Explaining different paths of democratization: The Czech and Slovak Republics

Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 63-84

  Kopecký, Petr ^a   Mudde, Cas ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; DEMOCRATIZATION; INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON; POLITICAL CHANGE;

CZECH REPUBLIC; SLOVAKIA;

EID: 0033788292     PISSN: 13523279     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13523270008415441     Document Type: Article

References (118)

1. For some of the many explanations of the 'velvet divorce', see Sabrina Petra Ramet, 'The Reemergence of Slovakia', Nationalities Papers, Vol.22, No. 1 (1994), pp.99-117; Sharon L. Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.8, No.1 (1994), pp.153-88; Jir̀í Musil (ed.). The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest: CEU Press 1996); Otto Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce', East European Quarterly, Vol.30, No.3 (1996), pp.331-52; Petr Kopecký, 'From "Velvet Revolution" to "Velvet Split"', in Michael Kraus and Allisan K. Stranger (eds.), Irreconcilable Differences?: Explaining the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); Paal Sigurd Hilde, 'Slovak Nationalism and the Break-Up of Czechoslovakia', Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.51, No.4 (1999), pp.647-65.
2. For some of the many explanations of the 'velvet divorce', see Sabrina Petra Ramet, 'The Reemergence of Slovakia', Nationalities Papers, Vol.22, No. 1 (1994), pp.99-117; Sharon L. Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.8, No.1 (1994), pp.153-88; Jir̀í Musil (ed.). The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest: CEU Press 1996); Otto Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce', East European Quarterly, Vol.30, No.3 (1996), pp.331-52; Petr Kopecký, 'From "Velvet Revolution" to "Velvet Split"', in Michael Kraus and Allisan K. Stranger (eds.), Irreconcilable Differences?: Explaining the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); Paal Sigurd Hilde, 'Slovak Nationalism and the Break-Up of Czechoslovakia', Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.51, No.4 (1999), pp.647-65.
3. For some of the many explanations of the 'velvet divorce', see Sabrina Petra Ramet, 'The Reemergence of Slovakia', Nationalities Papers, Vol.22, No. 1 (1994), pp.99-117; Sharon L. Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.8, No.1 (1994), pp.153-88; Jir̀í Musil (ed.). The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest: CEU Press 1996); Otto Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce', East European Quarterly, Vol.30, No.3 (1996), pp.331-52; Petr Kopecký, 'From "Velvet Revolution" to "Velvet Split"', in Michael Kraus and Allisan K. Stranger (eds.), Irreconcilable Differences?: Explaining the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); Paal Sigurd Hilde, 'Slovak Nationalism and the Break-Up of Czechoslovakia', Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.51, No.4 (1999), pp.647-65.
4. For some of the many explanations of the 'velvet divorce', see Sabrina Petra Ramet, 'The Reemergence of Slovakia', Nationalities Papers, Vol.22, No. 1 (1994), pp.99-117; Sharon L. Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.8, No.1 (1994), pp.153-88; Jir̀í Musil (ed.). The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest: CEU Press 1996); Otto Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce', East European Quarterly, Vol.30, No.3 (1996), pp.331-52; Petr Kopecký, 'From "Velvet Revolution" to "Velvet Split"', in Michael Kraus and Allisan K. Stranger (eds.), Irreconcilable Differences?: Explaining the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); Paal Sigurd Hilde, 'Slovak Nationalism and the Break-Up of Czechoslovakia', Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.51, No.4 (1999), pp.647-65.
5. For some of the many explanations of the 'velvet divorce', see Sabrina Petra Ramet, 'The Reemergence of Slovakia', Nationalities Papers, Vol.22, No. 1 (1994), pp.99-117; Sharon L. Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.8, No.1 (1994), pp.153-88; Jir̀í Musil (ed.). The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest: CEU Press 1996); Otto Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce', East European Quarterly, Vol.30, No.3 (1996), pp.331-52; Petr Kopecký, 'From "Velvet Revolution" to "Velvet Split"', in Michael Kraus and Allisan K. Stranger (eds.), Irreconcilable Differences?: Explaining the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); Paal Sigurd Hilde, 'Slovak Nationalism and the Break-Up of Czechoslovakia', Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.51, No.4 (1999), pp.647-65.
6. For some of the many explanations of the 'velvet divorce', see Sabrina Petra Ramet, 'The Reemergence of Slovakia', Nationalities Papers, Vol.22, No. 1 (1994), pp.99-117; Sharon L. Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity in Post-Communist Czechoslovakia', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.8, No.1 (1994), pp.153-88; Jir̀í Musil (ed.). The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest: CEU Press 1996); Otto Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce', East European Quarterly, Vol.30, No.3 (1996), pp.331-52; Petr Kopecký, 'From "Velvet Revolution" to "Velvet Split"', in Michael Kraus and Allisan K. Stranger (eds.), Irreconcilable Differences?: Explaining the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000); Paal Sigurd Hilde, 'Slovak Nationalism and the Break-Up of Czechoslovakia', Europe-Asia Studies, Vol.51, No.4 (1999), pp.647-65.
7. For an account on the more recent developments in Czech politics, see Radim Marada, 'The 1998 Czech Elections', East European Constitutional Review, Vol.7, No.4 (1998), pp.51-8; Steven Saxonberg, 'A New Phase in Czech Politics', Journal of Democracy, Vol.25, No.2 (1999), pp.80-94.
8. For an account on the more recent developments in Czech politics, see Radim Marada, 'The 1998 Czech Elections', East European Constitutional Review, Vol.7, No.4 (1998), pp.51-8; Steven Saxonberg, 'A New Phase in Czech Politics', Journal of Democracy, Vol.25, No.2 (1999), pp.80-94.
9. Raymond D. Gastil (ed.), Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties. 1993-1994 (New York: Freedom House, 1994).
10. Adrian Karatnycky, 'Freedom on the March', Freedom Review, Vol.28, No.1 (1997), pp.5-29.
11. Michael Carpenter, 'Slovakia and the Triumph of Nationalist Populism', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol.30, No.2 (1997), 205-20.
12. Fareed Zakaria, 'The Rise of Illiberal Democracies', Foreign Affairs, Vol.76, No.6 (1997), pp.25-43.
13. Paul G. Lewis, 'Theories of Democratization and Patterns of Regime Change in Eastern Europe', Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, Vol.13, No.1 (1997), pp.4-26.
14. Grzegorz Ekiert, 'Ten Years After: An Optimistic View', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.13, No.2 (1999), pp.278-84. For more detailed (and positive) accounts on developments in post-Mečiar Slovakia, see Martin Bútora and Zora Bútorová, 'Slovakia's Democratic Awakening', Journal of Democracy, Vol.25, No.2 (1999), pp.96-110; Martin Porubjak, 'Anfang einer liberalen Demokratie in der Slowakei?', Europäische Rundschau, Vol.27, No.1 (1999), pp.81-93.
15. Grzegorz Ekiert, 'Ten Years After: An Optimistic View', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.13, No.2 (1999), pp.278-84. For more detailed (and positive) accounts on developments in post-Mečiar Slovakia, see Martin Bútora and Zora Bútorová, 'Slovakia's Democratic Awakening', Journal of Democracy, Vol.25, No.2 (1999), pp.96-110; Martin Porubjak, 'Anfang einer liberalen Demokratie in der Slowakei?', Europäische Rundschau, Vol.27, No.1 (1999), pp.81-93.
16. Grzegorz Ekiert, 'Ten Years After: An Optimistic View', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.13, No.2 (1999), pp.278-84. For more detailed (and positive) accounts on developments in post-Mečiar Slovakia, see Martin Bútora and Zora Bútorová, 'Slovakia's Democratic Awakening', Journal of Democracy, Vol.25, No.2 (1999), pp.96-110; Martin Porubjak, 'Anfang einer liberalen Demokratie in der Slowakei?', Europäische Rundschau, Vol.27, No.1 (1999), pp.81-93.
17. See Juan J. Linz, 'Transitions to Democracy', The Washington Quarterly, Vol.13, No.3 (1990), pp.143-69; Michael Burton, Richard Gunther and John Higley, 'Introduction: Elite Transformations and Democratic Regimes', in John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp.1-37; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), pp.57-104.
18. See Juan J. Linz, 'Transitions to Democracy', The Washington Quarterly, Vol.13, No.3 (1990), pp.143-69; Michael Burton, Richard Gunther and John Higley, 'Introduction: Elite Transformations and Democratic Regimes', in John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp.1-37; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), pp.57-104.
19. See Juan J. Linz, 'Transitions to Democracy', The Washington Quarterly, Vol.13, No.3 (1990), pp.143-69; Michael Burton, Richard Gunther and John Higley, 'Introduction: Elite Transformations and Democratic Regimes', in John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp.1-37; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992), pp.57-104.
20. See Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).
21. For example, Carol Skalnik Leff, 'Dysfunctional Democratization? Institutional Conflict in Post-Communist Slovakia', Problems of Post-Communism, Vol.43, No.5 (1996), pp.36-50; Ellen Comisso, 'Is the Glass Half Full or Half Empty? Reflections on Five Years of Competitive Politics in Eastern Europe', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol.30, No.1 (1997), pp.1-21.
22. For example, Carol Skalnik Leff, 'Dysfunctional Democratization? Institutional Conflict in Post-Communist Slovakia', Problems of Post-Communism, Vol.43, No.5 (1996), pp.36-50; Ellen Comisso, 'Is the Glass Half Full or Half Empty? Reflections on Five Years of Competitive Politics in Eastern Europe', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol.30, No.1 (1997), pp.1-21.
23. Slovakia has often been criticized and labelled an unconsolidated democracy because of the attempts of Mečiar's ruling elite to exercise an iron grip on the country's media. The changes in the personnel of the Slovak Councils for Radio and Television Broadcasting, and their replacement with people close to the ruling coalition people after the 1994 elections, received particular attention from observers. However, this should not obscure the fact that, despite all these and other attempts of various post-communists governments in Slovakia to subordinate state media to their own advantage, a good deal of freedom and independent TV, radio and press exist, and that these attempted processes at subordination or control are by no means specific to Slovakia: see Andrej Školkay, 'The Role of the Mass Media in the Post-Communist Transition of Slovakia', in Soňa Szomolányi and John A. Gould (eds.), Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation and the Struggle for the Rules of the Game (Bratislava: Slovak Political Science Association, 1998), pp.187-207; Ján Füle, 'Media', in Martin Bútora and Thomas W. Skladony (eds.), Slovakia 1996-1997: A Global Report on the State of Society (Bratislava: Institute for Public Affairs, 1998), pp.179-87.
24. Slovakia has often been criticized and labelled an unconsolidated democracy because of the attempts of Mečiar's ruling elite to exercise an iron grip on the country's media. The changes in the personnel of the Slovak Councils for Radio and Television Broadcasting, and their replacement with people close to the ruling coalition people after the 1994 elections, received particular attention from observers. However, this should not obscure the fact that, despite all these and other attempts of various post-communists governments in Slovakia to subordinate state media to their own advantage, a good deal of freedom and independent TV, radio and press exist, and that these attempted processes at subordination or control are by no means specific to Slovakia: see Andrej Školkay, 'The Role of the Mass Media in the Post-Communist Transition of Slovakia', in Soňa Szomolányi and John A. Gould (eds.), Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation and the Struggle for the Rules of the Game (Bratislava: Slovak Political Science Association, 1998), pp.187-207; Ján Füle, 'Media', in Martin Bútora and Thomas W. Skladony (eds.), Slovakia 1996-1997: A Global Report on the State of Society (Bratislava: Institute for Public Affairs, 1998), pp.179-87.
25. For details on these cases, see Petr Kopecký, Political Competition and Institutionalization of Parliaments: The Czech and Slovak Republics (Leiden: Ph.D. dissertation, 1999).
26. Soňa Szomolányi, 'Identifying Slovakia's Emerging Regime', in Szomolányi and Gould, Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation, 9-34.
27. Problems of Democratic Transition, p.10.
28. See John A. Gould and Soňa Szomolányi, 'Elite Fragmentation, Industry and Prospects for Democracy: Insights from New Elite Theory', 〈http://www.cc.columbia.edu/sec/dlc/ciao/book/gould21.html〉; Carol Skalnik Leff, The Czech and Slovak Republics: Nation versus State (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998).
29. See John A. Gould and Soňa Szomolányi, 'Elite Fragmentation, Industry and Prospects for Democracy: Insights from New Elite Theory', 〈http://www.cc.columbia.edu/sec/dlc/ciao/book/gould21.html〉; Carol Skalnik Leff, The Czech and Slovak Republics: Nation versus State (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998).
30. Such as the National Property Fund, the Supreme Control Office, the Slovak Information Service, or the public television and broadcasting.
31. A case in point is the removal of the supposedly informed investigators in the police investigations of the kidnapping of the Slovak president's son.
32. Martin Shapiro and Alec Stone, 'The New Constitutional Policies of Europe', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.26, No.4 (1994), pp.397-420.
33. See Martin Bütora and Pavol Deme, 'Nonprofit Organizations and the Non-Governmental Sector', in Bútora and Skladony, Slovakia 1996-1997, pp.189-200.
34. 'The Development of Interest Representation in Slovakia After 1989: From "Transmission Belts" to "Party-State Corporatism"', in Szomolányi and Gould, Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation, pp.93-112.
35. See Marin Leško, Mečiar a Mečiarizmus (Bratislava: VMV, 1996); Grigorij Mesežnikov, 'The Open Ended Formation of Slovakia's Party System', in Szomolányi and Gould, Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation, pp.35-56; Ivan Mikloš, 'Economic Transition and the Emergence of Clientelist Structures in Slovakia', in ibid., pp.57-92; Ivan Mikloš, 'Privatization', in Bútora and Skladony, Slovakia 1996-1997, pp.117-25.
36. See Marin Leško, Mečiar a Mečiarizmus (Bratislava: VMV, 1996); Grigorij Mesežnikov, 'The Open Ended Formation of Slovakia's Party System', in Szomolányi and Gould, Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation, pp.35-56; Ivan Mikloš, 'Economic Transition and the Emergence of Clientelist Structures in Slovakia', in ibid., pp.57-92; Ivan Mikloš, 'Privatization', in Bútora and Skladony, Slovakia 1996-1997, pp.117-25.
37. See Marin Leško, Mečiar a Mečiarizmus (Bratislava: VMV, 1996); Grigorij Mesežnikov, 'The Open Ended Formation of Slovakia's Party System', in Szomolányi and Gould, Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation, pp.35-56; Ivan Mikloš, 'Economic Transition and the Emergence of Clientelist Structures in Slovakia', in ibid., pp.57-92; Ivan Mikloš, 'Privatization', in Bútora and Skladony, Slovakia 1996-1997, pp.117-25.
38. See Marin Leško, Mečiar a Mečiarizmus (Bratislava: VMV, 1996); Grigorij Mesežnikov, 'The Open Ended Formation of Slovakia's Party System', in Szomolányi and Gould, Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation, pp.35-56; Ivan Mikloš, 'Economic Transition and the Emergence of Clientelist Structures in Slovakia', in ibid., pp.57-92; Ivan Mikloš, 'Privatization', in Bútora and Skladony, Slovakia 1996-1997, pp.117-25.
39. For some striking examples of anti-president measures of the Mečiar government, see Leff, Czech and Slovak Republics, pp.133-5.
40. The position of the KSČM and, formerly, the SPR-RSČ is a partial exception here, because both parties have been considered as 'anti-system opposition' by the rest of the parliamentary representation. However, while this categorically excluded both parties from potential government coalitions or regular consultative meetings with the president, it did not exclude them from participation in parliamentary committees, investigatory commissions, question times and interpellations, or even intra-parliamentary party negotiations. In any case, these exceptions seem to be in the past, as the 1998 elections did not return the extreme right SPR-RSČ to parliament, and made the orthodox communist KSČM increasingly koalitionsfähig: see Petr Kopecký and Cas Mudde, 'The 1998 Parliamentary and Senate Elections in the Czech Republic', Electoral Studies, Vol.18, No.3 (1999), pp.415-24.
41. 'The Quality of Democracy: Mass-Elite Linkages in the Czech Republic', Democratization, Vol.4, No.4 (1997), pp.63-87 (p.84). Paradoxically, although the Slovak Republic actually has a legal framework for the 'third sector', which is rather restrictive, the country's civil society seems in a far better shape than that in the Czech Republic. Most observers consider the mobilization of Slovakia's 'civil society' - including NGOs, churches, trade unions, artists - as a crucial element in the 1998 electoral defeat of the Mečiar government. During his visit to Slovakia in November 1998, President Havel somewhat provocatively stated that the Czech Republic could learn from Slovakia what a useful civil society can be. On the role of civil society in the 1998 Slovak elections, see the various contributions in Martin Bútora, Grigorij Mesežnikov, Zora Bútorová and Sharon Fisher (eds.), The 1998 Parliamentary Elections and Democratic Rebirth in Slovakia (Bratislava: Institute for Public Affairs, 1999).
42. 'The Quality of Democracy: Mass-Elite Linkages in the Czech Republic', Democratization, Vol.4, No.4 (1997), pp.63-87 (p.84). Paradoxically, although the Slovak Republic actually has a legal framework for the 'third sector', which is rather restrictive, the country's civil society seems in a far better shape than that in the Czech Republic. Most observers consider the mobilization of Slovakia's 'civil society' - including NGOs, churches, trade unions, artists - as a crucial element in the 1998 electoral defeat of the Mečiar government. During his visit to Slovakia in November 1998, President Havel somewhat provocatively stated that the Czech Republic could learn from Slovakia what a useful civil society can be. On the role of civil society in the 1998 Slovak elections, see the various contributions in Martin Bútora, Grigorij Mesežnikov, Zora Bútorová and Sharon Fisher (eds.), The 1998 Parliamentary Elections and Democratic Rebirth in Slovakia (Bratislava: Institute for Public Affairs, 1999).
43. Jiří Pehe, 'Czechs Fall From Their Ivory Tower', Transitions, Vol.4, No.3 (1997), pp.22-7.
44. Kevin Krause, 'Democracy and the Political Party Systems of Slovakia and the Czech Republic' at 〈http://www.nd.edu/kkrause/papers〉 (1998).
45. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
46. Jon Elster, Claus Offe and Ulrich K. Preuss, Institutional Design in Post-Communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
47. For example, Lewis, 'Theories of Democratization'; Gerardo Munck and Carol Skalnik Leff, 'Modes of Transition and Democratization: South America and Eastern Europe in Comparative Perspective', Comparative Politics, Vol.29, No.3 (1997), pp.343-62.
48. For example, Lewis, 'Theories of Democratization'; Gerardo Munck and Carol Skalnik Leff, 'Modes of Transition and Democratization: South America and Eastern Europe in Comparative Perspective', Comparative Politics, Vol.29, No.3 (1997), pp.343-62.
49. Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce'; Zdenka Mansfeldová, 'Zivilgesellschaft in der Tschechischen und Slowakischen Republik', Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, B 6-7 (1998), pp.13-19.
50. Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce'; Zdenka Mansfeldová, 'Zivilgesellschaft in der Tschechischen und Slowakischen Republik', Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, B 6-7 (1998), pp.13-19.
51. See Jiří Musil, 'Czech and Slovak Society: Outline of a Comparative Study', Czech Sociological Review, Vol.1, No.1 (1993), pp.5-21; Václav Prucha, 'Economic Development and Relations, 1918-89', in Musil, The End of Czechoslovakia, pp.40-76.
52. See Jiří Musil, 'Czech and Slovak Society: Outline of a Comparative Study', Czech Sociological Review, Vol.1, No.1 (1993), pp.5-21; Václav Prucha, 'Economic Development and Relations, 1918-89', in Musil, The End of Czechoslovakia, pp.40-76.
53. See Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity'; Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce'; Kopecký, 'From "Velvet Revolution"'.
54. See Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity'; Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce'; Kopecký, 'From "Velvet Revolution"'.
55. See Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity'; Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce'; Kopecký, 'From "Velvet Revolution"'.
56. Ivan Mikloš and Eduard Zitnanský, 'The Economy', in Bútora and Skladony, Slovakia 1996-1997, pp.103-15.
57. See Mikloš, 'Economic Transition'; Carpenter, 'Slovakia and the Triumph of Nationalist Populism'; the annual OECD and World Bank reports. Admittedly, the post-Mečiar period has shown that Slovakia's economy is in a worse state than originally thought, but the same is true of the post-Klaus Czech economy: see the various reports in Business Central Europe, most notably November 1998 (survey of the Czech Republic) and May 1999 (survey of Slovakia).
58. See Mikloš, 'Economic Transition'; Carpenter, 'Slovakia and the Triumph of Nationalist Populism'; the annual OECD and World Bank reports. Admittedly, the post-Mečiar period has shown that Slovakia's economy is in a worse state than originally thought, but the same is true of the post-Klaus Czech economy: see the various reports in Business Central Europe, most notably November 1998 (survey of the Czech Republic) and May 1999 (survey of Slovakia).
59. See Mikloš, 'Economic Transition'; Carpenter, 'Slovakia and the Triumph of Nationalist Populism'; the annual OECD and World Bank reports. Admittedly, the post-Mečiar period has shown that Slovakia's economy is in a worse state than originally thought, but the same is true of the post-Klaus Czech economy: see the various reports in Business Central Europe, most notably November 1998 (survey of the Czech Republic) and May 1999 (survey of Slovakia).
60. Evidently, this questions not only general explanations based on levels of socio-economic developments, but also the validity of regionally-based propositions correlating high democratic performance with advances in economic reforms and high economic performances: see, for example, Martha De Melo, Cevdet Denizer and Alan Gelb, 'From Plan to Market: Patterns of Transition', Transition: The Newsletter about Reforming Economies, No.6 (1996), pp.11-12.
61. See Miroslav Kusý, 'Slovak Exceptionalism', in Musil, The End of Czechoslovakia, pp.139-55; Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce'.
62. See Miroslav Kusý, 'Slovak Exceptionalism', in Musil, The End of Czechoslovakia, pp.139-55; Ulč, 'Czechoslovakia's Velvet Divorce'.
63. See Carpenter, 'Slovakia and the Triumph of Nationalist Populism'. For the general argument, see Ken Jowitt, The New World Disorder: The Leninist Extinction (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992).
64. See Carpenter, 'Slovakia and the Triumph of Nationalist Populism'. For the general argument, see Ken Jowitt, The New World Disorder: The Leninist Extinction (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992).
65. Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity'; Zdenek Suda, 'Slovakia in Czech National Consciousness', in Musil, The End of Czechoslovakia, pp.106-27; Kevin Krause, 'Different but not that Different', at 〈http://www.nd.edu/kkrause/papers〉 (1997).
66. Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity'; Zdenek Suda, 'Slovakia in Czech National Consciousness', in Musil, The End of Czechoslovakia, pp.106-27; Kevin Krause, 'Different but not that Different', at 〈http://www.nd.edu/kkrause/papers〉 (1997).
67. Wolchik, 'The Politics of Ethnicity'; Zdenek Suda, 'Slovakia in Czech National Consciousness', in Musil, The End of Czechoslovakia, pp.106-27; Kevin Krause, 'Different but not that Different', at 〈http://www.nd.edu/kkrause/papers〉 (1997).
68. Krause, 'Different but not that Different', p.30. A similar conclusion can be drawn from, for example, the study Czechs and Slovaks Compared: A Survey of Economic and Political Behaviour (Glasgow: Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 1992).
69. Krause, 'Different but not that Different', p.30. A similar conclusion can be drawn from, for example, the study Czechs and Slovaks Compared: A Survey of Economic and Political Behaviour (Glasgow: Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 1992).
70. Richard Rose, 'Postcommunism and the Problem of Trust', Journal of Democracy, Vol.5, No.3 (1994), pp.18-31; Radoslaw Markowski, 'Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol.30, No.3 (1997), pp.221-54; Fritz Plasser, Peter A. Ulram and Harald Waldrauch, Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998).
71. Richard Rose, 'Postcommunism and the Problem of Trust', Journal of Democracy, Vol.5, No.3 (1994), pp.18-31; Radoslaw Markowski, 'Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol.30, No.3 (1997), pp.221-54; Fritz Plasser, Peter A. Ulram and Harald Waldrauch, Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998).
72. Richard Rose, 'Postcommunism and the Problem of Trust', Journal of Democracy, Vol.5, No.3 (1994), pp.18-31; Radoslaw Markowski, 'Political Parties and Ideological Spaces in East Central Europe', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol.30, No.3 (1997), pp.221-54; Fritz Plasser, Peter A. Ulram and Harald Waldrauch, Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998).
73. Richard Rose, 'Where Are Postcommunist Countries Going?', Journal of Democracy, Vol.8, No.3 (1997), pp.92-108.
74. See the New Democratic Barometers II-IV, by Richard Rose and Christian Haerpfer (Glasgow: Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 1993-1996); Zora Bútorová (ed.), Democracy and Discontent in Slovakia: A Public Opinion Profile of a Country in Transition (Bratislava: Institute for Public Affairs, 1998).
75. See the New Democratic Barometers II-IV, by Richard Rose and Christian Haerpfer (Glasgow: Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 1993-1996); Zora Bútorová (ed.), Democracy and Discontent in Slovakia: A Public Opinion Profile of a Country in Transition (Bratislava: Institute for Public Affairs, 1998).
76. Or, in the words of Christian Boulanger, social structures and economic conditions have to be considered if we want to understand the political development of the Slovak Republic in the context of post-Leninist transformation. But these factors do not provide a full answer to the question why the Slovak case is different from many of its neighbors': 'Constitutionalism in East Central Europe? The Case of Slovakia under Mečiar', East European Quarterly, Vol.33, No.1 (1999), pp.21-50 (p.37).
77. See Kopecký, Political Competition.
78. Darina Malová and Marek Rybár, 'The Impact of Constitutional Rules on Institutionalization of Democracy in Slovakia', in Vladimíra Dvořáková (ed.), Success or Failure? Ten Years After (Prague, 1999), pp.68-79 (p.68); see also Katarína Zavacká, 'The Development of Constitutionalism in Slovakia', in Szomolányi and Gould, Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation, pp.157-67.
79. Darina Malová and Marek Rybár, 'The Impact of Constitutional Rules on Institutionalization of Democracy in Slovakia', in Vladimíra Dvořáková (ed.), Success or Failure? Ten Years After (Prague, 1999), pp.68-79 (p.68); see also Katarína Zavacká, 'The Development of Constitutionalism in Slovakia', in Szomolányi and Gould, Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation, pp.157-67.
80. See Leff, Czech and Slovak Republics, p. 158. Moreover, some authors argue that Slovakia actually had 'a fairly good basis for the consolidation of Constitutionalism': Boulanger, 'Constitutionalism in East Central Europe', p.30.
81. See Leff, Czech and Slovak Republics, p. 158. Moreover, some authors argue that Slovakia actually had 'a fairly good basis for the consolidation of Constitutionalism': Boulanger, 'Constitutionalism in East Central Europe', p.30.
82. The link between the political issue and the intensity of political competition has also been made by Geoffrey Evans and Stephen Whitefield, although they reduce the 'identity issue' to the 'ethnic issue' (see below): see their The Structuring of Political Cleavages in Post-Communist Societies: The Case of the Czech Republic and Slovakia', Political Studies, Vol.46, No.1 (1998), pp.115-39.
83. Juan J. Linz, 'State Building and Nation Building', European Review, Vol.1, No.4 (1993), pp.355-69; Linz and Stepan, Problems of Democratic Consolidation.
84. Juan J. Linz, 'State Building and Nation Building', European Review, Vol.1, No.4 (1993), pp.355-69; Linz and Stepan, Problems of Democratic Consolidation.
85. See Claus Offe, 'Capitalism by Democratic Design: Democratic Theory Facing Triple Transition in East Central Europe', Social Research, Vol.58, No.4 (1991), pp.865-92; Valerie Bunce, 'Comparing East and South', Journal of Democracy, Vol.6, No.3 (1995), pp.87-100.
86. See Claus Offe, 'Capitalism by Democratic Design: Democratic Theory Facing Triple Transition in East Central Europe', Social Research, Vol.58, No.4 (1991), pp.865-92; Valerie Bunce, 'Comparing East and South', Journal of Democracy, Vol.6, No.3 (1995), pp.87-100.
87. Leff, 'Dysfunctional Democratization?', p.48.
88. Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan, 'Cleavage Structures, Party Systems, and Voter Alignments', in Seymour Martin Lipset and Stein Rokkan (eds.), Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross-National Perspectives (New York: The Free Press, 1967), pp.1-64.
89. See Herbert Kitschelt, 'Party Systems in East Central Europe: Consolidation or Fluidity', paper presented at the APSA Convention, New York, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Kevin Krause, The Political Party System in the Czech Republic: Democracy and the 1996 Elections', Czech Sociological Review, Vol.34, No.4 (1996), pp.423-38; Markowski, 'Ideological Spaces'; Evans and Whitefield, 'Structuring of Political Cleavages'.
90. See Herbert Kitschelt, 'Party Systems in East Central Europe: Consolidation or Fluidity', paper presented at the APSA Convention, New York, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Kevin Krause, The Political Party System in the Czech Republic: Democracy and the 1996 Elections', Czech Sociological Review, Vol.34, No.4 (1996), pp.423-38; Markowski, 'Ideological Spaces'; Evans and Whitefield, 'Structuring of Political Cleavages'.
91. See Herbert Kitschelt, 'Party Systems in East Central Europe: Consolidation or Fluidity', paper presented at the APSA Convention, New York, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Kevin Krause, The Political Party System in the Czech Republic: Democracy and the 1996 Elections', Czech Sociological Review, Vol.34, No.4 (1996), pp.423-38; Markowski, 'Ideological Spaces'; Evans and Whitefield, 'Structuring of Political Cleavages'.
92. See Herbert Kitschelt, 'Party Systems in East Central Europe: Consolidation or Fluidity', paper presented at the APSA Convention, New York, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Kevin Krause, The Political Party System in the Czech Republic: Democracy and the 1996 Elections', Czech Sociological Review, Vol.34, No.4 (1996), pp.423-38; Markowski, 'Ideological Spaces'; Evans and Whitefield, 'Structuring of Political Cleavages'.
93. The so-called 'opposition agreement', in which the ODS supports the minority CSSD government, seems to indicate the existence of a second dimension, closely related to majoritarianism versus consensualism, dividing the two large parties (ODS and ČSSD) from the small ones (most notably KDU-ČSL and US). However, this dimension seems temporary and mainly relevant at the elite level. Moreover, it is also only a secondary dimension, since ODS and ČSSD are still in strong political competition on economic and social issues.
94. Kevin Krause, 'Dimensions of Party Competition in Slovakia', Slovak Sociological Review, Vol.1 (1996), pp.169-86; Krause, 'Democracy and Political Party Systems'.
95. Kevin Krause, 'Dimensions of Party Competition in Slovakia', Slovak Sociological Review, Vol.1 (1996), pp.169-86; Krause, 'Democracy and Political Party Systems'.
96. Gail Kligman and Katherine Verdery, 'Reflections on the "Revolutions" of 1989 and After', East European Politics and Societies, Vol.13, No.2 (1999), pp.303-12 (p.307).
97. Judy Batt, The New Slovakia: National Identity, Political Integration and the Return to Europe (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); Martin Brusis, 'Ethnic Rift in the Context of Post-Communist Transformation: The Case of the Slovak Republic', International Journal on Group Rights, Vol.5, No.1 (1997), pp.3-32.
98. Judy Batt, The New Slovakia: National Identity, Political Integration and the Return to Europe (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); Martin Brusis, 'Ethnic Rift in the Context of Post-Communist Transformation: The Case of the Slovak Republic', International Journal on Group Rights, Vol.5, No.1 (1997), pp.3-32.
99. Leff, Czech and Slovak Republics, p. 156.
100. Batt, The New Slovakia, p. 17.
101. Peter Učeň, 'A Decade of Conflict Within Slovak Polity: Party Politics Perspective', in Dvořáková, Success or Failure?, pp.80-103.
102. See also Sharon Fisher, 'Strengthening National Identity: The Politics of Language and Culture in Post-Independence Slovakia and Croatia', paper presented at the 4th Annual ASN Convention, New York, 15-17 April 1999.
103. Many people had either received their companies or shares through illegal privatization deals or their companies were heavily dependent on favourable government policies. Consequently, the new government has directly started to look into various dubious privatization deals and stopped special subsidies to Mečiar's cronies.
104. Victor S. Mamatey and Radomr Luža (eds.), A History of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-1948 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973); Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1974); Carol Skalnik Leff, National Conflict in Czechoslovakia: The Making and Remaking of a State, 1918-1987 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988).
105. Victor S. Mamatey and Radomr Luža (eds.), A History of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-1948 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973); Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1974); Carol Skalnik Leff, National Conflict in Czechoslovakia: The Making and Remaking of a State, 1918-1987 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988).
106. Victor S. Mamatey and Radomr Luža (eds.), A History of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-1948 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973); Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1974); Carol Skalnik Leff, National Conflict in Czechoslovakia: The Making and Remaking of a State, 1918-1987 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988).
107. 'Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model', Comparative Politics, Vol.2, No.3 (1970), pp.337-65.
108. Zora Bútorová, 'Public Opinion', in Bútora and Skladony, Slovakia 1996-1997, pp.67-80 (p.79); see also Bútorová, Democracy and Discontent.
109. Zora Bútorová, 'Public Opinion', in Bútora and Skladony, Slovakia 1996-1997, pp.67-80 (p.79); see also Bútorová, Democracy and Discontent.
110. Fisher, 'Strengthening National Identity', p. 14.
111. This can be seen, for example, in their greater support for the opposition parties as well as for integration into Western organization such as NATO and the EU: see Michal Ivantyšyn, Marián Velšic and Zora Bútorová, 'First-Time Voters', in Bútorová, Democracy and Discontent, pp.135-50. Ol'ga Gyárfášová, Miroslav Kúska and Marin Velšic, 'First-Time Voters and the 1998 Elections', in Bútora, Mesežnikov, Bútorová and Fisher, The 1998 Parliamentary Elections, pp.233-43; see also Fisher, 'Strengthening National Identity'.
112. This can be seen, for example, in their greater support for the opposition parties as well as for integration into Western organization such as NATO and the EU: see Michal Ivantyšyn, Marián Velšic and Zora Bútorová, 'First-Time Voters', in Bútorová, Democracy and Discontent, pp.135-50. Ol'ga Gyárfášová, Miroslav Kúska and Marin Velšic, 'First-Time Voters and the 1998 Elections', in Bútora, Mesežnikov, Bútorová and Fisher, The 1998 Parliamentary Elections, pp.233-43; see also Fisher, 'Strengthening National Identity'.
113. This can be seen, for example, in their greater support for the opposition parties as well as for integration into Western organization such as NATO and the EU: see Michal Ivantyšyn, Marián Velšic and Zora Bútorová, 'First-Time Voters', in Bútorová, Democracy and Discontent, pp.135-50. Ol'ga Gyárfášová, Miroslav Kúska and Marin Velšic, 'First-Time Voters and the 1998 Elections', in Bútora, Mesežnikov, Bútorová and Fisher, The 1998 Parliamentary Elections, pp.233-43; see also Fisher, 'Strengthening National Identity'.
114. Szomlányi, 'Identifying Slovakia's Emerging Regime'.
115. A similar difference between mass and elite level has been noted with regard to the 'ethnic conflict' between 'ethnic Slovaks' and 'ethnic Hungarians': see Juraj Podoba, 'Between Rancour and Cooperation: Ethnic Conflict in Slovakia', International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, Vol.4, Nos.3-4 (1997), pp.279-87.
116. Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); see also Lipset and Rokkan, 'Cleavage Structures'; Peter Mair, 'E.E. Schattschneider's The Semisovereign People', Political Studies, Vol.45, No.5 (1997), pp.947-54.
117. Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); see also Lipset and Rokkan, 'Cleavage Structures'; Peter Mair, 'E.E. Schattschneider's The Semisovereign People', Political Studies, Vol.45, No.5 (1997), pp.947-54.
118. Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); see also Lipset and Rokkan, 'Cleavage Structures'; Peter Mair, 'E.E. Schattschneider's The Semisovereign People', Political Studies, Vol.45, No.5 (1997), pp.947-54.