. Hobbs, editors. Nature conservation 2: the role of corridors. Surrey Beatty &: Sons, Chipping Norton, New South Wales, Australia.
121. SCHALLES, J. F., R. R. SHARITZ, J. W. GIBBONS, G. J. LEVERSEE, AND J. N. KNOX. 1989. Carolina bays of the Savannah River Plant. Savannah River Plant National Environmental Research Park Program Publication SRO-NERP-18, Aiken, South Carolina, USA.
122. SCOTT, A. F., AND A. BUFALINO. 1997. Dynamics of the amphibian communities at two small ponds in Land Between the Lakes over the past decade. Page 117 in A. F. Scott, S. W. Hamilton, E. W. Chester, and D. S. White, editors. Proceedings of the seventh symposium on the natural history of Lower Tennessee and Cumberland River valleys. Austin Peay State University, Clarksville, Tennessee, USA.
123. SCOTT, D. E. 1990. Effects of larval density in Ambystoma opacum: an experiment in large-scale field enclosures. Ecology 71:296-306.
124. _. 1994. The effect of larval density on adult demographic traits in Ambystoma opacum. Ecology 75:1383-1396.
125. SEMLITSCH, R. D. 1983. Structure and dynamics of two breeding populations of the eastern tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum. Copeia 1983: 608-616.
126. _. 1987. Relationship of pond drying to the reproductive success of the salamander Ambystoma talpoideum. Copeia 1987:61-69.
127. _. 1998. Biological delineation of terrestrial buffer zones for pond-breeding salamanders. Conservation Biology 12:1113-1119.
128. _, AND J. R. BODIE. 1998. Are small, isolated wetlands expendable? Conservation Biology 12: 1129-1133.
129. _, J. W. GIBBONS, AND T. D. TUBERVILLE. 1995. Timing of reproduction and metamorphosis in the Carolina gopher frog (Rana capito capito) in South Carolina. Journal of Herpetology 29:612-614.
130. _, AND T. J. RYAN. 1999. Migration, amphibian. Pages 221-227 in E. Knobail and J. D. Neill, editors. Encyclopedia of reproduction. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
131. _, D. E. SCOTT, AND J. H. K. PECHMANN. 1988. Time and size at metamorphosis related to adult fitness in Ambystoma talpoideum. Ecology 69: 184-192.
132. _, _, _, AND J. W. GIBBONS. 1996. Structure and dynamics of an amphibian community: evidence from a 16-year study of a natural pond. Pages 217-248 in M. L. Cody and J. A. Smallwood, editors. Long-term studies of vertebrate communities. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
133. SHARITZ, R. R., AND GIBBONS, J. W. 1982. The ecology of southeastern shrub bogs (pocosins) and Carolina bays: a community profile. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Publication, FWS/OBS-82/04.
134. SJOGREN, P. 1991. Extinction and isolation gradients in metapopulations: the case of the pool frog (Rana lessonae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 42:135-147.
135. SKELLY, D. K. 1995. A behavioral trade-off and its consequence for the distribution of Pseudacris treefrog larvae. Ecology 76:150-164.
136. _. 1996. Pond drying, predators, and the distribution of Pseudacris tadpoles. Copeia 1996:599-605.
137. _, E. E. WERNER, AND S. CORTWRIGHT. 1999. Long-term distributional dynamics of a Michigan amphibian assemblage. Ecology 80:2326-2337.
138. SMITH, D. C. 1983. Factors controlling tadpole populations of the chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata) on Isle Royale, Michigan. Ecology 64:501-510.
139. _. 1987. Adult recruitment in chorus frogs: effects of size and date at metamorphosis. Ecology 68:344-350.
140. SPOTILA, J. R. 1972. Role of temperature and water in the ecology of lungless salamanders. Ecological Monographs 42:95-125.
141. STUMPEL, A. H. P. 1992. Successful reproduction of introduced bullfrogs Rana catesbeiana in northwestern Europe: a potential threat to indigenous amphibians. Biological Conservation 6:61-62.
142. TRAVIS, J. 1994. Calibrating our expectations in studying amphibian declines. Herpetologica 50:104-108.
143. _, W. H. KEEN, AND J. JUILIANA. 1985a. The effects of multiple factors on viability selection in Hyla gratiosa tadpoles. Evolution 39:1087-1099.
144. _, _, AND _. 1985b. The role of relative body size in a predator-prey relationship between dragonfly naiads and larval anurans. Oikos 45:59-65.
145. TYLER, T., W. J. LISS, L. M. GANIO, G. L. LARSON, R. HOFFMAN, E. DEIMLING, AND G. LOMNICKY. 1998. Interaction between introduced trout and larval salamanders (Ambystoma macrodactylum) in high-elevation lakes. Conservation Biology 12: 94-105.
146. VAN BUSKIRK, J., AND D. C. SMITH. 1991. Density-dependent population regulation in a salamander. Ecology 72:1747-1756.
147. VAN LEEUWEN, B. H. 1982. Protection of migrating common toad (Bufo bufo) against car traffic in The Netherlands. Environmental Conservation 9:1.
148. VERTUCCI, F. A., AND P. S. CORN. 1996. Evaluation of episodic acidification and amphibian declines in the Rocky Mountains. Ecological Applications 6:449-457.
149. WAKE, D. B. 1998. Action on amphibians. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13:379-380.
150. WELLBORN, G. A., D. K. SKELLY, AND E. E. WERNER. 1996. Mechanisms creating community structure across a freshwater habitat gradient. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 27: 337-363.
151. WERNER, E. E., AND K. S. GLENNEMEIER. 1999. Influence of forest canopy cover on the breeding pond distributions of several amphibian species. Copeia 1999:1-12.
152. _, AND M. A. MCPEEK. 1994. Direct and indirect effects of predators on two anuran species along an environmental gradient. Ecology 75: 1368-1382.
153. WIEST, J. A., JR. 1982. Anuran succession at temporary ponds in a post oak-savanna region of Texas. Pages 39-47 in N. J. Scott, Jr., editor. Herpetological communities. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C., USA.
154. WILBUR, H. M. 1980. Complex life cycles. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11:67-93.
155. _. 1984. Complex life cycles and community organization in amphibians. Pages 195-224 in P. W. Price, C. N. Slobodchikoff, and W. S. Gaud, editors. A new ecology: novel approaches to interactive systems. John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York, USA.
156. _. 1987. Regulation of structure in complex systems: experimental temporary pond communities. Ecology 1437-1452.
157. _, AND J. P. COLLINS. 1973. Ecological aspects of amphibian metamorphosis. Science 182: 1305-1314.
158. _, AND J. E. FAUTH. 1990. Experimental aquatic food webs: interactions between two predators and two prey. American Naturalist 135:176-204.
159. WOODWARD, B. D. 1983. Tadpole size and predation in the Chihuahuan desert. Southwestern Naturalist 28:470-471.
160. ZAGA, A., E. E. LITTLE, C. F. RABENI, AND M. R. ELLERSIECK. 1998. Photoenhanced toxicity of a carbamate insecticide to early life stage anuran amphibians. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 17:2543-2553.