The home of the workingman is the balance wheel of democracy: Housing reform in wartime Bridgeport

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 26, Issue 6, 2000, Pages 715-739

  Macieski, Robert ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; HOUSING REFORM; TWENTIETH CENTURY; URBAN PLANNING;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033790415     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614420002600601     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. Roy Lubove, "Homes and 'A Few Well Placed Fruit Trees': An Object Lesson in Federal Housing," Social Research 27 (winter 1960): 469. Also see Lubove's The Progressives and the Slums (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962) for what remains the best overall account of progressive planning and housing reform.
2. Roy Lubove, "Homes and 'A Few Well Placed Fruit Trees': An Object Lesson in Federal Housing," Social Research 27 (winter 1960): 469. Also see Lubove's The Progressives and the Slums (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962) for what remains the best overall account of progressive planning and housing reform.
3. Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Michael H. Lang, "The Design of Yorkship Garden Village: Product of Progressive Planning, Architecture, and Housing Reform Movements," in Mary Corbin Sies and Christopher Silver, eds., Planning and the American City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 120-44; Richard M. Candee, Atlantic Heights: A World War I Shipbuilder's Community (Portsmouth, NH: Portsmouth Marine Society, 1985); William H. Wilson, "The Ideology, Aesthetics and Politics of the City Beautiful Movement," in Anthony Sutcliffe, ed., The Rise of Modern Urban Planning (London: Mansell, 1980), 165-98; and Donald A. Kruckeberg, ed., The American Planner: Biographies and Recollections (New York: Methuen, 1983).
4. Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Michael H. Lang, "The Design of Yorkship Garden Village: Product of Progressive Planning, Architecture, and Housing Reform Movements," in Mary Corbin Sies and Christopher Silver, eds., Planning and the American City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 120-44; Richard M. Candee, Atlantic Heights: A World War I Shipbuilder's Community (Portsmouth, NH: Portsmouth Marine Society, 1985); William H. Wilson, "The Ideology, Aesthetics and Politics of the City Beautiful Movement," in Anthony Sutcliffe, ed., The Rise of Modern Urban Planning (London: Mansell, 1980), 165-98; and Donald A. Kruckeberg, ed., The American Planner: Biographies and Recollections (New York: Methuen, 1983).
5. Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Michael H. Lang, "The Design of Yorkship Garden Village: Product of Progressive Planning, Architecture, and Housing Reform Movements," in Mary Corbin Sies and Christopher Silver, eds., Planning and the American City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 120-44; Richard M. Candee, Atlantic Heights: A World War I Shipbuilder's Community (Portsmouth, NH: Portsmouth Marine Society, 1985); William H. Wilson, "The Ideology, Aesthetics and Politics of the City Beautiful Movement," in Anthony Sutcliffe, ed., The Rise of Modern Urban Planning (London: Mansell, 1980), 165-98; and Donald A. Kruckeberg, ed., The American Planner: Biographies and Recollections (New York: Methuen, 1983).
6. Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Michael H. Lang, "The Design of Yorkship Garden Village: Product of Progressive Planning, Architecture, and Housing Reform Movements," in Mary Corbin Sies and Christopher Silver, eds., Planning and the American City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 120-44; Richard M. Candee, Atlantic Heights: A World War I Shipbuilder's Community (Portsmouth, NH: Portsmouth Marine Society, 1985); William H. Wilson, "The Ideology, Aesthetics and Politics of the City Beautiful Movement," in Anthony Sutcliffe, ed., The Rise of Modern Urban Planning (London: Mansell, 1980), 165-98; and Donald A. Kruckeberg, ed., The American Planner: Biographies and Recollections (New York: Methuen, 1983).
7. Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Michael H. Lang, "The Design of Yorkship Garden Village: Product of Progressive Planning, Architecture, and Housing Reform Movements," in Mary Corbin Sies and Christopher Silver, eds., Planning and the American City (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 120-44; Richard M. Candee, Atlantic Heights: A World War I Shipbuilder's Community (Portsmouth, NH: Portsmouth Marine Society, 1985); William H. Wilson, "The Ideology, Aesthetics and Politics of the City Beautiful Movement," in Anthony Sutcliffe, ed., The Rise of Modern Urban Planning (London: Mansell, 1980), 165-98; and Donald A. Kruckeberg, ed., The American Planner: Biographies and Recollections (New York: Methuen, 1983).
8. Margaret Crawford, Building the Workingman's Paradise: The Design of American Company Towns (London: Verso, 1995). Also see M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983); William Littmann, "Designing Obedience: The Architecture and Landscape of Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1930," International Labor and Working-Class History, no. 53 (spring 1998): 88-114.
9. Margaret Crawford, Building the Workingman's Paradise: The Design of American Company Towns (London: Verso, 1995). Also see M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983); William Littmann, "Designing Obedience: The Architecture and Landscape of Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1930," International Labor and Working-Class History, no. 53 (spring 1998): 88-114.
10. Margaret Crawford, Building the Workingman's Paradise: The Design of American Company Towns (London: Verso, 1995). Also see M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1983); William Littmann, "Designing Obedience: The Architecture and Landscape of Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1930," International Labor and Working-Class History, no. 53 (spring 1998): 88-114.
11. Mark Swenarton, Homes Fit for Heroes (London: Heinemann, 1981).
12. Lang, "The Design of Yorkship Garden Village," 137.
13. Cecelia F. Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition: Bridgeport, Connecticut Munitions Workers, 1918-1919," Social Science History 4, no. 1 (1980): 107.
14. Mark Twain, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court (New York: Bantam Books, 1982), 4-6.
15. Between 1840 and 1920, Bridgeport experienced a population growth rate of 40 percent or more each decade until 1920. Following the 1920 census, the population of Bridgeport remained steady, between 140,000 and 170,000, while the surrounding metropolitan region began its long and steady period of expansion.
16. Manufacturers' Association of Bridgeport, Bulletin Number 1224, July 19, 1912, Papers of the Bridgeport Manufacturing Association, Bridgeport Public Library (BPL).
17. Liberato Dattolo was born in Monte Castel, Villina Province in 1899 and moved to Bridgeport in 1914. Work Projects Administration (WPA) Federal Writers' Project, Interview of Liberato Dattolo by Vincent Frazzetta, 1939, CSL RG 33.
18. Miss A.'s mother came to Bridgeport in 1904 after her husband died and it became too difficult to work the farm herself. The following year, Miss A. and her brother came over "straight to Bridgeport." The oldest sister remained in Hungary. WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview of Miss A., First Generation, by Pauli Russo, December 13, 1939, CSL RG 33, Box 21, folder 109:11.
19. See Judith E. Smith, Family Connections: A History of Italian & Jewish Immigrant Lives in Providence, Rhode Island 1900-1940 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985); Donna R. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984); Ewa Morawska, For Bread with Butter: Life Worlds of East Central Europeans in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 1890-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oliver Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982).
20. See Judith E. Smith, Family Connections: A History of Italian & Jewish Immigrant Lives in Providence, Rhode Island 1900-1940 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985); Donna R. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984); Ewa Morawska, For Bread with Butter: Life Worlds of East Central Europeans in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 1890-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oliver Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982).
21. See Judith E. Smith, Family Connections: A History of Italian & Jewish Immigrant Lives in Providence, Rhode Island 1900-1940 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985); Donna R. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984); Ewa Morawska, For Bread with Butter: Life Worlds of East Central Europeans in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 1890-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oliver Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982).
22. See Judith E. Smith, Family Connections: A History of Italian & Jewish Immigrant Lives in Providence, Rhode Island 1900-1940 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985); Donna R. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984); Ewa Morawska, For Bread with Butter: Life Worlds of East Central Europeans in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 1890-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oliver Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982).
23. See Judith E. Smith, Family Connections: A History of Italian & Jewish Immigrant Lives in Providence, Rhode Island 1900-1940 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985); Donna R. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984); Ewa Morawska, For Bread with Butter: Life Worlds of East Central Europeans in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 1890-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oliver Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982).
24. See Judith E. Smith, Family Connections: A History of Italian & Jewish Immigrant Lives in Providence, Rhode Island 1900-1940 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985); Donna R. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984); Ewa Morawska, For Bread with Butter: Life Worlds of East Central Europeans in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 1890-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oliver Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982).
25. See Judith E. Smith, Family Connections: A History of Italian & Jewish Immigrant Lives in Providence, Rhode Island 1900-1940 (Albany: SUNY Press, 1985); Donna R. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984); Ewa Morawska, For Bread with Butter: Life Worlds of East Central Europeans in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 1890-1940 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985); John Bodnar, Roger Simon, and Michael P. Weber, Lives of Their Own: Blacks, Italians, and Poles in Pittsburgh, 1900-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982); John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Virginia Yans-McLaughlin, Family and Community: Italian Immigrants in Buffalo, 1880-1930 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); Oliver Zunz, The Changing Face of Inequality Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Immigrants in Detroit, 1880-1920 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982).
26. Dozens of mutual benefit societies and ethnic social and fraternal organizations were created in the city, and each ethnic community had its own associations. The Irish had the Hibernian Society; the Swedes had the North Star Singing Society and the Swedish Athletic Association; the Germans, the Germania Club and the Germania Singing Society; Armenians had the Tashnage or Armenian Revolutionary Federation; Poles had the Polish Falcons and White Eagle Societies; Greeks, the Pan Hellenic Union; Hungarians the Rakoczi Society, Rakoczi Aid Association, Rakoczi Glee Club, American Hungarian Catholic Society, and the St. Ladislaus Society; the Lebanese had the Syrian Lebanese Club and the Knights of Lebanon; Jews, the Hebrew Sick Benefit Society, the Workman's Circle, and so on, each community developing its own institutions and associations. These societies offered members opportunities for a variety of types of support; social, cultural, and political associations and activities, ranging from mutual financial assistance to singing and sports; and political associations that provided these communities with a self-supporting and autonomous social and cultural arena in the city.
27. See Robert Macieski, "A Place in Time: The Shaping of City Space in Bridgeport, Connecticut, 1890-1919" (Ph.D. dissertation, Boston College, 1994), chaps. 2 and 4.
28. Bodnar, The Transplanted, 57-71, 175-83; Louise Lamphere, From Working Daughters to Working Mothers: Immigrant Women in a New England Industrial Community (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 92-170.
29. Bodnar, The Transplanted, 57-71, 175-83; Louise Lamphere, From Working Daughters to Working Mothers: Immigrant Women in a New England Industrial Community (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 92-170.
30. Robert G. Barrows, "Beyond the Tenement: Patterns of American Urban Housing, 1870-1930," Journal of Urban History, no. 9 (1983): 395-420; David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1925: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 46-93.
31. Robert G. Barrows, "Beyond the Tenement: Patterns of American Urban Housing, 1870-1930," Journal of Urban History, no. 9 (1983): 395-420; David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1925: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 46-93.
32. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Fifteenth Census.
33. Bridgeport Post, May 25, 1916.
34. WPA Federal Writers' Project, Vincent Frazzetta, "Slovak Community in Bridgeport," n.d. CSL RG 33.
35. Bridgeport Herald Sunday, September 5, 1915.
36. Robert J. Embardo, "'Summer Lightening,' 1907: The Wobblies in Bridgeport," Labor History 30, no. 4 (1989); Macieski, "A Place in Time," 181-201; Manufacturers Association of the City of Bridgeport, General Letter no. 1016-A, by M. E. Brewster-Greene, Secretary, June 14, 1907.
37. Robert J. Embardo, "'Summer Lightening,' 1907: The Wobblies in Bridgeport," Labor History 30, no. 4 (1989); Macieski, "A Place in Time," 181-201; Manufacturers Association of the City of Bridgeport, General Letter no. 1016-A, by M. E. Brewster-Greene, Secretary, June 14, 1907.
38. Robert J. Embardo, "'Summer Lightening,' 1907: The Wobblies in Bridgeport," Labor History 30, no. 4 (1989); Macieski, "A Place in Time," 181-201; Manufacturers Association of the City of Bridgeport, General Letter no. 1016-A, by M. E. Brewster-Greene, Secretary, June 14, 1907.
39. Lawrence Veiller, Housing Reform: A Hand-Book for Practical Use in American Cities (New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910), 4-5, 15; for the shift from reform of individual to reform of environment in the 1890s, see Paul Boyer, Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 175-81; Don S. Kirschner, The Paradox of Professionalism: Reform and Public Service in Urban America, 1900-1940 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986), 1-10; Gwendolyn Wright, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago 1873-1913 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 105-17; Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 143-171; Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Samuel P. Hayes, "The Changing Political Structure of the City in Industrial America," Journal of Urban History 1, no. 1 (1974): 6-38.
40. Lawrence Veiller, Housing Reform: A Hand-Book for Practical Use in American Cities (New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910), 4-5, 15; for the shift from reform of individual to reform of environment in the 1890s, see Paul Boyer, Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 175-81; Don S. Kirschner, The Paradox of Professionalism: Reform and Public Service in Urban America, 1900-1940 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986), 1-10; Gwendolyn Wright, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago 1873-1913 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 105-17; Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 143-171; Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Samuel P. Hayes, "The Changing Political Structure of the City in Industrial America," Journal of Urban History 1, no. 1 (1974): 6-38.
41. Lawrence Veiller, Housing Reform: A Hand-Book for Practical Use in American Cities (New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910), 4-5, 15; for the shift from reform of individual to reform of environment in the 1890s, see Paul Boyer, Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 175-81; Don S. Kirschner, The Paradox of Professionalism: Reform and Public Service in Urban America, 1900-1940 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986), 1-10; Gwendolyn Wright, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago 1873-1913 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 105-17; Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 143-171; Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Samuel P. Hayes, "The Changing Political Structure of the City in Industrial America," Journal of Urban History 1, no. 1 (1974): 6-38.
42. Lawrence Veiller, Housing Reform: A Hand-Book for Practical Use in American Cities (New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910), 4-5, 15; for the shift from reform of individual to reform of environment in the 1890s, see Paul Boyer, Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 175-81; Don S. Kirschner, The Paradox of Professionalism: Reform and Public Service in Urban America, 1900-1940 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986), 1-10; Gwendolyn Wright, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago 1873-1913 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 105-17; Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 143-171; Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Samuel P. Hayes, "The Changing Political Structure of the City in Industrial America," Journal of Urban History 1, no. 1 (1974): 6-38.
43. Lawrence Veiller, Housing Reform: A Hand-Book for Practical Use in American Cities (New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910), 4-5, 15; for the shift from reform of individual to reform of environment in the 1890s, see Paul Boyer, Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 175-81; Don S. Kirschner, The Paradox of Professionalism: Reform and Public Service in Urban America, 1900-1940 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986), 1-10; Gwendolyn Wright, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago 1873-1913 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 105-17; Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 143-171; Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Samuel P. Hayes, "The Changing Political Structure of the City in Industrial America," Journal of Urban History 1, no. 1 (1974): 6-38.
44. Lawrence Veiller, Housing Reform: A Hand-Book for Practical Use in American Cities (New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910), 4-5, 15; for the shift from reform of individual to reform of environment in the 1890s, see Paul Boyer, Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 175-81; Don S. Kirschner, The Paradox of Professionalism: Reform and Public Service in Urban America, 1900-1940 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986), 1-10; Gwendolyn Wright, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago 1873-1913 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 105-17; Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 143-171; Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Samuel P. Hayes, "The Changing Political Structure of the City in Industrial America," Journal of Urban History 1, no. 1 (1974): 6-38.
45. Lawrence Veiller, Housing Reform: A Hand-Book for Practical Use in American Cities (New York: Charities Publication Committee, 1910), 4-5, 15; for the shift from reform of individual to reform of environment in the 1890s, see Paul Boyer, Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 175-81; Don S. Kirschner, The Paradox of Professionalism: Reform and Public Service in Urban America, 1900-1940 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986), 1-10; Gwendolyn Wright, Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago 1873-1913 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 105-17; Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 143-171; Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums; Samuel P. Hayes, "The Changing Political Structure of the City in Industrial America," Journal of Urban History 1, no. 1 (1974): 6-38.
46. Sutcliffe, ed., The Rise of Modern Urban Planning 1800-1914; Kruckeberg, The American Planner.
47. Sutcliffe, ed., The Rise of Modern Urban Planning 1800-1914; Kruckeberg, The American Planner.
48. Udetta D. Brown, A Brief Survey of Housing Conditions in Bridgeport (Bridgeport, CT, March-May 1914), 5, 52; John Nolen, More Houses for Bridgeport, Report to the Chamber of Commerce, Bridgeport, Connecticut (Bridgeport, CT, August 1916), 11; Rev. Samuel Orcutt, A History of the Old Town of Stratford and the City of Bridgeport, Connecticut, Part II (New Haven, CT: Fairfield County Historical Society, 1886), 694.
49. Udetta D. Brown, A Brief Survey of Housing Conditions in Bridgeport (Bridgeport, CT, March-May 1914), 5, 52; John Nolen, More Houses for Bridgeport, Report to the Chamber of Commerce, Bridgeport, Connecticut (Bridgeport, CT, August 1916), 11; Rev. Samuel Orcutt, A History of the Old Town of Stratford and the City of Bridgeport, Connecticut, Part II (New Haven, CT: Fairfield County Historical Society, 1886), 694.
50. Udetta D. Brown, A Brief Survey of Housing Conditions in Bridgeport (Bridgeport, CT, March-May 1914), 5, 52; John Nolen, More Houses for Bridgeport, Report to the Chamber of Commerce, Bridgeport, Connecticut (Bridgeport, CT, August 1916), 11; Rev. Samuel Orcutt, A History of the Old Town of Stratford and the City of Bridgeport, Connecticut, Part II (New Haven, CT: Fairfield County Historical Society, 1886), 694.
51. Brown, A Brief Survey, 5-15, 58-9; see also Bridgeport (Connecticut) Vice Commission, Report and Recommendations of the Vice Commission (Bridgeport, CT, 1916) and Municipal Registers; Robin Evans, "Rookeries and Model Dwellings: English Housing Reform and the Morality of Private Space," Architectural Association Quarterly 10, no. 1 (1978), 24-35 for comparison of housing reformers to imperial missionaries working among colonial native populations.
52. Brown, A Brief Survey, 5-15, 58-9; see also Bridgeport (Connecticut) Vice Commission, Report and Recommendations of the Vice Commission (Bridgeport, CT, 1916) and Municipal Registers; Robin Evans, "Rookeries and Model Dwellings: English Housing Reform and the Morality of Private Space," Architectural Association Quarterly 10, no. 1 (1978), 24-35 for comparison of housing reformers to imperial missionaries working among colonial native populations.
53. Brown, A Brief Survey, 5-15, 58-9; see also Bridgeport (Connecticut) Vice Commission, Report and Recommendations of the Vice Commission (Bridgeport, CT, 1916) and Municipal Registers; Robin Evans, "Rookeries and Model Dwellings: English Housing Reform and the Morality of Private Space," Architectural Association Quarterly 10, no. 1 (1978), 24-35 for comparison of housing reformers to imperial missionaries working among colonial native populations.
54. Brown, A Brief Survey, 6; Nolen, More Houses for Bridgeport, 11-6.
55. Brown, A Brief Survey, 6; Nolen, More Houses for Bridgeport, 11-6.
56. Brown, A Brief Survey, 9-10, 20, 37; The Report and Recommendations of the Bridgeport Vice Commission, 86.
57. Brown, A Brief Survey, 9-10, 20, 37; The Report and Recommendations of the Bridgeport Vice Commission, 86.
58. P. Boyer, Masses and Moral Order, 179-98. These two approaches sometimes coexisted within the same individuals. See also M. C. Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City; Samuel P. Hays, "Reform in Municipal Government," in A. M. Wakestein, ed., The Urbanization of America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums and The Urban Community: Housing and Planning in the Progressive Era (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1967).
59. P. Boyer, Masses and Moral Order, 179-98. These two approaches sometimes coexisted within the same individuals. See also M. C. Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City; Samuel P. Hays, "Reform in Municipal Government," in A. M. Wakestein, ed., The Urbanization of America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums and The Urban Community: Housing and Planning in the Progressive Era (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1967).
60. P. Boyer, Masses and Moral Order, 179-98. These two approaches sometimes coexisted within the same individuals. See also M. C. Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City; Samuel P. Hays, "Reform in Municipal Government," in A. M. Wakestein, ed., The Urbanization of America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums and The Urban Community: Housing and Planning in the Progressive Era (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1967).
61. P. Boyer, Masses and Moral Order, 179-98. These two approaches sometimes coexisted within the same individuals. See also M. C. Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City; Samuel P. Hays, "Reform in Municipal Government," in A. M. Wakestein, ed., The Urbanization of America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums and The Urban Community: Housing and Planning in the Progressive Era (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1967).
62. P. Boyer, Masses and Moral Order, 179-98. These two approaches sometimes coexisted within the same individuals. See also M. C. Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City; Samuel P. Hays, "Reform in Municipal Government," in A. M. Wakestein, ed., The Urbanization of America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970); Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums and The Urban Community: Housing and Planning in the Progressive Era (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1967).
63. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, vol. 2, Population, 247; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 3, Population, 162; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 9, Manufactures; French Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," World's Work 31 (January 1916): 321-33; Macieski, "A Place in Time," 310; Ralph L. Pearson, "Interracial Conflict in Twentieth Century Connecticut Cities: The Demographic Factor," Connecticut History, no. 17 (January 1976). Also see oral histories such as WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with Mr. Samuels by Vincent Frazzetta, "Negro Study," November 19, 1940, CSLRG 33; and Interview with Dewey Amos by James Johnson, October 20, 1983, in "A Study of Bridgeport Neighborhoods: A Black Perspective, 1900-Present" (BPL).
64. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, vol. 2, Population, 247; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 3, Population, 162; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 9, Manufactures; French Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," World's Work 31 (January 1916): 321-33; Macieski, "A Place in Time," 310; Ralph L. Pearson, "Interracial Conflict in Twentieth Century Connecticut Cities: The Demographic Factor," Connecticut History, no. 17 (January 1976). Also see oral histories such as WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with Mr. Samuels by Vincent Frazzetta, "Negro Study," November 19, 1940, CSLRG 33; and Interview with Dewey Amos by James Johnson, October 20, 1983, in "A Study of Bridgeport Neighborhoods: A Black Perspective, 1900-Present" (BPL).
65. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, vol. 2, Population, 247; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 3, Population, 162; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 9, Manufactures; French Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," World's Work 31 (January 1916): 321-33; Macieski, "A Place in Time," 310; Ralph L. Pearson, "Interracial Conflict in Twentieth Century Connecticut Cities: The Demographic Factor," Connecticut History, no. 17 (January 1976). Also see oral histories such as WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with Mr. Samuels by Vincent Frazzetta, "Negro Study," November 19, 1940, CSLRG 33; and Interview with Dewey Amos by James Johnson, October 20, 1983, in "A Study of Bridgeport Neighborhoods: A Black Perspective, 1900-Present" (BPL).
66. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, vol. 2, Population, 247; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 3, Population, 162; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 9, Manufactures; French Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," World's Work 31 (January 1916): 321-33; Macieski, "A Place in Time," 310; Ralph L. Pearson, "Interracial Conflict in Twentieth Century Connecticut Cities: The Demographic Factor," Connecticut History, no. 17 (January 1976). Also see oral histories such as WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with Mr. Samuels by Vincent Frazzetta, "Negro Study," November 19, 1940, CSLRG 33; and Interview with Dewey Amos by James Johnson, October 20, 1983, in "A Study of Bridgeport Neighborhoods: A Black Perspective, 1900-Present" (BPL).
67. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, vol. 2, Population, 247; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 3, Population, 162; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 9, Manufactures; French Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," World's Work 31 (January 1916): 321-33; Macieski, "A Place in Time," 310; Ralph L. Pearson, "Interracial Conflict in Twentieth Century Connecticut Cities: The Demographic Factor," Connecticut History, no. 17 (January 1976). Also see oral histories such as WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with Mr. Samuels by Vincent Frazzetta, "Negro Study," November 19, 1940, CSLRG 33; and Interview with Dewey Amos by James Johnson, October 20, 1983, in "A Study of Bridgeport Neighborhoods: A Black Perspective, 1900-Present" (BPL).
68. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, vol. 2, Population, 247; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 3, Population, 162; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 9, Manufactures; French Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," World's Work 31 (January 1916): 321-33; Macieski, "A Place in Time," 310; Ralph L. Pearson, "Interracial Conflict in Twentieth Century Connecticut Cities: The Demographic Factor," Connecticut History, no. 17 (January 1976). Also see oral histories such as WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with Mr. Samuels by Vincent Frazzetta, "Negro Study," November 19, 1940, CSLRG 33; and Interview with Dewey Amos by James Johnson, October 20, 1983, in "A Study of Bridgeport Neighborhoods: A Black Perspective, 1900-Present" (BPL).
69. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, vol. 2, Population, 247; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 3, Population, 162; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 9, Manufactures; French Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," World's Work 31 (January 1916): 321-33; Macieski, "A Place in Time," 310; Ralph L. Pearson, "Interracial Conflict in Twentieth Century Connecticut Cities: The Demographic Factor," Connecticut History, no. 17 (January 1976). Also see oral histories such as WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with Mr. Samuels by Vincent Frazzetta, "Negro Study," November 19, 1940, CSLRG 33; and Interview with Dewey Amos by James Johnson, October 20, 1983, in "A Study of Bridgeport Neighborhoods: A Black Perspective, 1900-Present" (BPL).
70. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Thirteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1910, vol. 2, Population, 247; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 3, Population, 162; Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the United States Taken in the Year 1920, vol. 9, Manufactures; French Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," World's Work 31 (January 1916): 321-33; Macieski, "A Place in Time," 310; Ralph L. Pearson, "Interracial Conflict in Twentieth Century Connecticut Cities: The Demographic Factor," Connecticut History, no. 17 (January 1976). Also see oral histories such as WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with Mr. Samuels by Vincent Frazzetta, "Negro Study," November 19, 1940, CSLRG 33; and Interview with Dewey Amos by James Johnson, October 20, 1983, in "A Study of Bridgeport Neighborhoods: A Black Perspective, 1900-Present" (BPL).
71. "War Boom Town in America," Living Age, no. 290, September 16, 1916, 751; Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," 332-33; John Nolen, Better City Planning for Bridgeport (Bridgeport, CT: The City Plan Commission, 1916), 1.
72. "War Boom Town in America," Living Age, no. 290, September 16, 1916, 751; Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," 332-33; John Nolen, Better City Planning for Bridgeport (Bridgeport, CT: The City Plan Commission, 1916), 1.
73. "War Boom Town in America," Living Age, no. 290, September 16, 1916, 751; Strother, "America, A New World Arsenal," 332-33; John Nolen, Better City Planning for Bridgeport (Bridgeport, CT: The City Plan Commission, 1916), 1.
74. WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport During the World War: Housing," "Growth of Bridgeport," by M. G. Sayers, n.d., CSL RG 33.
75. WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport During the World War: Housing," "Growth of Bridgeport," by M. G. Sayers, n.d., CSL RG 33.
76. Bridgeport Telegram, October 12, 1915; October 13, 1915.
77. W. E. Freeland, "The Housing Problems," The Iron Age 101, no. 12 (March 21, 1918); Report of the United States Housing Corporation (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920), vols. 1 and 2.
78. W. E. Freeland, "The Housing Problems," The Iron Age 101, no. 12 (March 21, 1918); Report of the United States Housing Corporation (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920), vols. 1 and 2.
79. Philip Hiss, "Housing As a War Problem," Housing Problems in America (National Housing Association Conference, 6, 1917), 18-21.
80. Ibid.
81. One of the most clear statements of this conscious use of city space to advance labor's cause comes from a report of a meeting of the Bridgeport International Association of Machinists (IAM), in which militant machinists called for parades through wealthy sections where, they noted, local industrialists were sending their families out of the city to protect them from possible violence. Report on Labor Problems by Agent J. Murphy Jr., December 27, 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Plant Protection Problems, Box 1, RG 165. For a discussion of the interaction between neighborhoods and industrial conflict, see Ardis Cameron's Radicals of the Worst Sort: Laboring Women in Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1860-1912 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
82. One of the most clear statements of this conscious use of city space to advance labor's cause comes from a report of a meeting of the Bridgeport International Association of Machinists (IAM), in which militant machinists called for parades through wealthy sections where, they noted, local industrialists were sending their families out of the city to protect them from possible violence. Report on Labor Problems by Agent J. Murphy Jr., December 27, 1918, Military Intelligence Division, Plant Protection Problems, Box 1, RG 165. For a discussion of the interaction between neighborhoods and industrial conflict, see Ardis Cameron's Radicals of the Worst Sort: Laboring Women in Lawrence, Massachusetts, 1860-1912 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
83. Macieski, "A Place in Time"; New York Times, August 19, 1915.
84. New York Times, July 20, 1915, 1; Connecticut Bureau of Labor Statistics, no. 23 (1916): 52; A.D.F. Hamdin, "The Workingman and His Home," Architectural Record 44 (October 1918): 305; Ruth Ogden, "The National Aspect of This City's Housing Problems," Bridgeport Post, February 24, 1918. Two excellent studies on labor unrest in Bridgeport and the transformation of work are Cecelia Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition: Munitions Workers in Bridgeport, Connecticut, 1915-19," in Herbert G. Gutman and Donald H. Bell, eds., The New England Working Class and the New Labor History (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1987); and the study by David Montgomery, "Whose Standards? Workers and the Reorganization of Production in the United States, 1900-20," in Montgomery's Workers' Control in America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
85. New York Times, July 20, 1915, 1; Connecticut Bureau of Labor Statistics, no. 23 (1916): 52; A.D.F. Hamdin, "The Workingman and His Home," Architectural Record 44 (October 1918): 305; Ruth Ogden, "The National Aspect of This City's Housing Problems," Bridgeport Post, February 24, 1918. Two excellent studies on labor unrest in Bridgeport and the transformation of work are Cecelia Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition: Munitions Workers in Bridgeport, Connecticut, 1915-19," in Herbert G. Gutman and Donald H. Bell, eds., The New England Working Class and the New Labor History (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1987); and the study by David Montgomery, "Whose Standards? Workers and the Reorganization of Production in the United States, 1900-20," in Montgomery's Workers' Control in America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
86. New York Times, July 20, 1915, 1; Connecticut Bureau of Labor Statistics, no. 23 (1916): 52; A.D.F. Hamdin, "The Workingman and His Home," Architectural Record 44 (October 1918): 305; Ruth Ogden, "The National Aspect of This City's Housing Problems," Bridgeport Post, February 24, 1918. Two excellent studies on labor unrest in Bridgeport and the transformation of work are Cecelia Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition: Munitions Workers in Bridgeport, Connecticut, 1915-19," in Herbert G. Gutman and Donald H. Bell, eds., The New England Working Class and the New Labor History (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1987); and the study by David Montgomery, "Whose Standards? Workers and the Reorganization of Production in the United States, 1900-20," in Montgomery's Workers' Control in America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
87. New York Times, July 20, 1915, 1; Connecticut Bureau of Labor Statistics, no. 23 (1916): 52; A.D.F. Hamdin, "The Workingman and His Home," Architectural Record 44 (October 1918): 305; Ruth Ogden, "The National Aspect of This City's Housing Problems," Bridgeport Post, February 24, 1918. Two excellent studies on labor unrest in Bridgeport and the transformation of work are Cecelia Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition: Munitions Workers in Bridgeport, Connecticut, 1915-19," in Herbert G. Gutman and Donald H. Bell, eds., The New England Working Class and the New Labor History (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1987); and the study by David Montgomery, "Whose Standards? Workers and the Reorganization of Production in the United States, 1900-20," in Montgomery's Workers' Control in America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
88. New York Times, July 20, 1915, 1; Connecticut Bureau of Labor Statistics, no. 23 (1916): 52; A.D.F. Hamdin, "The Workingman and His Home," Architectural Record 44 (October 1918): 305; Ruth Ogden, "The National Aspect of This City's Housing Problems," Bridgeport Post, February 24, 1918. Two excellent studies on labor unrest in Bridgeport and the transformation of work are Cecelia Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition: Munitions Workers in Bridgeport, Connecticut, 1915-19," in Herbert G. Gutman and Donald H. Bell, eds., The New England Working Class and the New Labor History (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1987); and the study by David Montgomery, "Whose Standards? Workers and the Reorganization of Production in the United States, 1900-20," in Montgomery's Workers' Control in America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
89. New York Times, July 20, 1915, 1; Connecticut Bureau of Labor Statistics, no. 23 (1916): 52; A.D.F. Hamdin, "The Workingman and His Home," Architectural Record 44 (October 1918): 305; Ruth Ogden, "The National Aspect of This City's Housing Problems," Bridgeport Post, February 24, 1918. Two excellent studies on labor unrest in Bridgeport and the transformation of work are Cecelia Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition: Munitions Workers in Bridgeport, Connecticut, 1915-19," in Herbert G. Gutman and Donald H. Bell, eds., The New England Working Class and the New Labor History (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1987); and the study by David Montgomery, "Whose Standards? Workers and the Reorganization of Production in the United States, 1900-20," in Montgomery's Workers' Control in America (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979).
90. By the outset of the war, labor turnover rates at Remington Arms Co. were approximately 88 percent, the lowest in the district. Most manufacturing plants experienced turnover rates ranging from 200 percent to 400 percent, and one company holding large government contracts was operating with a labor turnover of 50 percent per month or 600 percent a year. The "housing shortage" was seen as the major "cause of the high turnover" and rise in "crime" in Bridgeport. Report of the United States Housing Corporation (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920), 1:2, 5, 10-11; 2:120.
91. By the outset of the war, labor turnover rates at Remington Arms Co. were approximately 88 percent, the lowest in the district. Most manufacturing plants experienced turnover rates ranging from 200 percent to 400 percent, and one company holding large government contracts was operating with a labor turnover of 50 percent per month or 600 percent a year. The "housing shortage" was seen as the major "cause of the high turnover" and rise in "crime" in Bridgeport. Report of the United States Housing Corporation (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920), 1:2, 5, 10-11; 2:120.
92. The officers of the Bridgeport Housing Company were H. H. DeLoss, president; George M. Eames, vice president; Charles G. Sanford, treasurer; George Gove, secretary; William H. Ham, general manager. The directors included, among others, Edgar W. Bassick, president of Bassick Co; N. W. Bishop, president B. D. Pierce Jr. Co.; Waldo C. Bryant, president Bryant Electric Co.; George E. Crawford, president of Bridgeport Chamber of Commerce; H. H. DeLoss, vice president of Handy & Harman; George M. Eames, manager Singer Mfg. Co.; George C. Edwards, vice president International Silver Co.; William H. Ham, general manager Bridgeport Housing Company; H. H. Hamilton, president Hamilton & DeLoss Co.; John T. King, president King Machine Co.; Frederick Kingsbury, president Bridgeport Brass Co.; Walter B. Lashar, president American Chain Co; James G. Ludlum, manager International Silver Co.; and H. H. Pinney, former manager of Remington Arms Co. "Bridgeport Housing Company, Directors," U.S. Housing Corporation, National Archives, RG 3, Box 640; W. E. Freeland, "The Housing Problem: What the Owner of a City Factory Can Do and the One with Limited Capital - An Answer from a Bridgeport Text," The Iron Age 101, no. 12 (March 21, 1918): 729. Stock holders included American Chain Co., American Tube & Stamping Co., Automatic Machine Co., A. Shear Co., A Max Machine Co., Armstrong Mfg. Co., Arson P. P., Bridgeport Hydraulic Co., Bridgeport Brass Co., Bridgeport Gas Light Co., Bridgeport Metal Goods Co., Bryant Electric Co., Bullard Machine Tool Co., B. Ribbon Body Co., Can Machine Tool Co., George E. Crawford, CCA Electric Mfg. Co., Couter & McKenzie Machine Co., Challenge Cutlery Co., Columbia Graphophone Co., D. Dillon, Davis & Hawley, Electric Cable Co., G. W. Fairchild & Son, E. L. Fletcher, S. E. Goodsell, Handy & Harman, Howland Dry Goods Co., Harvey Hubbell, W. P. Hindle, International Silver Co., Locomobile of America, Lordship Park Association, W. B. Lashar, MacKenzie Bros. Co., D. M. Read Co., Raybestos Co., Singer Mfg. Co., Smith Murray Co., W. B. Spencer, United Illuminating Co., Vincent Bros., Warner Bros., Wheeler & Howes Co., and the Whiting Mfg. Co. "Subscribers to Capital Stock of the Bridgeport Housing Company, as of December 15, 1918," U.S. Housing Corporation, National Archives, RG 3, Box 640. Stockholders voluntarily limited their dividends to 6 percent, "thereby eliminating any tinge of profiteering."
93. The officers of the Bridgeport Housing Company were H. H. DeLoss, president; George M. Eames, vice president; Charles G. Sanford, treasurer; George Gove, secretary; William H. Ham, general manager. The directors included, among others, Edgar W. Bassick, president of Bassick Co; N. W. Bishop, president B. D. Pierce Jr. Co.; Waldo C. Bryant, president Bryant Electric Co.; George E. Crawford, president of Bridgeport Chamber of Commerce; H. H. DeLoss, vice president of Handy & Harman; George M. Eames, manager Singer Mfg. Co.; George C. Edwards, vice president International Silver Co.; William H. Ham, general manager Bridgeport Housing Company; H. H. Hamilton, president Hamilton & DeLoss Co.; John T. King, president King Machine Co.; Frederick Kingsbury, president Bridgeport Brass Co.; Walter B. Lashar, president American Chain Co; James G. Ludlum, manager International Silver Co.; and H. H. Pinney, former manager of Remington Arms Co. "Bridgeport Housing Company, Directors," U.S. Housing Corporation, National Archives, RG 3, Box 640; W. E. Freeland, "The Housing Problem: What the Owner of a City Factory Can Do and the One with Limited Capital - An Answer from a Bridgeport Text," The Iron Age 101, no. 12 (March 21, 1918): 729. Stock holders included American Chain Co., American Tube & Stamping Co., Automatic Machine Co., A. Shear Co., A Max Machine Co., Armstrong Mfg. Co., Arson P. P., Bridgeport Hydraulic Co., Bridgeport Brass Co., Bridgeport Gas Light Co., Bridgeport Metal Goods Co., Bryant Electric Co., Bullard Machine Tool Co., B. Ribbon Body Co., Can Machine Tool Co., George E. Crawford, CCA Electric Mfg. Co., Couter & McKenzie Machine Co., Challenge Cutlery Co., Columbia Graphophone Co., D. Dillon, Davis & Hawley, Electric Cable Co., G. W. Fairchild & Son, E. L. Fletcher, S. E. Goodsell, Handy & Harman, Howland Dry Goods Co., Harvey Hubbell, W. P. Hindle, International Silver Co., Locomobile of America, Lordship Park Association, W. B. Lashar, MacKenzie Bros. Co., D. M. Read Co., Raybestos Co., Singer Mfg. Co., Smith Murray Co., W. B. Spencer, United Illuminating Co., Vincent Bros., Warner Bros., Wheeler & Howes Co., and the Whiting Mfg. Co. "Subscribers to Capital Stock of the Bridgeport Housing Company, as of December 15, 1918," U.S. Housing Corporation, National Archives, RG 3, Box 640. Stockholders voluntarily limited their dividends to 6 percent, "thereby eliminating any tinge of profiteering."
94. The officers of the Bridgeport Housing Company were H. H. DeLoss, president; George M. Eames, vice president; Charles G. Sanford, treasurer; George Gove, secretary; William H. Ham, general manager. The directors included, among others, Edgar W. Bassick, president of Bassick Co; N. W. Bishop, president B. D. Pierce Jr. Co.; Waldo C. Bryant, president Bryant Electric Co.; George E. Crawford, president of Bridgeport Chamber of Commerce; H. H. DeLoss, vice president of Handy & Harman; George M. Eames, manager Singer Mfg. Co.; George C. Edwards, vice president International Silver Co.; William H. Ham, general manager Bridgeport Housing Company; H. H. Hamilton, president Hamilton & DeLoss Co.; John T. King, president King Machine Co.; Frederick Kingsbury, president Bridgeport Brass Co.; Walter B. Lashar, president American Chain Co; James G. Ludlum, manager International Silver Co.; and H. H. Pinney, former manager of Remington Arms Co. "Bridgeport Housing Company, Directors," U.S. Housing Corporation, National Archives, RG 3, Box 640; W. E. Freeland, "The Housing Problem: What the Owner of a City Factory Can Do and the One with Limited Capital - An Answer from a Bridgeport Text," The Iron Age 101, no. 12 (March 21, 1918): 729. Stock holders included American Chain Co., American Tube & Stamping Co., Automatic Machine Co., A. Shear Co., A Max Machine Co., Armstrong Mfg. Co., Arson P. P., Bridgeport Hydraulic Co., Bridgeport Brass Co., Bridgeport Gas Light Co., Bridgeport Metal Goods Co., Bryant Electric Co., Bullard Machine Tool Co., B. Ribbon Body Co., Can Machine Tool Co., George E. Crawford, CCA Electric Mfg. Co., Couter & McKenzie Machine Co., Challenge Cutlery Co., Columbia Graphophone Co., D. Dillon, Davis & Hawley, Electric Cable Co., G. W. Fairchild & Son, E. L. Fletcher, S. E. Goodsell, Handy & Harman, Howland Dry Goods Co., Harvey Hubbell, W. P. Hindle, International Silver Co., Locomobile of America, Lordship Park Association, W. B. Lashar, MacKenzie Bros. Co., D. M. Read Co., Raybestos Co., Singer Mfg. Co., Smith Murray Co., W. B. Spencer, United Illuminating Co., Vincent Bros., Warner Bros., Wheeler & Howes Co., and the Whiting Mfg. Co. "Subscribers to Capital Stock of the Bridgeport Housing Company, as of December 15, 1918," U.S. Housing Corporation, National Archives, RG 3, Box 640. Stockholders voluntarily limited their dividends to 6 percent, "thereby eliminating any tinge of profiteering."
95. Bridgeport Post, August 31, 1915, 1; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition"; Montgomery, "Whose Standards?"; Thomas Banit, "The War Machine: Bridgeport 1914-1918" (Master's thesis, University of Bridgeport, May 1973); WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with male industrial worker, "Bridgeport during the War," by M. G. Sayers, n.d., CSL RG 33.
96. Bridgeport Post, August 31, 1915, 1; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition"; Montgomery, "Whose Standards?"; Thomas Banit, "The War Machine: Bridgeport 1914-1918" (Master's thesis, University of Bridgeport, May 1973); WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with male industrial worker, "Bridgeport during the War," by M. G. Sayers, n.d., CSL RG 33.
97. Bridgeport Post, August 31, 1915, 1; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition"; Montgomery, "Whose Standards?"; Thomas Banit, "The War Machine: Bridgeport 1914-1918" (Master's thesis, University of Bridgeport, May 1973); WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with male industrial worker, "Bridgeport during the War," by M. G. Sayers, n.d., CSL RG 33.
98. Bridgeport Post, August 31, 1915, 1; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition"; Montgomery, "Whose Standards?"; Thomas Banit, "The War Machine: Bridgeport 1914-1918" (Master's thesis, University of Bridgeport, May 1973); WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with male industrial worker, "Bridgeport during the War," by M. G. Sayers, n.d., CSL RG 33.
99. Bridgeport Post, August 31, 1915, 1; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition"; Montgomery, "Whose Standards?"; Thomas Banit, "The War Machine: Bridgeport 1914-1918" (Master's thesis, University of Bridgeport, May 1973); WPA Federal Writers' Project, Interview with male industrial worker, "Bridgeport during the War," by M. G. Sayers, n.d., CSL RG 33.
100. Banit, "The War Machine," 55-7; Bridgeport Post, June 19, 1916; June 20, 1916; July 5, 1916; August 7, 1916; October 9, 1916; February 16, 1917; Hatch, Remington Arms, 221.
101. Banit, "The War Machine," 55-7; Bridgeport Post, June 19, 1916; June 20, 1916; July 5, 1916; August 7, 1916; October 9, 1916; February 16, 1917; Hatch, Remington Arms, 221.
102. Banit, "The War Machine," 55-7; Bridgeport Post, June 19, 1916; June 20, 1916; July 5, 1916; August 7, 1916; October 9, 1916; February 16, 1917; Hatch, Remington Arms, 221.
103. U.S. War Department, Letter for the Secretary of War Transmitting . . . Reports on the Preliminary Examination and Survey of Bridgeport Harbor (Washington, DC: Government Printing, 1914).
104. Banit, "The War Machine," 59-68; Bridgeport Post, February 3, 1917; February 5,1917; February 9, 1917; February 16, 1917; March 3, 1917; March 9, 1917; March 16, 1917; March 24, 1917; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition," 116.
105. Banit, "The War Machine," 59-68; Bridgeport Post, February 3, 1917; February 5,1917; February 9, 1917; February 16, 1917; March 3, 1917; March 9, 1917; March 16, 1917; March 24, 1917; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition," 116.
106. Banit, "The War Machine," 59-68; Bridgeport Post, February 3, 1917; February 5,1917; February 9, 1917; February 16, 1917; March 3, 1917; March 9, 1917; March 16, 1917; March 24, 1917; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition," 116.
107. From World War I photograph taken by Corbit Studies in collection at BPL.
108. Banit, "The War Machine," 103-4.
109. Bulletins of the Manufacturers' Association, no. 1424, April 28, 1917 and no. 1427, May 18, 1917, Records of the Manufacturers' Association Bulletins, BPL, 746:2:1; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the World War (1916-1919)," "Growth of Bridgeport," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2, CSL, RG 33; Bridgeport Post, May 8, 1917 and April 12, 1917; U.S. Bureau of the Census 1910 and 1920; Banit, "The War Machine," 107.
110. Bulletins of the Manufacturers' Association, no. 1424, April 28, 1917 and no. 1427, May 18, 1917, Records of the Manufacturers' Association Bulletins, BPL, 746:2:1; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the World War (1916-1919)," "Growth of Bridgeport," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2, CSL, RG 33; Bridgeport Post, May 8, 1917 and April 12, 1917; U.S. Bureau of the Census 1910 and 1920; Banit, "The War Machine," 107.
111. Bulletins of the Manufacturers' Association, no. 1424, April 28, 1917 and no. 1427, May 18, 1917, Records of the Manufacturers' Association Bulletins, BPL, 746:2:1; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the World War (1916-1919)," "Growth of Bridgeport," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2, CSL, RG 33; Bridgeport Post, May 8, 1917 and April 12, 1917; U.S. Bureau of the Census 1910 and 1920; Banit, "The War Machine," 107.
112. Bulletins of the Manufacturers' Association, no. 1424, April 28, 1917 and no. 1427, May 18, 1917, Records of the Manufacturers' Association Bulletins, BPL, 746:2:1; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the World War (1916-1919)," "Growth of Bridgeport," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2, CSL, RG 33; Bridgeport Post, May 8, 1917 and April 12, 1917; U.S. Bureau of the Census 1910 and 1920; Banit, "The War Machine," 107.
113. Bulletins of the Manufacturers' Association, no. 1424, April 28, 1917 and no. 1427, May 18, 1917, Records of the Manufacturers' Association Bulletins, BPL, 746:2:1; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the World War (1916-1919)," "Growth of Bridgeport," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2, CSL, RG 33; Bridgeport Post, May 8, 1917 and April 12, 1917; U.S. Bureau of the Census 1910 and 1920; Banit, "The War Machine," 107.
114. Bulletins of the Manufacturers' Association, no. 1424, April 28, 1917 and no. 1427, May 18, 1917, Records of the Manufacturers' Association Bulletins, BPL, 746:2:1; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the World War (1916-1919)," "Growth of Bridgeport," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2, CSL, RG 33; Bridgeport Post, May 8, 1917 and April 12, 1917; U.S. Bureau of the Census 1910 and 1920; Banit, "The War Machine," 107.
115. Bulletins of the Manufacturers' Association, no. 1424, April 28, 1917 and no. 1427, May 18, 1917, Records of the Manufacturers' Association Bulletins, BPL, 746:2:1; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the World War (1916-1919)," "Growth of Bridgeport," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2, CSL, RG 33; Bridgeport Post, May 8, 1917 and April 12, 1917; U.S. Bureau of the Census 1910 and 1920; Banit, "The War Machine," 107.
116. Bulletins of the Manufacturers' Association, no. 1424, April 28, 1917 and no. 1427, May 18, 1917, Records of the Manufacturers' Association Bulletins, BPL, 746:2:1; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the World War (1916-1919)," "Growth of Bridgeport," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2, CSL, RG 33; Bridgeport Post, May 8, 1917 and April 12, 1917; U.S. Bureau of the Census 1910 and 1920; Banit, "The War Machine," 107.
117. Bridgeport Post, June 30, 1918.
118. Banit, "The War Machine," 108-10; Bridgeport Post, April 16, 1917; April 25, 1917; June 20, 1918; July 7, 1918; July 17, 1918; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "World War Period Working Conditions," "Growth of Bridgeport," John P. Driscoll, April 14, 1939, 4, CSL RG 33.
119. Banit, "The War Machine," 108-10; Bridgeport Post, April 16, 1917; April 25, 1917; June 20, 1918; July 7, 1918; July 17, 1918; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "World War Period Working Conditions," "Growth of Bridgeport," John P. Driscoll, April 14, 1939, 4, CSL RG 33.
120. Banit, "The War Machine," 108-10; Bridgeport Post, April 16, 1917; April 25, 1917; June 20, 1918; July 7, 1918; July 17, 1918; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "World War Period Working Conditions," "Growth of Bridgeport," John P. Driscoll, April 14, 1939, 4, CSL RG 33.
121. Banit, "The War Machine," 108-10; Bridgeport Post, April 16, 1917; April 25, 1917; June 20, 1918; July 7, 1918; July 17, 1918; WPA Federal Writers' Project, "World War Period Working Conditions," "Growth of Bridgeport," John P. Driscoll, April 14, 1939, 4, CSL RG 33.
122. Banit, "The War Machine," 78-81; Jasper McLevy Personal Papers, Socialist Party Meeting Minutes, February 17, 1917; February 24, 1917; April 24, 1917; Bridgeport Post, March 16, 1917.
123. Banit, "The War Machine," 78-81; Jasper McLevy Personal Papers, Socialist Party Meeting Minutes, February 17, 1917; February 24, 1917; April 24, 1917; Bridgeport Post, March 16, 1917.
124. Banit, "The War Machine," 78-81; Jasper McLevy Personal Papers, Socialist Party Meeting Minutes, February 17, 1917; February 24, 1917; April 24, 1917; Bridgeport Post, March 16, 1917.
125. WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the War (1916-1919), Labor Year 1917," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2; Banit, "The War Machine," 118; Bridgeport Post, June 4, 1917; May 21, 1918.
126. WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the War (1916-1919), Labor Year 1917," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2; Banit, "The War Machine," 118; Bridgeport Post, June 4, 1917; May 21, 1918.
127. WPA Federal Writers' Project, "Bridgeport during the War (1916-1919), Labor Year 1917," M. G. Sayers, February 7, 1939, 2; Banit, "The War Machine," 118; Bridgeport Post, June 4, 1917; May 21, 1918.
128. According to Cecelia Bucki, the reason given for the formation of the Scandinavian Lodge was the success of a recently formed Swedish local of the Carpenters Union and the presence of numerous skilled Swedish machinists. While Bucki could find no evidence explaining the creation of a Polish Lodge, she argued, and correctly so, that it reflected the ethnic diversity of the group that the IAM sought to organize. Membership in the ethnic lodges remained relatively low, estimated at less than a hundred members each, primarily composed of skilled machinists rather than production workers. No evidence exists as to the exact ethnic composition of the munitions workforce, although the city itself was made up of 75 percent foreign-born persons or the children of foreign-born parents.
129. This notion of "free spaces" comes from the work of Sara Evans and Harry Boyt, who argue that in order for social protest movements to survive and thrive, there is a need for free spaces where an oppositional culture can take root. See Sara Evans and Harry C. Boyt, Free Spaces: The Sources of Democratic Change in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1986).
130. Montgomery, "Whose Standards?," 130-31; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition," 115-19; Ella Reeve Bloor, We Are Many, 146-48.
131. Montgomery, "Whose Standards?," 130-31; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition," 115-19; Ella Reeve Bloor, We Are Many, 146-48.
132. Montgomery, "Whose Standards?," 130-31; Bucki, "Dilution and Craft Tradition," 115-19; Ella Reeve Bloor, We Are Many, 146-48.
133. Montgomery, "Whose Standards?," 131-32.
134. William Ham, "Lessons from Housing Work in Bridgeport," Housing Problems in America (National Housing Association Conference 8, 1920), 114; Miles L. Colean, Housing for Defense: A Review of the Role of Housing in Relation to America 's Defense and a Program for Action (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 1940).
135. William Ham, "Lessons from Housing Work in Bridgeport," Housing Problems in America (National Housing Association Conference 8, 1920), 114; Miles L. Colean, Housing for Defense: A Review of the Role of Housing in Relation to America 's Defense and a Program for Action (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 1940).
136. Only 11 percent of the workers in the city owned their own homes and many workers were "unwilling to become home owners."
137. John Hancock, "John Nolen: The Background of a Pioneer Planner," in Krueckeberg, ed., The American Planner, 37-57; John Nolen, A Good Home for Every Wage Earner (Washington, DC: American Civic Association Committee on Country Planning, April 1917), ser. 2, no. 9, 7; Nolen, More Houses, 9-10, 18. National Housing Association, A Symposium, 51. Bridgeport did not adopt a comprehensive zoning plan until 1926, at which time it followed many of Nolen's suggestions.
138. John Hancock, "John Nolen: The Background of a Pioneer Planner," in Krueckeberg, ed., The American Planner, 37-57; John Nolen, A Good Home for Every Wage Earner (Washington, DC: American Civic Association Committee on Country Planning, April 1917), ser. 2, no. 9, 7; Nolen, More Houses, 9-10, 18. National Housing Association, A Symposium, 51. Bridgeport did not adopt a comprehensive zoning plan until 1926, at which time it followed many of Nolen's suggestions.
139. John Hancock, "John Nolen: The Background of a Pioneer Planner," in Krueckeberg, ed., The American Planner, 37-57; John Nolen, A Good Home for Every Wage Earner (Washington, DC: American Civic Association Committee on Country Planning, April 1917), ser. 2, no. 9, 7; Nolen, More Houses, 9-10, 18. National Housing Association, A Symposium, 51. Bridgeport did not adopt a comprehensive zoning plan until 1926, at which time it followed many of Nolen's suggestions.
140. John Hancock, "John Nolen: The Background of a Pioneer Planner," in Krueckeberg, ed., The American Planner, 37-57; John Nolen, A Good Home for Every Wage Earner (Washington, DC: American Civic Association Committee on Country Planning, April 1917), ser. 2, no. 9, 7; Nolen, More Houses, 9-10, 18. National Housing Association, A Symposium, 51. Bridgeport did not adopt a comprehensive zoning plan until 1926, at which time it followed many of Nolen's suggestions.
141. According to a report by Lynne K. Lewis for the U.S. Housing Corporation, this theory "is not working out in practice" because of the "constant stream of new workers of all classes, and the skilled mechanics, being well paid and willing to pay liberally for comfortable accommodations, have forced up practically all the rents of the city to a very high level, working a hardship on the unskilled laborers." The failure to provide housing for "the poorer foreign element " meant "they concentrate in the older sections of the city, where they live in uncomfortable and dirty quarters that are conducive to unsanitary and unhygienic conditions." Report of the United States Housing Corporation, vol. 1, 281.
142. Perry R. MacNeille, What Types of Houses to Build (New York: National Housing Association Publications, June 1917), no. 37, 5; John Nolen, The Industrial Village, 2d ed. (New York: National Housing Association Publications, 1919), no. 50, 1; Nolen, More Houses, 18-23.
143. Perry R. MacNeille, What Types of Houses to Build (New York: National Housing Association Publications, June 1917), no. 37, 5; John Nolen, The Industrial Village, 2d ed. (New York: National Housing Association Publications, 1919), no. 50, 1; Nolen, More Houses, 18-23.
144. Perry R. MacNeille, What Types of Houses to Build (New York: National Housing Association Publications, June 1917), no. 37, 5; John Nolen, The Industrial Village, 2d ed. (New York: National Housing Association Publications, 1919), no. 50, 1; Nolen, More Houses, 18-23.
145. Sylvester Baxter, "The Government Housing at Bridgeport, Connecticut," Architectural Record, 45 (February 1918): 124-31.
146. Housing Problems in America (National Housing Conference 6, 1917), 45; Freeland, "The Housing Problem," 731; Baxter, "The Government Housing," 133-34.
147. Housing Problems in America (National Housing Conference 6, 1917), 45; Freeland, "The Housing Problem," 731; Baxter, "The Government Housing," 133-34.
148. Housing Problems in America (National Housing Conference 6, 1917), 45; Freeland, "The Housing Problem," 731; Baxter, "The Government Housing," 133-34.
149. Report of the United States Housing Corporation (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920), 2:121-24.
150. Baxter, "The Government Housing," 138, 140.
151. Leslie H. Allen, Industrial Housing Problems (Boston: Aberthaw Construction Company, 1917), 30. The U.S. Housing Corporation drew up an elaborate list of rules for residents of their houses, governing everything from the level of water in laundry tubs to proper use of adjacent playgrounds, correct techniques for hanging picture hooks, unstopping toilets, and the adamant restriction against the posting of signs in windows without approval. They also maintained the unequivocal right to inspect premises. "Rules for Apartment Houses," April 16, 1919, National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 639. According to Ham, "a very thorough inspection of the houses after the tenants have lived in them for a month or two has been made and very few exceptions have been found to the general high average of the homes." "Especial [sic] Report of Operation of Government Property at Bridgeport, Conn., Project no. 102," National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 640.
152. Leslie H. Allen, Industrial Housing Problems (Boston: Aberthaw Construction Company, 1917), 30. The U.S. Housing Corporation drew up an elaborate list of rules for residents of their houses, governing everything from the level of water in laundry tubs to proper use of adjacent playgrounds, correct techniques for hanging picture hooks, unstopping toilets, and the adamant restriction against the posting of signs in windows without approval. They also maintained the unequivocal right to inspect premises. "Rules for Apartment Houses," April 16, 1919, National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 639. According to Ham, "a very thorough inspection of the houses after the tenants have lived in them for a month or two has been made and very few exceptions have been found to the general high average of the homes." "Especial [sic] Report of Operation of Government Property at Bridgeport, Conn., Project no. 102," National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 640.
153. Leslie H. Allen, Industrial Housing Problems (Boston: Aberthaw Construction Company, 1917), 30. The U.S. Housing Corporation drew up an elaborate list of rules for residents of their houses, governing everything from the level of water in laundry tubs to proper use of adjacent playgrounds, correct techniques for hanging picture hooks, unstopping toilets, and the adamant restriction against the posting of signs in windows without approval. They also maintained the unequivocal right to inspect premises. "Rules for Apartment Houses," April 16, 1919, National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 639. According to Ham, "a very thorough inspection of the houses after the tenants have lived in them for a month or two has been made and very few exceptions have been found to the general high average of the homes." "Especial [sic] Report of Operation of Government Property at Bridgeport, Conn., Project no. 102," National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 640.
154. Bridgeport Post, May 29, 1918; June 10, 1918; July 9, 1918; July 6, 1918; July 13, 1918; June 12, 1918.
155. Charlotte Molyneux Holloway, Report of the Department of Labor on the Conditions of Wage-Earners in the State (Hartford, 1922), 7-10.
156. Bruce B. Shubert, "The Palmer Raids in Connecticut: 1919-1920," Connecticut Review, 5, no. 1 (1971): 53-69.
157. William Ham, "Lessons from Housing Work in Bridgeport," Housing Problems in America (National Housing Association Conference 8, 1920), 114; Colean, Housing for Defense.
158. William Ham, "Lessons from Housing Work in Bridgeport," Housing Problems in America (National Housing Association Conference 8, 1920), 114; Colean, Housing for Defense.
159. National Housing Association, A Symposium on War Housing (Philadelphia, February 25, 1918), 51.
160. "Especial [sic] Report of Operation of Government Property at Bridgeport, Conn., Project no. 102," National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 640.
161. Housing officials had clear ideas of what constituted "American" and "foreign" characteristics of housing behavior. Upon completion of the houses, officials in Washington received a report that "a tenant located on one of our projects was keeping chickens in the cellar," and they assumed the tenants "were not American citizens" and ordered their eviction, along with the chickens. William Ham, Bridgeport Housing Director, replied that the tenants were all Americans and the chicken problem, requiring "a good deal of patience," was the product of a few native-born "neighbors" of the housing project who "have apparently a good many chickens who run at large . . . enjoying themselves on our property." U.S. Housing Corporation, Letters: Willard Howe to W. H. Ham, April 22, 1919; W. H. Ham to Willard Howe, April 25, 1919, National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 640.
162. "Especial [sic] Report of Operation of Government Property at Bridgeport, Conn., Project no. 102," National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 640.
163. Report of the United States Housing Corporation (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1920), 1:279-81.
164. Ibid.; Letter W. H. Ham to Willard Howe, June 11, 1919, National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 639; National Housing Association, A Symposium, 34-5.
165. Ibid.; Letter W. H. Ham to Willard Howe, June 11, 1919, National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 639; National Housing Association, A Symposium, 34-5.
166. Ibid.; Letter W. H. Ham to Willard Howe, June 11, 1919, National Archives, U.S. Housing Corporation, RG 3, Box 639; National Housing Association, A Symposium, 34-5.
167. Letters, Willard Howe to W. H. Ham, June 20, 1919; Helen L. Boyd, Superintendent Visiting Nurses Association to U.S. Housing Corporation, June 27, 1919; C. H. Hawthorne, the Hawthorne Company to U.S. Department of Labor, Housing Division, June 30, 1919; Ham to Howe, June 13, 1919, National Archives, RG 3, U.S. Housing Corporation, Box 640; Tho. Shallcross to Willard Howe, June 21, 1919, National Archives, RG 3, U.S. Housing Corporation, Box 639.
168. W. H. Ham to Willard Howe, June 14, 1919 and July 28, 1919, National Archives, RG 3, U.S. Housing Corporation, Box 639.
169. Letters Ham to Howe, July 23, 1919, National Archives, RG 3, U.S. Housing Corporation, Box 640; Ham to Howe, August 18, 1919, National Archives, RG 3, U.S. Housing Corporation, Box 639; To the Clergymen of Bridgeport, June 18, 1919; To the School Teachers of Bridgeport, June 18, 1919; letter to newly married people, June 17, 1919; to the Manufacturers of Bridgeport, June 17, 1919, National Archives, RG 3, U.S. Housing Corporation, Box 640.
170. Willard Howe to W. H. Ham, April 28, 1919, National Archives, RG 3, U.S. Housing Corporation, Box 640.
171. The Remington Arms Company also sought assurances from the U.S. Housing Corporation that the housing projected erected in the Old Mill Green area, because of its proximity to the Remington plant, be "used exclusively for the employees" of the Remington Arms. They also hoped that these "particular houses . . . be under the jurisdiction of the Company to whose employees they are rented," but the government refused to grant such jurisdiction to "avoid complications." Letter Remington Arms Union Metallic Cartridge Company, Real Estate Department to Allen H. Robinson, Operating Division, U.S. Housing Corporation, National Archives, RG 3, U.S. Housing Corporation, Box 639.
172. It is difficult to gauge the exact status of Bridgeport's growing clerical workforce and interesting to note that the IAM was organizing secretaries and clerks at Remington during the war. Samuel Lavit stated at one union meeting in September 1918 that he had the "white-collar brigade" organized. National Archives, Military Intelligence Division, Plant Protection, Reports on Labor Problems, Box 1, Bridgeport, September 30, 1918.
173. WPA-CT, Mrs. X interview by Pauli K. Russo, n.d.