Kerekou, God and the ancestors: Religion and the conception of political power in Benin

African Affairs

Volumn 99, Issue 396, 2000, Pages 395-414

  Strandsbjerg, Camilla ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MARXISM; POLITICAL POWER; POLITICAL SYSTEM; RELIGION;

BENIN;

EID: 0033899524     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/afraf/99.396.395     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. Interview, 30-year-old Muslim male office worker, 23 May 1997, Banikoara, Benin. This and all French quotations used in this article are translated from French into English by Christy Shields.
2. Libération, 20 March 1996.
3. A recent example is Paul Gifford (ed.), The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1995).
4. See, for example, Marc-Eric Gruenais et al., 'Messies, fétiches et lutte de pouvoir entre "grands hommes" au Congo', Cahiers d'Études Africaines 35, 137 (1995), pp. 163-95; and Ndolamb Ngokwey, 'The President's illness: culture, politics and fetishism in Benin', Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 18, 1 (1994), pp. 61-81.
5. See, for example, Marc-Eric Gruenais et al., 'Messies, fétiches et lutte de pouvoir entre "grands hommes" au Congo', Cahiers d'Études Africaines 35, 137 (1995), pp. 163-95; and Ndolamb Ngokwey, 'The President's illness: culture, politics and fetishism in Benin', Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry 18, 1 (1994), pp. 61-81.
6. See, for example, Comi Toulabor, 'Jeu de mots, jeu de vilains. Lexique de la dérision politique au Togo', and 'Pouvoir et richesses chez les jeunes de Lomé', in Jean-Francois Bayart et al. (eds), La politique par le bas en Afrique noire. Contribution à une problématique démocratique (Karthala, Paris, 1992), pp. 109-30, 131-45. This change also produced new theoretical concepts illustrating the interest of this group in redefining and identifying the research object itself. See, for example, Denis-Constant Martin, 'A la quête des OPNI (objets poliques non identifiés). Comment traiter l'innovation du politique', Revue francaise de sciences politiques 39, 6 (1989), pp. 793-816, and Jean-Francois Bayart, 'Le politique par le bas en Afrique noire. Questions de méthode' in Bayart et al., La politique par le bas, pp. 27-65.
7. See, for example, Comi Toulabor, 'Jeu de mots, jeu de vilains. Lexique de la dérision politique au Togo', and 'Pouvoir et richesses chez les jeunes de Lomé', in Jean-Francois Bayart et al. (eds), La politique par le bas en Afrique noire. Contribution à une problématique démocratique (Karthala, Paris, 1992), pp. 109-30, 131-45. This change also produced new theoretical concepts illustrating the interest of this group in redefining and identifying the research object itself. See, for example, Denis-Constant Martin, 'A la quête des OPNI (objets poliques non identifiés). Comment traiter l'innovation du politique', Revue francaise de sciences politiques 39, 6 (1989), pp. 793-816, and Jean-Francois Bayart, 'Le politique par le bas en Afrique noire. Questions de méthode' in Bayart et al., La politique par le bas, pp. 27-65.
8. See, for example, Comi Toulabor, 'Jeu de mots, jeu de vilains. Lexique de la dérision politique au Togo', and 'Pouvoir et richesses chez les jeunes de Lomé', in Jean-Francois Bayart et al. (eds), La politique par le bas en Afrique noire. Contribution à une problématique démocratique (Karthala, Paris, 1992), pp. 109-30, 131-45. This change also produced new theoretical concepts illustrating the interest of this group in redefining and identifying the research object itself. See, for example, Denis-Constant Martin, 'A la quête des OPNI (objets poliques non identifiés). Comment traiter l'innovation du politique', Revue francaise de sciences politiques 39, 6 (1989), pp. 793-816, and Jean-Francois Bayart, 'Le politique par le bas en Afrique noire. Questions de méthode' in Bayart et al., La politique par le bas, pp. 27-65.
9. See especially Jean-Francois Bayart (ed.), Religion et modernité politique en Afrique noire (Karthala, Paris, 1993).
10. Peter Geschiere, Sorcellerie et politique en Afrique. La viande des autres (Karthala, Paris, 1995) and 'La clarté de la sorcellerie de R. Buijtenhuijs', Politique Africaine 59 (1995), pp. 140-3.
11. Peter Geschiere, Sorcellerie et politique en Afrique. La viande des autres (Karthala, Paris, 1995) and 'La clarté de la sorcellerie de R. Buijtenhuijs', Politique Africaine 59 (1995), pp. 140-3.
12. Francois Constantin and Christian Coulon (eds), Religion et transition democratique en Afrique (Karthala, Paris, 1997).
13. Michael Schatzberg, 'Power, legitimacy and "democratisation" in Africa', Africa 63 (1993), pp. 445-62.
14. Stephen Ellis and Gerrie ter Haar, 'Religion and politics in sub-Saharan Africa', The Journal of Modern African Studies 36, 2 (1998), pp. 175-201.
15. Ruth Marshall, '"God is not a democrat": pentecostalism and democratisation in Nigeria', in Gifford, The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa, pp. 239-61.
16. Ellis and ter Haar, 'Religion and politics', p. 178.
17. Basile Kossou, 'La notion du pouvoir dans l'aire aja-fon', in Unesco (ed.), Le concept de pouvoir en Afrique (Unesco, Paris, 1986), p. 196. Actually, the term acé-kpikpa is used to designate the government, but also signifies all kinds of institutional leadership. In any case, the term acé-kpikpa concerns the exercise of power, whereas the word acé concerns the perception or the notion of power. But the linguistic link between the two terms is clear and shows a close relation between religious force and the exercise of power, including political power.
18. Ulrikke Sulikowski, '"Eating the flesh, eating the soul". Reflections on politics, sorcery and vodun in contemporary Benin', in Jean-Pierre Chretien (ed.), L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire (Karthala, Paris, 1993), p. 387. The general translation of acé is 'power' or 'force', see also M. Paulu Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin (Maissoneuve et Larousse, Paris, 1993), pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Jacob Madéwalè Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur selon les sud-dahoméens (Beauchesne, Paris, 1972), p. 244. It is important to note that the signification and the use of acé are double: at the same time negative and positive. The power or the force in human beings, as well as the force in vodun, can be used for negative as well as positive purposes. See also Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 97, 145. Acé can be activated - reinforced or weakened - by bo, normally translated as 'gri-gri', even though a translation put forward by Blier, 'objects of enpowerment', is closer to the sense of these phenomena. See also Suzanne P. Blier, African Vodun. Art, psychology and power (Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1995), pp. 101, 186. Finally, the term acé should not be confused with the term azé which means witchcraft or 'pouvoir maléfique', as these two terms cover two different kinds of phenomena. See Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur, pp. 108, 244.
19. Ulrikke Sulikowski, '"Eating the flesh, eating the soul". Reflections on politics, sorcery and vodun in contemporary Benin', in Jean-Pierre Chretien (ed.), L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire (Karthala, Paris, 1993), p. 387. The general translation of acé is 'power' or 'force', see also M. Paulu Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin (Maissoneuve et Larousse, Paris, 1993), pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Jacob Madéwalè Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur selon les sud-dahoméens (Beauchesne, Paris, 1972), p. 244. It is important to note that the signification and the use of acé are double: at the same time negative and positive. The power or the force in human beings, as well as the force in vodun, can be used for negative as well as positive purposes. See also Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 97, 145. Acé can be activated - reinforced or weakened - by bo, normally translated as 'gri-gri', even though a translation put forward by Blier, 'objects of enpowerment', is closer to the sense of these phenomena. See also Suzanne P. Blier, African Vodun. Art, psychology and power (Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1995), pp. 101, 186. Finally, the term acé should not be confused with the term azé which means witchcraft or 'pouvoir maléfique', as these two terms cover two different kinds of phenomena. See Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur, pp. 108, 244.
20. Ulrikke Sulikowski, '"Eating the flesh, eating the soul". Reflections on politics, sorcery and vodun in contemporary Benin', in Jean-Pierre Chretien (ed.), L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire (Karthala, Paris, 1993), p. 387. The general translation of acé is 'power' or 'force', see also M. Paulu Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin (Maissoneuve et Larousse, Paris, 1993), pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Jacob Madéwalè Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur selon les sud-dahoméens (Beauchesne, Paris, 1972), p. 244. It is important to note that the signification and the use of acé are double: at the same time negative and positive. The power or the force in human beings, as well as the force in vodun, can be used for negative as well as positive purposes. See also Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 97, 145. Acé can be activated - reinforced or weakened - by bo, normally translated as 'gri-gri', even though a translation put forward by Blier, 'objects of enpowerment', is closer to the sense of these phenomena. See also Suzanne P. Blier, African Vodun. Art, psychology and power (Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1995), pp. 101, 186. Finally, the term acé should not be confused with the term azé which means witchcraft or 'pouvoir maléfique', as these two terms cover two different kinds of phenomena. See Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur, pp. 108, 244.
21. Ulrikke Sulikowski, '"Eating the flesh, eating the soul". Reflections on politics, sorcery and vodun in contemporary Benin', in Jean-Pierre Chretien (ed.), L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire (Karthala, Paris, 1993), p. 387. The general translation of acé is 'power' or 'force', see also M. Paulu Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin (Maissoneuve et Larousse, Paris, 1993), pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Jacob Madéwalè Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur selon les sud-dahoméens (Beauchesne, Paris, 1972), p. 244. It is important to note that the signification and the use of acé are double: at the same time negative and positive. The power or the force in human beings, as well as the force in vodun, can be used for negative as well as positive purposes. See also Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 97, 145. Acé can be activated - reinforced or weakened - by bo, normally translated as 'gri-gri', even though a translation put forward by Blier, 'objects of enpowerment', is closer to the sense of these phenomena. See also Suzanne P. Blier, African Vodun. Art, psychology and power (Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1995), pp. 101, 186. Finally, the term acé should not be confused with the term azé which means witchcraft or 'pouvoir maléfique', as these two terms cover two different kinds of phenomena. See Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur, pp. 108, 244.
22. Ulrikke Sulikowski, '"Eating the flesh, eating the soul". Reflections on politics, sorcery and vodun in contemporary Benin', in Jean-Pierre Chretien (ed.), L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire (Karthala, Paris, 1993), p. 387. The general translation of acé is 'power' or 'force', see also M. Paulu Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin (Maissoneuve et Larousse, Paris, 1993), pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Jacob Madéwalè Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur selon les sud-dahoméens (Beauchesne, Paris, 1972), p. 244. It is important to note that the signification and the use of acé are double: at the same time negative and positive. The power or the force in human beings, as well as the force in vodun, can be used for negative as well as positive purposes. See also Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 97, 145. Acé can be activated - reinforced or weakened - by bo, normally translated as 'gri-gri', even though a translation put forward by Blier, 'objects of enpowerment', is closer to the sense of these phenomena. See also Suzanne P. Blier, African Vodun. Art, psychology and power (Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1995), pp. 101, 186. Finally, the term acé should not be confused with the term azé which means witchcraft or 'pouvoir maléfique', as these two terms cover two different kinds of phenomena. See Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur, pp. 108, 244.
23. Ulrikke Sulikowski, '"Eating the flesh, eating the soul". Reflections on politics, sorcery and vodun in contemporary Benin', in Jean-Pierre Chretien (ed.), L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire (Karthala, Paris, 1993), p. 387. The general translation of acé is 'power' or 'force', see also M. Paulu Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin (Maissoneuve et Larousse, Paris, 1993), pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Jacob Madéwalè Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur selon les sud-dahoméens (Beauchesne, Paris, 1972), p. 244. It is important to note that the signification and the use of acé are double: at the same time negative and positive. The power or the force in human beings, as well as the force in vodun, can be used for negative as well as positive purposes. See also Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 97, 145. Acé can be activated - reinforced or weakened - by bo, normally translated as 'gri-gri', even though a translation put forward by Blier, 'objects of enpowerment', is closer to the sense of these phenomena. See also Suzanne P. Blier, African Vodun. Art, psychology and power (Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1995), pp. 101, 186. Finally, the term acé should not be confused with the term azé which means witchcraft or 'pouvoir maléfique', as these two terms cover two different kinds of phenomena. See Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur, pp. 108, 244.
24. Ulrikke Sulikowski, '"Eating the flesh, eating the soul". Reflections on politics, sorcery and vodun in contemporary Benin', in Jean-Pierre Chretien (ed.), L'invention religieuse en Afrique. Histoire et religion en Afrique noire (Karthala, Paris, 1993), p. 387. The general translation of acé is 'power' or 'force', see also M. Paulu Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin (Maissoneuve et Larousse, Paris, 1993), pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Jacob Madéwalè Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur selon les sud-dahoméens (Beauchesne, Paris, 1972), p. 244. It is important to note that the signification and the use of acé are double: at the same time negative and positive. The power or the force in human beings, as well as the force in vodun, can be used for negative as well as positive purposes. See also Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 97, 145. Acé can be activated - reinforced or weakened - by bo, normally translated as 'gri-gri', even though a translation put forward by Blier, 'objects of enpowerment', is closer to the sense of these phenomena. See also Suzanne P. Blier, African Vodun. Art, psychology and power (Chicago University Press, Chicago, 1995), pp. 101, 186. Finally, the term acé should not be confused with the term azé which means witchcraft or 'pouvoir maléfique', as these two terms cover two different kinds of phenomena. See Marti, Societé et religion au Bénin, pp. 57, 72, 97, 104, 133, 144, 192, 216, and Agossou, L'Homme et le dieu créateur, pp. 108, 244.
25. Sulikowski, 'Eating the flesh, eating the soul'.
26. According to the latest national survey from 1992, 35% of the population declared themselves as belonging to the traditional vodun religion, 25% as Catholics, 3.5% as Protestants, 6% as members of other Christian churches, 21% as Muslims, 1.5% as belonging to other religions and 6% as 'without religion'. 'Récensement de 1992, février', in Ministères du Plan et de la restructuration économique (Institut National de la Statistique et de l'analyse économique, Cotonou, 1993).
27. Concerning religious representations of power among the elite, see, for example, Ellis and ter Haar, 'Religion and politics', pp. 177, 188, 190. For the aspect of a common political culture, see Bayart et al., La politique par le bas, p. 32.
28. Concerning religious representations of power among the elite, see, for example, Ellis and ter Haar, 'Religion and politics', pp. 177, 188, 190. For the aspect of a common political culture, see Bayart et al., La politique par le bas, p. 32.
29. For an interesting and detailed analysis of the National Conference, see Richard Banégas, 'Retour sur "une transition modèle". Les dynamiques du dedans et du dehors de la démocratisation béninoise', in Jean-Pascal Daloz and Patrick Quantin (eds), Transitions démocratiques africaines (Karthala, Paris, 1997), pp. 23-95.
30. Constitution de la. République du Benin 1990, art. 23 (Cotonou, 1990), p. 9. The French version states: 'une et indivisible, laïque et démocratique', furthermore stating in article 23: 'toute personne a droit á la liberté . . . de religion, de culte dans le respect de l'ordre établi par la loi et les règlements. L'exercise du culte et l'expression des croyances s' effectuent dans le respect de la laïcité de l'État.'
31. On this aspect see N. Bako-Arifari, 'Démocratie et logiques du terroir au Bénin', Politique Africaine 59 (1995), pp. 7-25.
32. See e.g. Ruth Marshall-Fratani, 'Mediating the global and the local in Nigerian Pentecostalism', Journal of Religion in Africa 28, 3 (1998), pp. 278-315 and Marshall, 'God is not a democrat'.
33. See e.g. Ruth Marshall-Fratani, 'Mediating the global and the local in Nigerian Pentecostalism', Journal of Religion in Africa 28, 3 (1998), pp. 278-315 and Marshall, 'God is not a democrat'.
34. Concerning these associations between the military regime of Kérékou and vodun, see Sulikowski, 'Eating the flesh, eating the soul'. It is important to note that, despite the 'anti-féodale' campaign of the Marxist-military regime against vodun in the 1980s, Kérékou has always had very close relations with the leading vodun priests in Benin, and among the population he has been seen as someone practising vodun. Depending on people's personal convictions, some estimate now that he really has changed, others do not. On this question, see Camilla Strandsbjerg, 'Gud, forfœdrene og folket-religion og politisk magt i Benin', MA dissertation, Institute of Romance Studies, University of Copenhagen, 1998, pp. 77-90.
35. Concerning these associations between the military regime of Kérékou and vodun, see Sulikowski, 'Eating the flesh, eating the soul'. It is important to note that, despite the 'anti-féodale' campaign of the Marxist-military regime against vodun in the 1980s, Kérékou has always had very close relations with the leading vodun priests in Benin, and among the population he has been seen as someone practising vodun. Depending on people's personal convictions, some estimate now that he really has changed, others do not. On this question, see Camilla Strandsbjerg, 'Gud, forfœdrene og folket-religion og politisk magt i Benin', MA dissertation, Institute of Romance Studies, University of Copenhagen, 1998, pp. 77-90.
36. 'Discours du Général Kérékou à l'hôtel Aledjo', Le Matin, 15 January 1996, p. 2.
37. 'Discours de déclaration de candidature', Le Matin, 1 February 1996, p. 4.
38. ibid.
39. 'Programme politique du candidat Mathieu Kérékou', La Nanon, 23 February 1996, p. 5.
40. For further examples, see Le Matin, 2 August 1996, p. 2.
41. 'Programme politique du candidat Mathieu Kérékou', La Naiton, 23 February 1996, p. 5.
42. Another significant example of this theme appears at the inauguration ceremony, see below. Kérékou's discourse has to be seen in relation both to his own past as a well-known vodun practitioner and to Soglo's attempt to encourage the creation of a new organizational structure of the vodun religion at a national level as well as the valorization of 'vodun culture' by the vodun festival in Ouidah in the south of Benin in 1992.
43. 'Présentation du programme économique du gouvernement', La Sirène Cotonou, no. 22, 26 May 1997, pp. 2-3.
44. It is common practice at every social level to wear a kind of 'gri-gri', when assuming a new political office.
45. Pastoral Letter, Message de la conférence épiscopale du Bénin aux chrétiens et aux hommes de bonne volonté, Cotonou, 24 January 1996, p. 6.
46. Pastoral Letter, Exigences de la démocratie, Abomey, 14 February 1992, p. 7.
47. Pastoral Letter, Message . . ., p. 4.
48. Joseph Tonda, De l'exorcisme comme mode de démocratisation. Eglises et mouvements religieux au Congo de 1990 à 1994' in Constantin and Coulon, Religion et transition democratique en Afrique, p. 268.
49. ibid., p. 280.
50. He did this, for example, at the inauguration ceremony, see below.
51. 'Présentation du programme économique du gouvernement', La Sirène, no. 22, 26 May 1997, p. 2-3.
52. Ruth Marshall, 'Power in the Name of Jesus', Review of African Political Economy 52 (1992), p. 33.
53. 'Lancement du programme économique du gouvernement, discours public à l'Hotel Marina, Cotonou, le 15 mai 1997', Video, ORTB, and La Sirène, no. 22, 26 May 1997, pp. 2-3.
54. La Sirène, no. 22, 26 May 1997, pp. 2-3. For more details about the prophecy, see below.
55. Pastoral Letter, Convertissez-vous et le Bénin vivra, lettre pastorale des Evêques du Bénin pour le carême de l'an de grâce 1989 (Imprimerie Notre-Dame, Cotonou, 1989), p. 8.
56. According to several interviews the main reason for Kérékou's comeback is his admission of having failed as well as his subsequent conversion. In this connection it is interesting that Sassou Nguesso in Congo, whose political career is quite similar to that of Kérékou, did not present himself 'as an accused before the National Conference, as President Kérékou did at the time of the National Conference in Benin in order to ask forgiveness'. According to Tonda, this is the reason why Nguesso has not had the same possibilities as Kérékou of returning to the political life of the post-Marxist period. Tonda, 'De l'exorcisme comme mode de démocratisation', p. 271.
57. Messianism is a form of religious expression with clear political connotations. It deals not only with individual but also with collective salvation, as well as with a societal change which includes a radical shift from one order to another. The logic of the messianic figure also includes a political and a religious leader in the same person. See Malcolm B. Hamilton, The Sociology of Religion. Theoretical and comparative perspectives (Routledge, London, 1995), p. 88.
58. La Nation, 5 August 1996, p. 2.
59. 'Jean-Paul II au Bénin - Le souverain pontife prêche la démocratisation', Jeune Afrique économique, no. 164, March 1993, pp. 87-8.
60. This can also be seen as a parallel to the Biblical narrative of Jesus's crucifixion, where the people had to choose between Jesus and Barabbas, and selected Barabbas, see e.g. Matt. 27 vv. 11-26.
61. 'Discours de présentation janvier 1996', Le Matin, 13 January 1996, p. 3.
62. 'Discours de déclaration de candidature', Le Matin, 1 February 1996, p. 4.
63. Le Matin, 4 April 1996, p. 2. For further examples see Le Matin, 13 January 1996, p. 2 and 4 April 1996, p. 13. The quotation is also an expression of the complex image of Kérékou in Benin and of the pluralist interpretations of his power mixing chameleons and Easter. The chameleon is the only symbol of Kérékou which has survived from his first Period. It normally refers to his ever changing positions and ability to adapt to new contexts; besides, according to popular interpretations, it refers to a special gri-gri: 'the chameleon that he always has in his hand is a gri-gri and when one sends him a gri-gri it changes, the gri-gri doesn't reach him, that is how he does it, so he who wants to kill him has only to take away the chameleon'. (Interview with a 50-year-old fisherman, a vodun adherent, Ganvie, Benin, 28 April 1997). For further examples see Strandsbjerg, 'Gud forfoedrene og folket-religion', p. 82-5. For chameleons in vodun see also Blier, African Vodun, pp. 205, 206, 234, 387.
64. Le Matin, 4 April 1996, p. 2. For further examples see Le Matin, 13 January 1996, p. 2 and 4 April 1996, p. 13. The quotation is also an expression of the complex image of Kérékou in Benin and of the pluralist interpretations of his power mixing chameleons and Easter. The chameleon is the only symbol of Kérékou which has survived from his first Period. It normally refers to his ever changing positions and ability to adapt to new contexts; besides, according to popular interpretations, it refers to a special gri-gri: 'the chameleon that he always has in his hand is a gri-gri and when one sends him a gri-gri it changes, the gri-gri doesn't reach him, that is how he does it, so he who wants to kill him has only to take away the chameleon'. (Interview with a 50-year-old fisherman, a vodun adherent, Ganvie, Benin, 28 April 1997). For further examples see Strandsbjerg, 'Gud forfoedrene og folket-religion', p. 82-5. For chameleons in vodun see also Blier, African Vodun, pp. 205, 206, 234, 387.
65. Le Matin, 4 April 1996, p. 2. For further examples see Le Matin, 13 January 1996, p. 2 and 4 April 1996, p. 13. The quotation is also an expression of the complex image of Kérékou in Benin and of the pluralist interpretations of his power mixing chameleons and Easter. The chameleon is the only symbol of Kérékou which has survived from his first Period. It normally refers to his ever changing positions and ability to adapt to new contexts; besides, according to popular interpretations, it refers to a special gri-gri: 'the chameleon that he always has in his hand is a gri-gri and when one sends him a gri-gri it changes, the gri-gri doesn't reach him, that is how he does it, so he who wants to kill him has only to take away the chameleon'. (Interview with a 50-year-old fisherman, a vodun adherent, Ganvie, Benin, 28 April 1997). For further examples see Strandsbjerg, 'Gud forfoedrene og folket-religion', p. 82-5. For chameleons in vodun see also Blier, African Vodun, pp. 205, 206, 234, 387.
66. Le Matin, 4 April 1996, p. 2. For further examples see Le Matin, 13 January 1996, p. 2 and 4 April 1996, p. 13. The quotation is also an expression of the complex image of Kérékou in Benin and of the pluralist interpretations of his power mixing chameleons and Easter. The chameleon is the only symbol of Kérékou which has survived from his first Period. It normally refers to his ever changing positions and ability to adapt to new contexts; besides, according to popular interpretations, it refers to a special gri-gri: 'the chameleon that he always has in his hand is a gri-gri and when one sends him a gri-gri it changes, the gri-gri doesn't reach him, that is how he does it, so he who wants to kill him has only to take away the chameleon'. (Interview with a 50-year-old fisherman, a vodun adherent, Ganvie, Benin, 28 April 1997). For further examples see Strandsbjerg, 'Gud forfoedrene og folket-religion', p. 82-5. For chameleons in vodun see also Blier, African Vodun, pp. 205, 206, 234, 387.
67. 'L'investiture de Mathieu Kérékou, Porto Novo, avril 1996'. Video ORTB, May 1996.
68. ibid.
69. La Sirène, Cotonou, no. 22, 26 May 1997 and 'Lancement du programme économique', Video, ORTB.
70. 'Lancement du programme économique'.
71. My primary source for this event is the video, 'L'investiture de Mathieu Kérékou'.
72. The swearing of the oath itself is formulated in Article 53 of the Constitution: 'Before taking up his function, the President of the Republic takes the following oath: "Before God . . ."' etc. There are a further 4 points which are not relevant in this context, see: Constitution de la Republique du Bénin, Titre II, Article 53 (Imprimerie Notre-Dame, Cotonou, 1991), p. 15.
73. 48 hours later Kérékou had to take a new oath in front of the members of the Constitutional Court, and this time he did mention the ancestors, see Le Matin, 9 April 1996, p. 4.
74. Concerning the historical importance of the ancestors in relation to political power in Benin, see Kossou, 'La notion du pouvoir dans l'aire aja-fon', pp. 84-107.
75. See 'L'investiture de Mathieu Kérékou and La Nation, 5 April 1996, p. 3.
76. 'L'investiture de Mathieu Kérékou'.
77. This has to be seen in relation to the public rumours accusing Kérékou and some of his ministers of being sorcerers and having relations with vodun priests in 1989, see Sulikowski, 'Eating the flesh, eating the soul', p. 381. But once again it can also refer to the above-mentioned connection between Soglo and the 'vodun-culture'. Moreover, the 'Long live the Beninese revolutionary process' has to be seen more as a re-use of the past in the interpretation of the present, than as a strict continuity of the revolutionary tradition of the past. Particularly because Kérékou subsequently made the link with the religious revolution, the change of mentalities, which illustrates how he uses and re-uses the different registers in political thinking.
78. Le Marin, 1 August 1996, p. 14.
79. The French version says: 'En prêtant serment . . . j'ai placé le mandat dont vous m'avez investi, sous la protection de Dieu, le tout puissant, pour qu'il nous guide, nous inspire et nous aide à faire de notre chère et commune Patrie, le Bénin, un pays uni, stable et prospère'.
80. This aspect is developed further in relation to the popular interpretation of power in Strandsbjerg, 'Gud, forfœdrene og folket-religion', pp. 81-8, 93.
81. Interview, 30-year-old Muslim Igname salesman, Banikoara, Benin, 14 May 1997.
82. Interview, Muslim without profession, about 65 years old, Banikoara, Benin, 13 May 1997.
83. In addition, among popular conceptions of power, there seems to exist an idea of sorcery as a special kind of power, but this aspect needs to be examined further, see Strandsbjerg, 'Gud, forfœdrene og folket-religion', p. 92.
84. Interview, 30-year-old Muslim owner of a music shop, Parakou, Benin, 18 May 1997.
85. Interview, 40-year-old Muslim farmer, Banikoara, Benin, 14 May 1997.
86. Geschiere, Sorcellerie et politique en Afrique.
87. Similar distinctions exist in Congo according to the study by Tonda, 'De l'exorcisme comme mode de démocratisation', pp. 259-85; see also Ellis and ter Haar: 'Religion and politics', p. 197. The same kind of etiological notion can be observed, for instance, in Tanzania concerning the classification of diseases according to their 'source', see Susan R. Whyte; 'Penicillin, Battery Acid and Sacrifice. Cures and Causes in Nyole Medicine', Social Science and Medicine 16, 23 (1982), pp. 2055-64.
88. Similar distinctions exist in Congo according to the study by Tonda, 'De l'exorcisme comme mode de démocratisation', pp. 259-85; see also Ellis and ter Haar: 'Religion and politics', p. 197. The same kind of etiological notion can be observed, for instance, in Tanzania concerning the classification of diseases according to their 'source', see Susan R. Whyte; 'Penicillin, Battery Acid and Sacrifice. Cures and Causes in Nyole Medicine', Social Science and Medicine 16, 23 (1982), pp. 2055-64.
89. Similar distinctions exist in Congo according to the study by Tonda, 'De l'exorcisme comme mode de démocratisation', pp. 259-85; see also Ellis and ter Haar: 'Religion and politics', p. 197. The same kind of etiological notion can be observed, for instance, in Tanzania concerning the classification of diseases according to their 'source', see Susan R. Whyte; 'Penicillin, Battery Acid and Sacrifice. Cures and Causes in Nyole Medicine', Social Science and Medicine 16, 23 (1982), pp. 2055-64.
90. Ngokwey, 'The President's illness', p. 78.
91. Marshall, 'God is not a democrat'.