Religion and politics in Sub-Saharan Africa

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 36, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 175-201

  Ellis, Stephen ^a   Ter Haar, Gerrie ^b,c  

^a Afrika Studiecentrum   (Netherlands)

^b Leiden Universities ^*

^c LEIDEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0000123153     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022278X9800278X     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. The popular works referred to in this article (such as those by Kaniaki and Mukendi, Pianim, and Okeke mentioned below) are taken from the authors' own private collections, having been bought in markets and shops in Africa. Even the excellent African Books Collective, the Oxford-based concern which distributes books outside Africa on behalf of some fifty leading African publishers, rarely handles the type of literature to which we refer.
2. For example, D. D. Kaniaki and Evangelist Mukendi, Snatched from Satan's Claws: an amazing deliverance by Christ (Nairobi, 1994) is published in both English and Kiswahili. This text will be discussed in more detail below. A related discussion on popular literature is Michael Schatzberg, 'Power, legitimacy and "democratisation" in Africa', Africa, 63, 4 (1993), 445-61.
3. For example, D. D. Kaniaki and Evangelist Mukendi, Snatched from Satan's Claws: an amazing deliverance by Christ (Nairobi, 1994) is published in both English and Kiswahili. This text will be discussed in more detail below. A related discussion on popular literature is Michael Schatzberg, 'Power, legitimacy and "democratisation" in Africa', Africa, 63, 4 (1993), 445-61.
4. For a spiritual journey in the form of modern literature, see e.g. Amos Tutuola, My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (London, 1954) and, more recently, Ben Okri, The Famished Road (London, 1991). A rare publication by a non-African with deep personal experience of the subject is Eric de Rosny, Les yeux de ma chèvre (Paris, 1981), which became a best-seller in Africa.
5. For a spiritual journey in the form of modern literature, see e.g. Amos Tutuola, My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (London, 1954) and, more recently, Ben Okri, The Famished Road (London, 1991). A rare publication by a non-African with deep personal experience of the subject is Eric de Rosny, Les yeux de ma chèvre (Paris, 1981), which became a best-seller in Africa.
6. For a spiritual journey in the form of modern literature, see e.g. Amos Tutuola, My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (London, 1954) and, more recently, Ben Okri, The Famished Road (London, 1991). A rare publication by a non-African with deep personal experience of the subject is Eric de Rosny, Les yeux de ma chèvre (Paris, 1981), which became a best-seller in Africa.
7. A pioneer in this field is Paul Gifford, whose work has inspired a growing interest among academics in the West. See Gifford, The Religious Right in Southern Africa (Harare, 1988) Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia (Cambridge, 1993); as well as two edited volumes, New Dimensions in African Christianity (Nairobi, 1992), and The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, 1995). A number of African scholars have also written on this subject, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria, but have attracted less international attention. See e.g. Matthews Ojo, 'The growth of campus Christianity and charismatic movements in western Nigeria" Ph.D., University of London (1986); Ojo, 'Deeper life Christian Ministry: a case study of the charismatic movements in western Nigeria', Journal of Religion in Africa, 18 (1988), 141-62; and 'The contextual significance of the charismatic movements in independent Nigeria', Africa, 58 (1987), 175-92; Kingsley Larbi, 'The development of Ghanaian Pentecostalism: a study of the appropriations of the Christian gospel in twentieth century Ghana setting with special reference to the Christ Apostolic Church, the Church of Pentecost and the International Central Gospel Church', Ph.D., University of Edinburgh (1995).
8. A pioneer in this field is Paul Gifford, whose work has inspired a growing interest among academics in the West. See Gifford, The Religious Right in Southern Africa (Harare, 1988) Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia (Cambridge, 1993); as well as two edited volumes, New Dimensions in African Christianity (Nairobi, 1992), and The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, 1995). A number of African scholars have also written on this subject, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria, but have attracted less international attention. See e.g. Matthews Ojo, 'The growth of campus Christianity and charismatic movements in western Nigeria" Ph.D., University of London (1986); Ojo, 'Deeper life Christian Ministry: a case study of the charismatic movements in western Nigeria', Journal of Religion in Africa, 18 (1988), 141-62; and 'The contextual significance of the charismatic movements in independent Nigeria', Africa, 58 (1987), 175-92; Kingsley Larbi, 'The development of Ghanaian Pentecostalism: a study of the appropriations of the Christian gospel in twentieth century Ghana setting with special reference to the Christ Apostolic Church, the Church of Pentecost and the International Central Gospel Church', Ph.D., University of Edinburgh (1995).
9. A pioneer in this field is Paul Gifford, whose work has inspired a growing interest among academics in the West. See Gifford, The Religious Right in Southern Africa (Harare, 1988) Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia (Cambridge, 1993); as well as two edited volumes, New Dimensions in African Christianity (Nairobi, 1992), and The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, 1995). A number of African scholars have also written on this subject, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria, but have attracted less international attention. See e.g. Matthews Ojo, 'The growth of campus Christianity and charismatic movements in western Nigeria" Ph.D., University of London (1986); Ojo, 'Deeper life Christian Ministry: a case study of the charismatic movements in western Nigeria', Journal of Religion in Africa, 18 (1988), 141-62; and 'The contextual significance of the charismatic movements in independent Nigeria', Africa, 58 (1987), 175-92; Kingsley Larbi, 'The development of Ghanaian Pentecostalism: a study of the appropriations of the Christian gospel in twentieth century Ghana setting with special reference to the Christ Apostolic Church, the Church of Pentecost and the International Central Gospel Church', Ph.D., University of Edinburgh (1995).
10. A pioneer in this field is Paul Gifford, whose work has inspired a growing interest among academics in the West. See Gifford, The Religious Right in Southern Africa (Harare, 1988) Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia (Cambridge, 1993); as well as two edited volumes, New Dimensions in African Christianity (Nairobi, 1992), and The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, 1995). A number of African scholars have also written on this subject, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria, but have attracted less international attention. See e.g. Matthews Ojo, 'The growth of campus Christianity and charismatic movements in western Nigeria" Ph.D., University of London (1986); Ojo, 'Deeper life Christian Ministry: a case study of the charismatic movements in western Nigeria', Journal of Religion in Africa, 18 (1988), 141-62; and 'The contextual significance of the charismatic movements in independent Nigeria', Africa, 58 (1987), 175-92; Kingsley Larbi, 'The development of Ghanaian Pentecostalism: a study of the appropriations of the Christian gospel in twentieth century Ghana setting with special reference to the Christ Apostolic Church, the Church of Pentecost and the International Central Gospel Church', Ph.D., University of Edinburgh (1995).
11. A pioneer in this field is Paul Gifford, whose work has inspired a growing interest among academics in the West. See Gifford, The Religious Right in Southern Africa (Harare, 1988) Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia (Cambridge, 1993); as well as two edited volumes, New Dimensions in African Christianity (Nairobi, 1992), and The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, 1995). A number of African scholars have also written on this subject, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria, but have attracted less international attention. See e.g. Matthews Ojo, 'The growth of campus Christianity and charismatic movements in western Nigeria" Ph.D., University of London (1986); Ojo, 'Deeper life Christian Ministry: a case study of the charismatic movements in western Nigeria', Journal of Religion in Africa, 18 (1988), 141-62; and 'The contextual significance of the charismatic movements in independent Nigeria', Africa, 58 (1987), 175-92; Kingsley Larbi, 'The development of Ghanaian Pentecostalism: a study of the appropriations of the Christian gospel in twentieth century Ghana setting with special reference to the Christ Apostolic Church, the Church of Pentecost and the International Central Gospel Church', Ph.D., University of Edinburgh (1995).
12. A pioneer in this field is Paul Gifford, whose work has inspired a growing interest among academics in the West. See Gifford, The Religious Right in Southern Africa (Harare, 1988) Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia (Cambridge, 1993); as well as two edited volumes, New Dimensions in African Christianity (Nairobi, 1992), and The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, 1995). A number of African scholars have also written on this subject, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria, but have attracted less international attention. See e.g. Matthews Ojo, 'The growth of campus Christianity and charismatic movements in western Nigeria" Ph.D., University of London (1986); Ojo, 'Deeper life Christian Ministry: a case study of the charismatic movements in western Nigeria', Journal of Religion in Africa, 18 (1988), 141-62; and 'The contextual significance of the charismatic movements in independent Nigeria', Africa, 58 (1987), 175-92; Kingsley Larbi, 'The development of Ghanaian Pentecostalism: a study of the appropriations of the Christian gospel in twentieth century Ghana setting with special reference to the Christ Apostolic Church, the Church of Pentecost and the International Central Gospel Church', Ph.D., University of Edinburgh (1995).
13. A pioneer in this field is Paul Gifford, whose work has inspired a growing interest among academics in the West. See Gifford, The Religious Right in Southern Africa (Harare, 1988) Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia (Cambridge, 1993); as well as two edited volumes, New Dimensions in African Christianity (Nairobi, 1992), and The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, 1995). A number of African scholars have also written on this subject, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria, but have attracted less international attention. See e.g. Matthews Ojo, 'The growth of campus Christianity and charismatic movements in western Nigeria" Ph.D., University of London (1986); Ojo, 'Deeper life Christian Ministry: a case study of the charismatic movements in western Nigeria', Journal of Religion in Africa, 18 (1988), 141-62; and 'The contextual significance of the charismatic movements in independent Nigeria', Africa, 58 (1987), 175-92; Kingsley Larbi, 'The development of Ghanaian Pentecostalism: a study of the appropriations of the Christian gospel in twentieth century Ghana setting with special reference to the Christ Apostolic Church, the Church of Pentecost and the International Central Gospel Church', Ph.D., University of Edinburgh (1995).
14. A pioneer in this field is Paul Gifford, whose work has inspired a growing interest among academics in the West. See Gifford, The Religious Right in Southern Africa (Harare, 1988) Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia (Cambridge, 1993); as well as two edited volumes, New Dimensions in African Christianity (Nairobi, 1992), and The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, 1995). A number of African scholars have also written on this subject, particularly in Ghana and Nigeria, but have attracted less international attention. See e.g. Matthews Ojo, 'The growth of campus Christianity and charismatic movements in western Nigeria" Ph.D., University of London (1986); Ojo, 'Deeper life Christian Ministry: a case study of the charismatic movements in western Nigeria', Journal of Religion in Africa, 18 (1988), 141-62; and 'The contextual significance of the charismatic movements in independent Nigeria', Africa, 58 (1987), 175-92; Kingsley Larbi, 'The development of Ghanaian Pentecostalism: a study of the appropriations of the Christian gospel in twentieth century Ghana setting with special reference to the Christ Apostolic Church, the Church of Pentecost and the International Central Gospel Church', Ph.D., University of Edinburgh (1995).
15. See e.g. Abdou Touré and Yacouba Konaté, Sacrifices dans la ville : le citadin chez le divin en Côte d'Ivoire (Abidjan, 1990).
16. On recent transformations of Muslim societies, see Louis Brenner (ed.), Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Sakaran Africa (London, 1993), and Mervyn Hiskett, The Course of Islam in Africa (Edinburgh, 1995).
17. On recent transformations of Muslim societies, see Louis Brenner (ed.), Muslim Identity and Social Change in Sub-Sakaran Africa (London, 1993), and Mervyn Hiskett, The Course of Islam in Africa (Edinburgh, 1995).
18. David Martin, Tongues of Fire: the explosion of protestantism in Latin America (Oxford, 1990), and David Westerlund (ed.), Questioning the Secular State: the worldwide resurgence of religion in politics (London, 1996).
19. David Martin, Tongues of Fire: the explosion of protestantism in Latin America (Oxford, 1990), and David Westerlund (ed.), Questioning the Secular State: the worldwide resurgence of religion in politics (London, 1996).
20. For a comprehensive survey, see Robert H. Bates, V. Y. Mudimbe and Jean O'Barr (eds.), Africa and the Disciplines (Chicago and London, 1993).
21. E.g. Jeff Haynes, Religion in Third World Politics (Boulder, 1994); Leonardo A. Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal : disciples and citizens in Fatick (Cambridge, 1995). A wide-ranging, although now rather dated, survey is Terence Ranger, 'Religious movements and politics in Sub-Saharan Africa', African Studies Review, 29, 2 (1986), 1-69.
22. E.g. Jeff Haynes, Religion in Third World Politics (Boulder, 1994); Leonardo A. Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal : disciples and citizens in Fatick (Cambridge, 1995). A wide-ranging, although now rather dated, survey is Terence Ranger, 'Religious movements and politics in Sub-Saharan Africa', African Studies Review, 29, 2 (1986), 1-69.
23. E.g. Jeff Haynes, Religion in Third World Politics (Boulder, 1994); Leonardo A. Villalon, Islamic Society and State Power in Senegal : disciples and citizens in Fatick (Cambridge, 1995). A wide-ranging, although now rather dated, survey is Terence Ranger, 'Religious movements and politics in Sub-Saharan Africa', African Studies Review, 29, 2 (1986), 1-69.
24. E.g. T. O. Ranger and I. N. Kimambo (eds.), The Historical Study of African Religion (London, 1972); Françoise Raison-Jourde, Bible et pouvoir au Madgascar au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1991).
25. E.g. T. O. Ranger and I. N. Kimambo (eds.), The Historical Study of African Religion (London, 1972); Françoise Raison-Jourde, Bible et pouvoir au Madgascar au XIXe siècle (Paris, 1991).
26. Jean-François Bayart, L'Etat en Afrique: la politique du ventre (Paris, 1989). Other relevant works from the same school include Jean-François Bayart, Achille Mbembe and Comi Toulabor, Religion et modernité politique en Afrique noire (Paris, 1993), and François Constantin and Christian Coulon (eds.), Religion et transition démocratique en Afrique (Paris, 1997).
27. Jean-François Bayart, L'Etat en Afrique: la politique du ventre (Paris, 1989). Other relevant works from the same school include Jean-François Bayart, Achille Mbembe and Comi Toulabor, Religion et modernité politique en Afrique noire (Paris, 1993), and François Constantin and Christian Coulon (eds.), Religion et transition démocratique en Afrique (Paris, 1997).
28. Jean-François Bayart, L'Etat en Afrique: la politique du ventre (Paris, 1989). Other relevant works from the same school include Jean-François Bayart, Achille Mbembe and Comi Toulabor, Religion et modernité politique en Afrique noire (Paris, 1993), and François Constantin and Christian Coulon (eds.), Religion et transition démocratique en Afrique (Paris, 1997).
29. World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: from crisis to sustainable growth (Washington DC, 1989), p. 60.
30. Two bibliographical surveys which include useful references to the literature on governance are Rob Buijtenhuijs and Elly Rijnierse, Democratisation in Sub-Saharan Africa 1989-1992, Research Reports no. 51, Afrika-studiecentrum (Leiden, 1993); Rob Buijtenhuijs and Céline Thiriot, Democratisation in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1992-1995 (Leiden, Bordeaux, 1995).
31. Two bibliographical surveys which include useful references to the literature on governance are Rob Buijtenhuijs and Elly Rijnierse, Democratisation in Sub-Saharan Africa 1989-1992, Research Reports no. 51, Afrika-studiecentrum (Leiden, 1993); Rob Buijtenhuijs and Céline Thiriot, Democratisation in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1992-1995 (Leiden, Bordeaux, 1995).
32. Sally Falk Moore, Anthropology and Africa: changing perspectives on a changing scene (Charlottesville and London, 1994), pp. 15-28.
33. An early example of this trend is John Peel, Aladura, a Religious Movement Among the Yoruba (London, 1968).
34. Influential examples are Jean Comaroff, Body of Power, Spirit of Resistance: the culture and history of a South African people (Chicago and London, 1985), and David Lan, Guns and Rain: guerrillas and spirit mediums in Zimbabwe (London, 1985).
35. Influential examples are Jean Comaroff, Body of Power, Spirit of Resistance: the culture and history of a South African people (Chicago and London, 1985), and David Lan, Guns and Rain: guerrillas and spirit mediums in Zimbabwe (London, 1985).
36. E.g. Maurice Bloch, From Blessing to Violence: history and ideology in the circumcision ritual of the Merina of Madagascar (Cambridge, 1986); Richard Werbner, Ritual Pssage, Sacred Journey: the process and organisation of a religious movement (Manchester, 1989) ; Jean and John Comaroff (eds.), Modernity and its Malcontents: ritual and power in postcolonial Africa (Chicago and London, 1993); Pascal Boyer (ed.), Cognitive Aspects of Religious Symbolism (Cambridge, 1993); Boyer, The Naturalness of Religious Ideas: a cognitive theory of religion (Berkeley, CA, 1994).
37. E.g. Maurice Bloch, From Blessing to Violence: history and ideology in the circumcision ritual of the Merina of Madagascar (Cambridge, 1986); Richard Werbner, Ritual Pssage, Sacred Journey: the process and organisation of a religious movement (Manchester, 1989) ; Jean and John Comaroff (eds.), Modernity and its Malcontents: ritual and power in postcolonial Africa (Chicago and London, 1993); Pascal Boyer (ed.), Cognitive Aspects of Religious Symbolism (Cambridge, 1993); Boyer, The Naturalness of Religious Ideas: a cognitive theory of religion (Berkeley, CA, 1994).
38. E.g. Maurice Bloch, From Blessing to Violence: history and ideology in the circumcision ritual of the Merina of Madagascar (Cambridge, 1986); Richard Werbner, Ritual Pssage, Sacred Journey: the process and organisation of a religious movement (Manchester, 1989) ; Jean and John Comaroff (eds.), Modernity and its Malcontents: ritual and power in postcolonial Africa (Chicago and London, 1993); Pascal Boyer (ed.), Cognitive Aspects of Religious Symbolism (Cambridge, 1993); Boyer, The Naturalness of Religious Ideas: a cognitive theory of religion (Berkeley, CA, 1994).
39. E.g. Maurice Bloch, From Blessing to Violence: history and ideology in the circumcision ritual of the Merina of Madagascar (Cambridge, 1986); Richard Werbner, Ritual Pssage, Sacred Journey: the process and organisation of a religious movement (Manchester, 1989) ; Jean and John Comaroff (eds.), Modernity and its Malcontents: ritual and power in postcolonial Africa (Chicago and London, 1993); Pascal Boyer (ed.), Cognitive Aspects of Religious Symbolism (Cambridge, 1993); Boyer, The Naturalness of Religious Ideas: a cognitive theory of religion (Berkeley, CA, 1994).
40. E.g. Maurice Bloch, From Blessing to Violence: history and ideology in the circumcision ritual of the Merina of Madagascar (Cambridge, 1986); Richard Werbner, Ritual Pssage, Sacred Journey: the process and organisation of a religious movement (Manchester, 1989) ; Jean and John Comaroff (eds.), Modernity and its Malcontents: ritual and power in postcolonial Africa (Chicago and London, 1993); Pascal Boyer (ed.), Cognitive Aspects of Religious Symbolism (Cambridge, 1993); Boyer, The Naturalness of Religious Ideas: a cognitive theory of religion (Berkeley, CA, 1994).
41. Cf. Jean and John Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, colonialism and consciousness in South Africa (Chicago and London, 1991).
42. This definition of religion originates with Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917).
43. Both quotations are from Robin Horton, Patterns of Thought in Africa and the West: essays on magic, religion and science (Cambridge, 1997 pbk edn), p. 306.
44. For a discussion of the role of religion in African philosophy, see e.g. Kwame Anthony Appiah, In My Father's House: Africa in the philosophy of culture (New York, 1992), pp. 107-36. That not all Africans are religious is made clear by Eloi Messi Metogo, Dieu peut-il mourir en Afrique? Essai sur f indifférence religieuse et l'incroyance en Afrique noire (Paris, 1997).
45. For a discussion of the role of religion in African philosophy, see e.g. Kwame Anthony Appiah, In My Father's House: Africa in the philosophy of culture (New York, 1992), pp. 107-36. That not all Africans are religious is made clear by Eloi Messi Metogo, Dieu peut-il mourir en Afrique? Essai sur f indifférence religieuse et l'incroyance en Afrique noire (Paris, 1997).
46. Reflections on the rise of new religious movements include Bennetta W. Jules-Rosette (ed.), The New Religions of Africa (Norwood, NJ, 1997); Rosalind Hackett (ed.), New Religious Movements in Nigeria (Lewiston, NY, 1987); Hackett, 'Revitalisations in African traditional religion', in Jacob Olupona (ed.), African Traditional Religions in Contemporary Society (New York, 1991), pp. 135-48; Hackett, 'African new religious movements', in Ursula King (ed.), Turning Points in Religious Studies: essays in honour of Geoffrey Parrinder (Edinburgh, 1990), pp. 192-200; Paul Gifford, 'Some recent developments in African Christianity', African Affairs, 93, 373 (1994), 513-34.
47. Reflections on the rise of new religious movements include Bennetta W. Jules-Rosette (ed.), The New Religions of Africa (Norwood, NJ, 1997); Rosalind Hackett (ed.), New Religious Movements in Nigeria (Lewiston, NY, 1987); Hackett, 'Revitalisations in African traditional religion', in Jacob Olupona (ed.), African Traditional Religions in Contemporary Society (New York, 1991), pp. 135-48; Hackett, 'African new religious movements', in Ursula King (ed.), Turning Points in Religious Studies: essays in honour of Geoffrey Parrinder (Edinburgh, 1990), pp. 192-200; Paul Gifford, 'Some recent developments in African Christianity', African Affairs, 93, 373 (1994), 513-34.
48. Reflections on the rise of new religious movements include Bennetta W. Jules-Rosette (ed.), The New Religions of Africa (Norwood, NJ, 1997); Rosalind Hackett (ed.), New Religious Movements in Nigeria (Lewiston, NY, 1987); Hackett, 'Revitalisations in African traditional religion', in Jacob Olupona (ed.), African Traditional Religions in Contemporary Society (New York, 1991), pp. 135-48; Hackett, 'African new religious movements', in Ursula King (ed.), Turning Points in Religious Studies: essays in honour of Geoffrey Parrinder (Edinburgh, 1990), pp. 192-200; Paul Gifford, 'Some recent developments in African Christianity', African Affairs, 93, 373 (1994), 513-34.
49. Reflections on the rise of new religious movements include Bennetta W. Jules-Rosette (ed.), The New Religions of Africa (Norwood, NJ, 1997); Rosalind Hackett (ed.), New Religious Movements in Nigeria (Lewiston, NY, 1987); Hackett, 'Revitalisations in African traditional religion', in Jacob Olupona (ed.), African Traditional Religions in Contemporary Society (New York, 1991), pp. 135-48; Hackett, 'African new religious movements', in Ursula King (ed.), Turning Points in Religious Studies: essays in honour of Geoffrey Parrinder (Edinburgh, 1990), pp. 192-200; Paul Gifford, 'Some recent developments in African Christianity', African Affairs, 93, 373 (1994), 513-34.
50. Reflections on the rise of new religious movements include Bennetta W. Jules-Rosette (ed.), The New Religions of Africa (Norwood, NJ, 1997); Rosalind Hackett (ed.), New Religious Movements in Nigeria (Lewiston, NY, 1987); Hackett, 'Revitalisations in African traditional religion', in Jacob Olupona (ed.), African Traditional Religions in Contemporary Society (New York, 1991), pp. 135-48; Hackett, 'African new religious movements', in Ursula King (ed.), Turning Points in Religious Studies: essays in honour of Geoffrey Parrinder (Edinburgh, 1990), pp. 192-200; Paul Gifford, 'Some recent developments in African Christianity', African Affairs, 93, 373 (1994), 513-34.
51. For a critique of the notion of fundamentalism, see Gerrie ter Haar, Halfway to Paradise: African Christians in Europe (Cardiff, 1998), ch. 9. We will follow some scholars of Islam in labelling modern exponents of political Islam as Islamists.
52. On the Moonie presence in Zaire and Angola, see 'Angola: oily enclave', Africa Confidential, 37, 1 (5 January 1996), 7.
53. Isak Niehaus, 'Witch-hunting and political legitimacy: continuity and change in Green Valley, Lebowa, 1930-91', Africa, 63, 4 (1993), 498-530.
54. D. D. Kaniaki and Evangelist Mukendi, Switched from Satan's Claws, p. 38.
55. Ibid., p. 39.
56. Ibid., p. 41.
57. Ibid., p. 41.
58. Ibid., p. 42.
59. E.g. Wyatt MacGafiey, Modern Kongo Prophets: religion in a plural society (Bloomington, IN 1983), pp. 126-7.
60. Cf.Victoria Eto, Exposition on Water Spirits (Nigeria, 1988); Kathleen O'Brien Wicker, 'Mami water in African religion and spirituality', in Jacob K. Olupona and Charles H. Long (eds.), African Spirituality (forthcoming).
61. Cf.Victoria Eto, Exposition on Water Spirits (Nigeria, 1988); Kathleen O'Brien Wicker, 'Mami water in African religion and spirituality', in Jacob K. Olupona and Charles H. Long (eds.), African Spirituality (forthcoming).
62. Ernest Pianim, Ghana in Prophecy (Kumasi, 1995). This view seems to be related to the recent migration of Ghanaians to Europe.
63. S. N. I. Okeke, Satanic Ministers: the ministries of Lucifer (Lagos, 1991), p. 4.
64. Africa Research Bulletin, 33, 10 (1996), 12442a.
65. Yann Droz, 'Si Dieu veut... ou suppôts de Satan? Incertitudes, millénarisme et sorcellerie chez les migrants kikuyu', Cahiers des études africaines, 37, 145 (1997), 85-117.
66. Martin, Tongues of Fire.
67. Hackett, 'Revitalisations in African traditional religion'.
68. Kenneth Little, 'The political function of the Poro', Africa, 35, 4 (1965), 349-65, and 36, 1 (1966), 62-72.
69. Kenneth Little, 'The political function of the Poro', Africa, 35, 4 (1965), 349-65, and 36, 1 (1966), 62-72.
70. Donal B. Cruise O'Brien, Saints and Politicians: essays in the organisation of a Senegalese peasant society (Cambridge, 1975).
71. Lan, Guns and Rain.
72. Hugo Hinfelaar, Bemba-Speaking Women of Zambia in a Century of Religious Change (1892-1992) (Leiden, 1994).
73. Jacques Baulin, La politique intérieure d' Houphouët-Boigny (Paris, 1982), pp. 116-18.
74. Samba Diarra, Les faux complots d'Houphouët-Boigny (Paris, 1997), pp. 223-43.
75. Beatwell Chisala, The Downfall of President Kaunda (Lusaka, 1994), pp. 45-51.
76. Personal communication by Tiébilé Dramé, former minister of the Malian government.
77. Maurice Chabi, Banqueroute, mode d'emploi: un marabout dans les griffes de la maffia béninoise (Porto Novo, no date).
78. Personal communication by Solofo Randrianja, historian at the University of Tamatave.
79. Jean-François Bayart, ' L'Afrique invisible ', Politique internationale, 70 (1995) 287-99. Claude Wauthier, 'L'étrange influence des franc-maçons en Afrique francophone', Le monde diplomatique, 522 (Sept. 1997), 6-7, mentions the competition between Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry for the allegiance of francophone heads of state.
80. Jean-François Bayart, ' L'Afrique invisible ', Politique internationale, 70 (1995) 287-99. Claude Wauthier, 'L'étrange influence des franc-maçons en Afrique francophone', Le monde diplomatique, 522 (Sept. 1997), 6-7, mentions the competition between Rosicrucianism and Freemasonry for the allegiance of francophone heads of state.
81. This was widely reported in the Dutch press when the Mozambican government negotiated an arrangement with a TM foundation in the Netherlands.
82. On radio trottoir in general, Stephen Ellis, 'Tuning in to Pavement Radio', African Affairs, 88, 352 (1989), 321-30. For a specific case, Sabakinu Kivilu, 'Le radio-trottoir dans l'exercice du pouvoir politique au Zaïre', in B. Jewsiewicki and H. Moniot (eds.), Dialoguer avec le léopard? (Paris, 1988), pp. 179-193.
83. On radio trottoir in general, Stephen Ellis, 'Tuning in to Pavement Radio', African Affairs, 88, 352 (1989), 321-30. For a specific case, Sabakinu Kivilu, 'Le radio-trottoir dans l'exercice du pouvoir politique au Zaïre', in B. Jewsiewicki and H. Moniot (eds.), Dialoguer avec le léopard? (Paris, 1988), pp. 179-193.
84. Robert B. Charlick, Niger: personal rule and survival in the Sahel (Boulder, 1991), pp. 69-70.
85. Camilla Strandsbjerg, 'Religion and the interpretation of political power: aspects of political thinking in Benin', paper presented at the conference on Religion and Politics in Africa and the Islamic World, University of Copenhagen, 1-3 Oct. 1997.
86. Gerne ter Haar, Spirit of Africa: the healing ministry of Archbishop Milingo of Zambia (London, 1992), pp. 190-200.
87. Metena M'Nteba, 'Les conférences nationales africaines et la figure politique de l'évêqueprésident', Zaïre-Afrique, 276 (1993), 361-72.
88. Allen F. Roberts, 'L'authenticité, l'aliénation et l'homicide: une étude sur le processus social dans les zones rurales au Zaïre ', in Jewsiewicki and Moniot, Dialoguer avec le léopard?, pp. 327-51.
89. Comi Toulabor, Le Togo sous Eyadéma (Paris, 1986), esp. pp. 105-31.
90. A good example is Simon Kimbangu, concerning whom see Marie-Louise Martin, Kimbangu: an African prophet and his church (Oxford, 1975). Karen E. Fields, Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa (Princeton, 1985) studies the reaction of colonial administrations to a range of spiritual movements.
91. A good example is Simon Kimbangu, concerning whom see Marie-Louise Martin, Kimbangu: an African prophet and his church (Oxford, 1975). Karen E. Fields, Revival and Rebellion in Colonial Central Africa (Princeton, 1985) studies the reaction of colonial administrations to a range of spiritual movements.
92. Examples include the role of the Unification Church in Korea, the rise of the Religious Right in the United States and the establishment of an Islamic government in Iran.
93. This was the date of application of the first Structural Adjustment Programme, concerning Senegal.
94. For a statement of these norms, expressed by a leading theorist who was writing at precisely the time such institutions were being introduced in Africa, see Max Weber (ed. Max Rheinstein), Max Weber on Law in Economy and Society (Cambridge, MA, 1954).
95. W. J. F. Jenner, The Tyranny of History: the roots of China's crisis (London, 1992), pp. 198-200.
96. Jean-François Bayart, 'L'historicité de l'état importé', in J-.F. Bayart (ed.), La greffe de l' Etat (Paris, 1996), pp. 11-39.
97. Alan Bullock and Oliver Stallybrass (eds.), The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought (London, 1977), p. 490.
98. F. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, quoted in The Penguin Dictionary of Political Quotations (Harmondsworth, 1986), p. 122.
99. Ineke van Kessel, '"From Confusion to Lusaka": the youth revolt in Sekhukhuneland', Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, 4 (1993), 593-614.
100. Peter Geschiere, Sorcellerie et politique au Cameroun: la viande des autres (Paris, 1995),pp. 125-63, describes how villagers may perceive national political problems as a form of witchcraft. For a discussion of the idea of spirit possession on a national scale, Gerne ter Haar and Stephen Ellis, 'Spirit possession and healing in modern Zambia: an analysis of letters to Archbishop Milingo', African Affairs, 87, 347 (1988), 185-206. Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: war, youth and resources in Sierra Leone (London and Portsmouth, NH, 1996), pp. xxiv-xxv, sees fear of cannibalism as a form of similar moral panic on a national scale.
101. Peter Geschiere, Sorcellerie et politique au Cameroun: la viande des autres (Paris, 1995),pp. 125-63, describes how villagers may perceive national political problems as a form of witchcraft. For a discussion of the idea of spirit possession on a national scale, Gerne ter Haar and Stephen Ellis, 'Spirit possession and healing in modern Zambia: an analysis of letters to Archbishop Milingo', African Affairs, 87, 347 (1988), 185-206. Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: war, youth and resources in Sierra Leone (London and Portsmouth, NH, 1996), pp. xxiv-xxv, sees fear of cannibalism as a form of similar moral panic on a national scale.
102. Peter Geschiere, Sorcellerie et politique au Cameroun: la viande des autres (Paris, 1995),pp. 125-63, describes how villagers may perceive national political problems as a form of witchcraft. For a discussion of the idea of spirit possession on a national scale, Gerne ter Haar and Stephen Ellis, 'Spirit possession and healing in modern Zambia: an analysis of letters to Archbishop Milingo', African Affairs, 87, 347 (1988), 185-206. Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: war, youth and resources in Sierra Leone (London and Portsmouth, NH, 1996), pp. xxiv-xxv, sees fear of cannibalism as a form of similar moral panic on a national scale.
103. A good example appears to be the Ugandan prophetess Alice Lakwena. Tim Allen, 'Understanding Alice: Uganda's Holy Spirit Movement in context', Africa, 61, 3 (1991), 370-99.
104. Jean-Pierre Diamani, 'L'humour politique au Phare du Zaïre', Politique africaine, 58 (1995), 151-7.
105. P. F. Bradford, D. J. Williams, Y. Pwol, C. H. Cheal and T. B. Dankwa, The Christian Attitude: witchcraft and charms, drinking, cults, marxist socialism, sickness (Achimota, Ghana, 1980), pp. 54-9, is a popular work which explicitly labels Rosicrucianism as a devilish cult.
106. Emmanuel Milingo, Fate to Face with the Devil (Victoria, Australia 1991).
107. Emmanuel Milingo, Plunging into Darkness (Victoria, Australia 1993).
108. Geschiere, Sorcellerie et politique, pp. 125-40.
109. Ibid., pp. 20-1, and pp. 279-86. A further useful survey of the literature on witchcraft is Simeon Mesaki, 'The evolution and essence of witchcraft in pre-colonial African societies', Transafrican Journal of History, 24 (1995), 162-77. The originator of much of the vocabulary in use is Edward Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (1st edn 1937; reprint Oxford, 1977), pp. 8-12.
110. Ibid., pp. 20-1, and pp. 279-86. A further useful survey of the literature on witchcraft is Simeon Mesaki, 'The evolution and essence of witchcraft in pre-colonial African societies', Transafrican Journal of History, 24 (1995), 162-77. The originator of much of the vocabulary in use is Edward Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (1st edn 1937; reprint Oxford, 1977), pp. 8-12.
111. Ibid., pp. 20-1, and pp. 279-86. A further useful survey of the literature on witchcraft is Simeon Mesaki, 'The evolution and essence of witchcraft in pre-colonial African societies', Transafrican Journal of History, 24 (1995), 162-77. The originator of much of the vocabulary in use is Edward Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande (1st edn 1937; reprint Oxford, 1977), pp. 8-12.
112. Cf. Arthur F. Kulah, Theological Education in Liberia: problems and opportunities (Lithonia, GA, 1994). esp. pp. 45-61.
113. Ter Haar, Spirit of Africa.
114. K. B. Wilson, 'Cults of violence and counter-violence in Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 3 (1992), 527-82 . A general survey of traditional religion and warfare is Stephen L. Weigert, Traditional Religion and Guerrilla Warfare in Modern Africa (New York, 1996).
115. K. B. Wilson, 'Cults of violence and counter-violence in Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 3 (1992), 527-82 . A general survey of traditional religion and warfare is Stephen L. Weigert, Traditional Religion and Guerrilla Warfare in Modern Africa (New York, 1996).
116. Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique (London, 1995), p. 576.
117. Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley: conflict in Kenya and Africa (London, 1992), P. 215.
118. Gifford, The Religious Right.
119. H. A. S. Johnston, The Fulani Empire of Sokoto (London, 1967), pp. 26-102.
120. On exoticism in African studies, see Christian Coulon, 'L'exotisme peut-il être banal? L'expérience de Politique africaine', Politique africaine, 65 (1997), 77-95.