Children's exposure assessment: A review of factors influencing children's exposure, and the data available to characterize and assess that exposure

Environmental Health Perspectives

Volumn 108, Issue 6, 2000, Pages 475-486

  Cohen Hubal, Elaine A ^a   Sheldon, Linda S ^a   Burke, Janet M ^a   McCurdy, Thomas R ^a   Berry, Maurice R ^a   Rigas, Marc L ^a   Zartarian, Valerie G ^a   Freeman, Natalie C G ^b  

^a U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^b RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Activity patterns; Aggregate exposure; Children; Environmental exposure; Exposure assessment; Susceptible populations

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER;

ADOLESCENT; CHEMICAL ANALYSIS; CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD HEALTH; CONTAMINATION; CONTROLLED STUDY; DATA ANALYSIS; DATA BASE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FEMALE; HUMAN; INFANT; INGESTION; INHALATION; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MONITORING; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; POLLUTANT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SKIN DISEASE;

EID: 0033921239     PISSN: 00916765     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1289/ehp.108-1638158     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Flogan WJ. Sources and routes of childhood chemical exposures. J Pediatr 97:861-865 (1980).
2. Rogan WJ. Environmental poisoning of children -lessons from the past. Environ Health Perspect 103(suppl 6):19-24 (1995).
3. NAS. Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children. Washington, DC:National Academy of Sciences, 1993.
4. Schneider D. American Childhood: Risks and Realities. New Brunswick, NJ:Rutgers University Press, 1995.
5. Bearer CF. How are children different from adults? Environ Health Perspect 103:7-12(1995).
6. Goldman LR. Children - unique and vulnerable. Environmental risks facing children and recommendations for response. Environ Health Perspect 103(suppl 6):13-18 (1995).
7. Wargo J. Our Children's Toxic Legacy: How Science and Law Fail to Protect Us from Pesticides. New Haven, CT:Yale University Press, 1996.
8. Food Quality Protection Act. Public Law 104-170, 1996.
9. U.S. EPA. Exposure Factors Handbook Volume I-III. EPA/600/P-95/002Fa,b,c. Washington, DC:Office of Research and Development, 1997.
10. Thompson H. Physical growth In: Manual of Child Psychology (Carmichael L, ed). New York:John Wiley and Sons, 1946;255-294.
11. Blackburn ST, Loper DL. The gastrointestinal and hepatic systems. In: Maternal, Fetal, and Neonatal Physiology: A Clinical Perspective. Philadelphia:Saunders, 1992;379-438.
12. Gesell A. Child development. In: Manual of Child Psychology (Carmichael L, ed). New York Wiley and Sons, 1946;295-331.
13. The American Academy of Pediatrics. Caring for Your Baby and Young Child: Birth to Age 5 (Shelov SP, Hannemann RE, eds). New York Bantam Books, 1993.
14. Zartarian VG, Ferguson AC, Leckie JO. Quantified dermal activity data for a four child pilot field study. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 7:543-552 (1997).
15. Gurunathan S, Robson M, Freeman N, Buckley B, Roy A, Meyer R, Bukowski J, Lioy PJ. Accumulation of chlorpyrifos on residential surfaces and on/in toys accessible to children. Environ Health Perspect 106:9-16 (1998).
16. Fenske RA, Black KG, Elkner KP, Lee C, Methner M, Soto R. Potential exposure and health risks of infants following indoor residential pesticide application. Am J Public Health 80:689-693 (1990).
17. Connolly RS, Elliot JM. Evolution and ontogeny of hand function. In: Ethological Studies of Child Behavior (Blurton-Jones N, ed). London:Cambridge University Press, 1972.
18. Humphrey R, Jewell K, Rosenberger RC. Development of in-hand manipulation and relationship with activities. Am J Occup Ther 49:763-771 (1995).
19. Thelen E. Motor development. Am Psychol 50:79-95 (1995).
20. Pehoski C, Henderson A, Tickle-Degnen L. In-hand manipulation in young children: rotation of an object in the fingers. Am J Occup Ther 51:544-552 (1997).
21. Pehoski C, Henderson A, Tickle-Degnen L. In-hand manipulation in young children: translation movements. Am J Occup Ther 51:719-728 (1997).
22. Groot ME, Lekkerkerk MC, Steenbekkers LPA. Mouthing behaviour of young children: an observational study. Wageningen, The Netherlands:Agricultural University Wageningen, 1998.
23. Mukerjee D. Assessment of risk from multimedia exposures of children to environmental chemicals. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 48:483-501 (1998).
24. Chance GW, Harmsen E. Children are different: environmental contaminants and children's health. Can J Public Health 89:S9-S15 (1998).
25. Barlion LJ. Dietary Exposure of Children Living in Lead-Laden Environments [Ph.D. dissertation]. Cincinnati, Ohio:University of Cincinnati, 1999.
26. Childs BH, Pellizzari ED. Child Dietary Lead Study: Final Report. Cooperative Agreement: CR 822070-01-D. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999.
27. Gill DC. Gender differences in competition and sport participation. Int J Sports Psychiatry 19:145-159 (1988).
28. Garcia CA. Gender differences in young children's interactions when learning fundamental motor skills. Res Q Exerc Sport 65:213-225 (1994).
29. Schwab M, McDermott A, Spengler JD. Using longitudinal data to understand children's activity patterns in an exposure context: data from the Kanawha County health study. Environ Intern 18:173-189 (1992).
30. Bjorklid-Chu P. A survey of children's outdoor activities in 2 modern housing areas in Sweden. In: Biology of Play (Tizard, Harvey D, Heinneman W, eds). London:Heinneman, 1997;146-159.
31. Sexton K, Adgate JL. Looking at environmental justice from an environmental health perspective. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 9(1):3-8 (1999).
32. von Zuben MV, Crist P, Mayberry W. A pilot study of differences in play behavior between children of low and middle socioeconomic status. Am J Occup Ther 45:113-118 (1991).
33. Vandell DL, Powers CP. Day care quality and children's free play activities. Am J Orthopsychiatry 53:493-500 (1983).
34. Rubin K, Maioni T, Hornung M. Free play behaviors in middle- and lower-class preschoolers. Child Dev 47:414-419 (1976).
35. Bradley RH, Caldwell BM. 174 children: a study of the relationship between home environment and cognitive development during the first 5 years. In: Home Environment and Early Cognitive Development (Gottfried AW, ed). New York:Academic Press, 1984;5-56.
36. Bradley RH, Caldwell BM, Rock SL. Home environment and school performance: a ten-year follow-up examination of three models of environmental action. Child Dev 59:852-867 (1988).
37. DuRant RH, Baronowski T, Puhk J, Rhodes T, Davis H, Greaves KA, Thompson WO. Evaluation of the children's activity rating scale [CARS] in young children. Med Sci Sports Exerc 25:1415-1421 (1993).
38. Engstrom L-M. Physical activity of children and youth. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl 282:101-105 (1980).
39. Lanphear BP, Weitzman M, Eberly S. Racial differences in urban children's environmental exposures to lead. Am J Public Health 86:1460-1463 (1996).
40. Baranowski T, Thompson WO, DuRant RH, Baranowski J, Puhl J. Observations on physical activity in physical locations: age, gender, ethnicity, and month effects. Res Q Exerc Sport 64:127-133 (1993).
41. Wilson NK, Chuang JC, Nishioka M, Lyu C. Measurements of persistent organic chemicals in several day care centers. Presented at the 7th Annual Meeting of International Society of Exposure Analysis, 2-5 November 1997, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
42. Sheldon L, Melnyk L, Berry M, Freeman NCG. Determination of children's dietary exposure to lead. Presented at the 7th Annual Meeting of International Society of Exposure Analysis, 2-5 November 1997, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
43. Berry MR, Adcox C, Melnyk LJ, Akland GG, Clayton CA, Hu YA, Aragon ED, Roberds JM, Pellizzari ED. Measuring dietary exposure of young children. Presented at the Analytical Challenges for Assessing Environmental Exposure to Children Symposium, ACS National Meeting, 22-26 August 1999, New Orleans, Louisiana.
44. Akland GG, Pellizzari ED, Hu YA, Clayton CA, Long K, Roberds JM, Berry MR, Leckie J. The three interacting factors associated with children's dietary exposures: environmental concentrations, food contamination, and children's behaviors. Presented at the Analytical Challenges for Assessing Environmental Exposure to Children Symposium, ACS National Meeting, 22-26 August 1999, New Orleans, Louisiana.
45. Adcox C, Berry MR, Akland GG, Roberds JM, Pellizzari ED. Transfer of pesticides from surfaces to foods for the estimation of dietary exposure of children. Presented at the Analytical Challenges for Assessing Environmental Exposure to Children Symposium, ACS National Meeting. 22-26 August 1999, New Orleans, Louisiana.
46. Pellizzari E, Lioy P, Quackenboss J, Whitmore R, Clayton A, Freeman N, Waldman J, Thomas K, Rodes C, Wilcosky T. Population-based exposure measurements in EPA Region 5: a phase I field study in support of the national human exposure assessment survey. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 5:327-358 (1995).
47. Pellizzari ED, Perritt RL, Clayton CA. National human exposure assessment survey (NHEXASI: exploratory survey of exposure among population subgroups in EPA Region V. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 9(1):49-55 (1999).
48. Fenske RA. Dermal exposure assessment techniques. Ann Occup Hyg 37(6):687-706 (1993).
49. McArthur B. Dermal measurement and wipe sampling methods: a review. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 7(9):559-606 (1992).
50. Binder S, Sokal D, Maghan D. Estimating soil ingestion: the use of tracer elements in estimating the amount of soil ingested by young children. Arch Environ Health 41(6):341-345 (1986).
51. Calabrese EJ, Barnes R, Stanek EJ III, Pastides H, Gilbert CE, Veneman P, Wang X, Lasztity A, Kostecki PT. How much soil do young children ingest: an epidemiological study. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 10:123-137 (1989).
52. van Wijnen JH, Clausing P, Brunekreff B. Estimating soil ingestion by children. Environ Res 51:147-162 (1990).
53. Davis S, Waller P, Buschbom R, Ballou J, White P. Quantitative estimates of soil ingestion in normal children between the ages of 2 and 7 years: population-based estimates using aluminum, silicon, and titanium as soil tracer elements. Arch Environ Health 45:112-122 (1990).
54. Calabrese EJ, Stanek EJ III, Pekow P, Barnes RM. Soil ingestion estimates for children residing on a superfund site. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 36:258-268 (1997).
55. Weaver VM, Buckley TJ, Groopman JD. Approaches to environmental exposure assessment in children. Environ Health Perspect 106(3):827-832 (1998).
56. Brody DJ, Pirkle JL, Kramer RA, Flegal KM, Matte TD, Gunter EW, Paschal DC. Blood lead levels in the US population. J Am Med Assoc 272:277-283 (1994).
57. Weaver VM, Davoli CT, Heller PJ, Fitzwilliam A, Peters HL, Sunyer J, Murphy SE, Goldstein GW, Groopman JD. Benzene exposure, assessed by urinary trans, transmuconic acid in urban children with elevated blood lead levels. Environ Health Perspect 104:318-323 (1996).
58. Hwang Y-H, Bornschein RL, Grote J, Menrath W, Roda S. Urinary arsenic excretion as a biomarker of arsenic exposure in children. Arch Environ Health 52:139-147 (1937).
59. Freeman NCG, Wainman T, Stern AH, Shupack S, Lioy PJ. The effect of remediation of chromium waste sites on chromium levels in urine of children living in the surrounding neighborhood. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 45:604-614 (1995).
60. Lioy PJ, Freeman NCG, Wainman T, Stern AH, Boesch R, Howell T, Shupack SI. Microenvironmental analysis of residential exposure to chromium laden wastes in and around New Jersey homes. Risk Anal 12:287-299 (1992).
61. Stern AH, Freeman NCG, Pleban P, Boesch R, Wainman T, Howell T, Shupack SI, Johnson BB, Lioy PJ. Residential exposure to chromium - urine biological monitoring in conjunction with environmental exposure monitoring. Environ Res 58:147-162 (1992).
62. Quackenboss J, Pellizzari ED, Clayton A, Lioy PJ, Shubat P, Sexton K. Measurement and analysis of children's exposures to pesticides and PAHs. Presented at the 7th Annual Meeting of the International Society of Exposure Analysis, 2-5 November 1997, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
63. Loewenherz C, Fenske RA, Simcox NJ. Bellamy G, Kaiman D. Biological monitoring of organophosphorus pesticide exposure among children of agricultural workers in central Washington State. Environ Health Perspect 105:1344-1353 (1997).
64. Wolff M, Schecter A Accidental exposure of children to polychlorinated biphenyls. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 20:449-453 (1991).
65. U.S. EPA. Guidelines for exposure assessment. Fed Reg 57:22888-22938 (1992).
66. McCurdy TR. Estimating human exposure to selected motor vehicle pollutants using the NEM series of models: lessons to be learned. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 5:533-550 (1995).
67. Robinson JP. Time-diary research and human exposure assessment: some methodological considerations. Atmos Environ 22:2085-2092 (1988).
68. Ott WR. Human activity patterns: a review of the literature for estimating time spent indoors, outdoors, and in transit. In: Proceedings of the Research Planning Conference on Human Activity Patterns (Starks TH, ed). EPA-450/4-89-004. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989.
69. McCurdy TR. Human exposure to ambient ozone. In: Tropospheric Ozone: Human Health and Agricultural Impacts (McKee DJ, ed). Boca Raton, FL:Lewis Publishers, 1994;85-128.
70. Glen G, Lakkadi Y, Tippett JA, del Valle-Torres M. Unpublished data.
71. U.S. EPA. THERdbASE Software System on the Internet. Available: http://www.epa.gov/nerl/heasd/therdbase.htm [cited 19 August 1999].
72. Wiley JA, Robinson JP, Cheng Y-T, Piazza T, Stork L, Pladsen K. Study of Children's Activity Patterns. Berkeley, CA:Survey Research Center, University of California, 1991.
73. Johnson T. Human Activity Patterns in Cincinnati, Ohio. Palo Alto, CA:Electric Power Research Institute, 1989.
74. Klepeis N, Tsang A, Behar JV. Analysis of the National Human Activity Pattern Survey Respondents from a Standpoint of Exposure Assessment. Las Vegas, NV:National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1995.
75. University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research, Available: http://www.isr.umich.edu/src/child-development/ data.html [cited 14 December 1999].
76. Johnson T, Capel J, McCoy M. Estimation of Ozone Exposures Experienced by Urban Residents Using a Probabilistic Version of NEM and 1990 Population Data. Durham, NC:IT Corporation, 1996.
77. Hayes SR. Rosenbaum AS, Wallsten TS, Whitfield RG, Winkler RI, Richmond H. A health risk assessment for use in setting the U.S. primary ozone standard. Presented at the 3rd U.S.-Dutch International Symposium on Atmospheric Ozone Research and Its Policy Implications, 9-13 May 1988, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
78. Lurmann F, Colome SD, Hogo H. Modeling current and future human exposure to ozone in Southern California. In: Tropospheric Ozone and the Environment II (Berglund RL, ed). Pittsburgh, PA:Air & Waste Management Association, 1992;725-745.
79. AIHC. Exposure Factors Sourcebook. Washington, DC:American Industrial Health Council, 1994.
80. Berry M, Lioy PJ, Gelperin K, Buckler G, Klotz J. Accumulated exposure to ozone and measurements of health effects in children and counselors at two summer camps. Environ Res 54:135-150 (1991).
81. 2 levels to infant personal exposures. Atmos Environ 21:369-376 (1987).
82. Roth Associates. A Study of Activity Patterns Among a Group of Los Angeles Asthmatics. Palo Alto, CA:Electric Power Research Institute, 1988.
83. Roth Associates. A Survey of Daily Asthmatic Activity Patterns in Cincinnati. Palo Alto, CA:Electric Power Research Institute, 1989.
84. Schwab M, Spengler JO, Ozkaynak H, Terblanche P. The time/activity component of the Kanawha County health study. In: Total Exposure Assessment Methodology. Pittsburgh:Air & Waste Management Association, 1990:118-129.
85. Schwab M, Terblanche A, Spengler J. Self-reported exertion levels on time/activity diaries: application to exposure assessment. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 1:339-356 (1991).
86. Silvers A, Florence BT, Rourke DL, Lorimor RJ. How Children Spend Their Time: A Sample Survey for Use in Exposure and Risk Assessment. Washington, DC:Resource Planning Corporation, 1992.
87. Silvers A, Florence BT, Rourke DL, Lorimor RJ. How children spend their time: a sample survey for use in exposure and risk assessment. Risk Anal 14:931-944 (1994).
88. Brownell CA. Peer social skills in toddlers: competencies and constraints illustrated by same-age and mixed-age interaction. Child Dev 61:838-848 (1990).
89. Putallaz M, Gottman JM. An interactional model of children's entry into peer groups. Child Dev 52:986-994 (1981).
90. U.S. EPA. The Role of Child Behavior and Activities in Determining Exposure to Xeniobiotics, Child Behavior Patterns: An Analysis of the Data. EPA/600/X-98/005. Washington, DC:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 1998.
91. Freeman N. Susceptibility related to differential exposure and/or dose: state of the science. Presented at The Role of Human Exposure Assessment in the Prevention of Environmental Disease, 22-24 September 1999, Rockville, MD.
92. Reed KJ. Quantification of children's hand and mouthing activities through a videotaping methodology [PhD Thesis]. Camden, NJ:Rutgers University and UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 1998.
93. Zartarian VG, Ferguson AC, Leckie J. Quantified mouthing activity data from a four-child pilot field study. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 7(4):543-553 (1998).
94. Zartarian VG, Ong CG, Ferguson AC, Leckie JO. Quantifying videotaped activity patterns: video translation software and training methodologies. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 7(4):535-542 (1997).
95. Melnyk LJ, Berry MR, Sheldon LL, Freeman NCG, Pellizzari ED. Dietary exposure of children to lead. Presented at the Analytical Challenges for Assessing Environmental Exposure to Children Symposium, ACS National Meeting, 22-26 August 1999, New Orleans, LA.
96. Wilson NK, Chuang JC, Lyu C. Total PAH exposures of nine preschool children. Presented at the 17th International Symposium on Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds, 25-29 October 1999, Bordeaux, France.
97. Wilson NK, Morgan MK. Urinary biomarkers of exposure of several preschool children to pentachlorophenol, chlorpyrifos, 2,4-dichloroptienoxyacetic acid, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Presented at the EPA/NIEHS Workshop on Applying Biomarker Research, 30-31 August 1999, Research Triangle Park, NC.
98. Chuang JC, Callahan PJ, Lyu CW, Wison NK. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposures of children in low-income families. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 9(2):85-98 (1999).
99. Wilson NK, Chuang JC, Lyu C. Multimedia concentrations of PAH in several day care centers. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds (in press).
100. Lewis RG, Fortmann RC, Camann DE. Evaluation of methods for monitoring the potential exposure of small children to pesticides in the residential environment. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 26:37-46 (1994).
101. Lu A, Fenske RA, Touchstone JA, Moat T, Keden G, Knutson D. Characterization of children's exposure to organophosphorus pesticides in rural and urban communities. Presented at the Analytical Challenges for Assessing Environmental Exposure to Children Symposium, ACS National Meeting, 22-26 August 1999, New Orleans, Louisiana.
102. Sexton K, Kleffman DE, Callahan MA. An introduction to the national human exposure assessment survey (NHEXAS) and related phase I field studies. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 5(3):229-232 (1995).
103. Melnyk LJ, Berry MR, Sheldon LS. Monitoring dietary exposure from pesticide application on farms in the Agricultural Health Pilot Study. J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol 7(1):61-80 (1997).
104. Streicher J, Mage DT. Pesticide applicator inhalation exposure in the Agricultural Health Pilot Study. Presented at the 7th Annual ISEA Meeting, 2-5 November 1997, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
105. Camann DE, Akland GG, Bond AE, Mage DT. Carpet dust and pesticide exposure of farm children. Presented at the 7th Annual ISEA Meeting, 2-5 November 1997, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.
106. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency National Center for Environmental Research and Quality Assurance. Available: http://www.epa.gov/ncerqa [cited 5 May 1998].
107. Noland M, Danner F, Dewalt K, McFadden M, Kotchen JM. The measurement of physical activity in young children. Res Q Exerc Sport 61:146-153 (1990).
108. Kissel JC, Richter KY, Fenske RA. Field measurement of dermal soil loading attributable to various activities: implications for exposure assessment. Risk Anal 16:115-125 (1996).