Modes of transition and democratization: South America and Eastern Europe in comparative perspective

Comparative Politics

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 343-362

  Munck, Gerardo L ^a   Leff, Carol Skalnik ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039648404     PISSN: 00104159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/422125     Document Type: Article

References (55)

1. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
2. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
3. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
4. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
5. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
6. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
7. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
8. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
9. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
10. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
11. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
12. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
13. Juan J. Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts on the Transition to Democracy in Portugal and Spain," in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder: Westview Press, 1981); Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), pp. 11, 37-39; Terry Lynn Karl, "Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America," Comparative Politics, 23 (October 1990), 1-21; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe Schmitter, "Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe," International Social Science Journal, 128 (May 1991), 269-84; Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies: An Essay on Democratic Transitions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chs. 4, 6; Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), ch. 3; Guillermo O'Donnell, "Transitions, Continuities, and Paradoxes," in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell, and J. Samuel Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective (South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); J. Samuel Valenzuela, "Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds.; Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz et al., Between States: Interim Governments and Democratic Transitions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); Stephan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 14-15, 163-74, 368-71, ch. 4; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros and Richard Gunther, "Preface," in Richard Gunther, P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, and Hans-Jürgen Puhle, eds., The Politics of Democratic Consolidation: Southern Europe in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. xii-xxvii; P. Nikiforos Diamandouros, Hans-Jürgen Puhle, and Richard Gunther, "Conclusion," in Gunther, Diamandouros, and Puhle, eds., pp. 397-98, 402-7; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 71-72.
14. The debate whether pacts are beneficial or dysfunctional for democratization is a case in point. After an initial consensus that pacted transitions were more conducive to democratic consolidation, a position advanced by O'Donnell and Schmitter in 1986, the negative aspects of pacts were stressed by Karl and Valenzuela. However, Karl's argument, to the effect that pacts usually entail exclusionary elements that impede democratic consolidation, has in turn been criticized by Di Palma and Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther. In a further twist, O'Donnell has recently argued for a third position, stressing the negative aspects or trade-offs associated with both pacted and nonpacted transitions, a position shared by Huntington. O'Donnell and Schmitter, p. 39; Karl, pp. 9-12, 14; Valenzuela, pp. 76-78; Di Palma, pp. 122-25; Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther, pp. 406-7; O'Donnell, pp. 24-37; Huntington, p. 276.
15. The debate whether pacts are beneficial or dysfunctional for democratization is a case in point. After an initial consensus that pacted transitions were more conducive to democratic consolidation, a position advanced by O'Donnell and Schmitter in 1986, the negative aspects of pacts were stressed by Karl and Valenzuela. However, Karl's argument, to the effect that pacts usually entail exclusionary elements that impede democratic consolidation, has in turn been criticized by Di Palma and Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther. In a further twist, O'Donnell has recently argued for a third position, stressing the negative aspects or trade-offs associated with both pacted and nonpacted transitions, a position shared by Huntington. O'Donnell and Schmitter, p. 39; Karl, pp. 9-12, 14; Valenzuela, pp. 76-78; Di Palma, pp. 122-25; Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther, pp. 406-7; O'Donnell, pp. 24-37; Huntington, p. 276.
16. The debate whether pacts are beneficial or dysfunctional for democratization is a case in point. After an initial consensus that pacted transitions were more conducive to democratic consolidation, a position advanced by O'Donnell and Schmitter in 1986, the negative aspects of pacts were stressed by Karl and Valenzuela. However, Karl's argument, to the effect that pacts usually entail exclusionary elements that impede democratic consolidation, has in turn been criticized by Di Palma and Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther. In a further twist, O'Donnell has recently argued for a third position, stressing the negative aspects or trade-offs associated with both pacted and nonpacted transitions, a position shared by Huntington. O'Donnell and Schmitter, p. 39; Karl, pp. 9-12, 14; Valenzuela, pp. 76-78; Di Palma, pp. 122-25; Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther, pp. 406-7; O'Donnell, pp. 24-37; Huntington, p. 276.
17. The debate whether pacts are beneficial or dysfunctional for democratization is a case in point. After an initial consensus that pacted transitions were more conducive to democratic consolidation, a position advanced by O'Donnell and Schmitter in 1986, the negative aspects of pacts were stressed by Karl and Valenzuela. However, Karl's argument, to the effect that pacts usually entail exclusionary elements that impede democratic consolidation, has in turn been criticized by Di Palma and Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther. In a further twist, O'Donnell has recently argued for a third position, stressing the negative aspects or trade-offs associated with both pacted and nonpacted transitions, a position shared by Huntington. O'Donnell and Schmitter, p. 39; Karl, pp. 9-12, 14; Valenzuela, pp. 76-78; Di Palma, pp. 122-25; Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther, pp. 406-7; O'Donnell, pp. 24-37; Huntington, p. 276.
18. The debate whether pacts are beneficial or dysfunctional for democratization is a case in point. After an initial consensus that pacted transitions were more conducive to democratic consolidation, a position advanced by O'Donnell and Schmitter in 1986, the negative aspects of pacts were stressed by Karl and Valenzuela. However, Karl's argument, to the effect that pacts usually entail exclusionary elements that impede democratic consolidation, has in turn been criticized by Di Palma and Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther. In a further twist, O'Donnell has recently argued for a third position, stressing the negative aspects or trade-offs associated with both pacted and nonpacted transitions, a position shared by Huntington. O'Donnell and Schmitter, p. 39; Karl, pp. 9-12, 14; Valenzuela, pp. 76-78; Di Palma, pp. 122-25; Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther, pp. 406-7; O'Donnell, pp. 24-37; Huntington, p. 276.
19. The debate whether pacts are beneficial or dysfunctional for democratization is a case in point. After an initial consensus that pacted transitions were more conducive to democratic consolidation, a position advanced by O'Donnell and Schmitter in 1986, the negative aspects of pacts were stressed by Karl and Valenzuela. However, Karl's argument, to the effect that pacts usually entail exclusionary elements that impede democratic consolidation, has in turn been criticized by Di Palma and Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther. In a further twist, O'Donnell has recently argued for a third position, stressing the negative aspects or trade-offs associated with both pacted and nonpacted transitions, a position shared by Huntington. O'Donnell and Schmitter, p. 39; Karl, pp. 9-12, 14; Valenzuela, pp. 76-78; Di Palma, pp. 122-25; Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther, pp. 406-7; O'Donnell, pp. 24-37; Huntington, p. 276.
20. The debate whether pacts are beneficial or dysfunctional for democratization is a case in point. After an initial consensus that pacted transitions were more conducive to democratic consolidation, a position advanced by O'Donnell and Schmitter in 1986, the negative aspects of pacts were stressed by Karl and Valenzuela. However, Karl's argument, to the effect that pacts usually entail exclusionary elements that impede democratic consolidation, has in turn been criticized by Di Palma and Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther. In a further twist, O'Donnell has recently argued for a third position, stressing the negative aspects or trade-offs associated with both pacted and nonpacted transitions, a position shared by Huntington. O'Donnell and Schmitter, p. 39; Karl, pp. 9-12, 14; Valenzuela, pp. 76-78; Di Palma, pp. 122-25; Diamandouros, Puhle, and Gunther, pp. 406-7; O'Donnell, pp. 24-37; Huntington, p. 276.
21. See, most forcefully, Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 94-99.
22. Dankwart A. Rustow, "Transitions to Democracy: Toward a Dynamic Model," Comparative Politics, 2 (April 1970), 337-63.
23. Ibid., p. 346.
24. Because actors' strategies of change are conditioned by the relative power of the outgoing rulers, these are really two parallel characterizations. We follow Karl, pp. 8-9, in distinguishing transitions in terms of actors' strategies instead of the more common alternative of highlighting the degree of control exercised by the outgoing rulers. For conceptualizations that emphasize the relative power of the outgoing rulers, see Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts"; and Scott Mainwaring, "Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds., pp. 317-26.
25. Because actors' strategies of change are conditioned by the relative power of the outgoing rulers, these are really two parallel characterizations. We follow Karl, pp. 8-9, in distinguishing transitions in terms of actors' strategies instead of the more common alternative of highlighting the degree of control exercised by the outgoing rulers. For conceptualizations that emphasize the relative power of the outgoing rulers, see Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts"; and Scott Mainwaring, "Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds., pp. 317-26.
26. Because actors' strategies of change are conditioned by the relative power of the outgoing rulers, these are really two parallel characterizations. We follow Karl, pp. 8-9, in distinguishing transitions in terms of actors' strategies instead of the more common alternative of highlighting the degree of control exercised by the outgoing rulers. For conceptualizations that emphasize the relative power of the outgoing rulers, see Linz, "Some Comparative Thoughts"; and Scott Mainwaring, "Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation: Theoretical and Comparative Issues," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds., pp. 317-26.
27. Though Karl distinguishes among actors who dominate the transition process, her conceptualization emphasizes the relative prevalence of elite versus mass actors and does not directly target a crucial issue in transitions: the contest between incumbent elites and counterelites. Indeed, her conceptualization would conflate transitions that are initiated by incumbent elites with those that result from the actions of counterelites. Our conceptualization is closer to Valenzuela's emphasis on "the attitude of the last ruling elites of the authoritarian regime toward democratization," by emphasizing whether change comes from within or outside the incumbent elite. Karl, pp. 8-9; Valenzuela, pp. 73-78.
28. Though Karl distinguishes among actors who dominate the transition process, her conceptualization emphasizes the relative prevalence of elite versus mass actors and does not directly target a crucial issue in transitions: the contest between incumbent elites and counterelites. Indeed, her conceptualization would conflate transitions that are initiated by incumbent elites with those that result from the actions of counterelites. Our conceptualization is closer to Valenzuela's emphasis on "the attitude of the last ruling elites of the authoritarian regime toward democratization," by emphasizing whether change comes from within or outside the incumbent elite. Karl, pp. 8-9; Valenzuela, pp. 73-78.
29. On institutional choices, see Arend Lijphart, "Democratization and Constitutional Choices in Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland, 1989-91," Journal of Theoretical Politics, 4 (1992), 207-23. On the consolidation of specific institutional arrangements, see Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Volume I: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
30. On institutional choices, see Arend Lijphart, "Democratization and Constitutional Choices in Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland, 1989-91," Journal of Theoretical Politics, 4 (1992), 207-23. On the consolidation of specific institutional arrangements, see Juan J. Linz and Arturo Valenzuela, eds., The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Volume I: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
31. Here we follow Przeworski, p. 10, who argues that in the current era, in which restrictions on mass participation are rare, "the possibility of contestation by conflicting interests is sufficient to explain the dynamics of democracy. Once political rights are sufficiently extensive to admit of conflicting interests, everything else follows."
32. The value of cross-regional comparisons has been hotly debated. The ultimate test of the utility of such comparisons is whether they produce theoretically compelling explanations. See the exchange between Philippe Schmitter and Terry Karl and Valerie Bunce in Slavic Review (Spring 1994, Spring 1995, and Winter 1995).
33. Placement of all cases does not coincide in similar coding efforts. This discrepancy is due to differing criteria used to define mode of transition, the coding of cases by causes rather than characteristics of the transition process, and new information about the cases. For other attempts to code transitions, see Karl and Schmitter, p. 276; Huntington, p. 113; Valenzuela, p. 77; James W. McGuire, "Interim Government and Democratic Consolidation: Argentina in Comparative Perspective," in Shain and Linz et al., pp. 194-95; and Felipe Agüero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 65.
34. Placement of all cases does not coincide in similar coding efforts. This discrepancy is due to differing criteria used to define mode of transition, the coding of cases by causes rather than characteristics of the transition process, and new information about the cases. For other attempts to code transitions, see Karl and Schmitter, p. 276; Huntington, p. 113; Valenzuela, p. 77; James W. McGuire, "Interim Government and Democratic Consolidation: Argentina in Comparative Perspective," in Shain and Linz et al., pp. 194-95; and Felipe Agüero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 65.
35. Placement of all cases does not coincide in similar coding efforts. This discrepancy is due to differing criteria used to define mode of transition, the coding of cases by causes rather than characteristics of the transition process, and new information about the cases. For other attempts to code transitions, see Karl and Schmitter, p. 276; Huntington, p. 113; Valenzuela, p. 77; James W. McGuire, "Interim Government and Democratic Consolidation: Argentina in Comparative Perspective," in Shain and Linz et al., pp. 194-95; and Felipe Agüero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 65.
36. Placement of all cases does not coincide in similar coding efforts. This discrepancy is due to differing criteria used to define mode of transition, the coding of cases by causes rather than characteristics of the transition process, and new information about the cases. For other attempts to code transitions, see Karl and Schmitter, p. 276; Huntington, p. 113; Valenzuela, p. 77; James W. McGuire, "Interim Government and Democratic Consolidation: Argentina in Comparative Perspective," in Shain and Linz et al., pp. 194-95; and Felipe Agüero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 65.
37. Placement of all cases does not coincide in similar coding efforts. This discrepancy is due to differing criteria used to define mode of transition, the coding of cases by causes rather than characteristics of the transition process, and new information about the cases. For other attempts to code transitions, see Karl and Schmitter, p. 276; Huntington, p. 113; Valenzuela, p. 77; James W. McGuire, "Interim Government and Democratic Consolidation: Argentina in Comparative Perspective," in Shain and Linz et al., pp. 194-95; and Felipe Agüero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 65.
38. Valenzuela, pp. 62-67.
39. While some authors have correctly stressed that Chile had an "incomplete transition" because important constitutional issues remained on the political agenda, it is still accurate to state that the transition ended in 1990, when the basic features of the new regime were defined.
40. Gerardo L. Munck, "Democratic Stability and Its Limits: An Analysis of Chile's 1993 Elections," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 36 (1994), 1-38; Manuel Antonio Garretón, Hacia una nueva era político: Estudio sobre democratizaciones (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1995), pp. 34-42, 111-29, 216-17.
41. Gerardo L. Munck, "Democratic Stability and Its Limits: An Analysis of Chile's 1993 Elections," Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 36 (1994), 1-38; Manuel Antonio Garretón, Hacia una nueva era político: Estudio sobre democratizaciones (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1995), pp. 34-42, 111-29, 216-17.
42. Most analysts of Brazil implicitly take liberalization as the beginning of a transition. But, as Przeworski, pp. 54-66, argues, "liberalization does not always lead to transition." It is crucial to distinguish clearly between liberalization and democratization.
43. Frances Hagopian, "The Compromised Consolidation: The Political Class in the Brazilian Transition," in Mainwaring, O'Donnell, and Valenzuela, eds., Issues in Democratic Consolidation, pp. 266, 247-48.
44. Thomas Bruneau, "Constitutions and Democratic Consolidation: Brazil in Comparative Perspective," in Diane Ethier, ed., Democratic Transition and Consolidation in Southern Europe, Latin America and Southeast Asia (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 178-84.
45. Ibid., p. 184-90; Hagopian, pp. 272-77.
46. Ibid., p. 184-90; Hagopian, pp. 272-77.
47. Scott Mainwaring, "Presidentialism, Multipartism, and Democracy: The Difficult Combination," Comparative Political Studies, 26 (July 1993), 198-228.
48. Lijphart, pp. 211, 213;
49. Krzysztof Jasiewicz, "From Solidarity to Fragmentation," Journal of Democracy, 3 (April 1992), 55-69.
50. László Bruszt and David Stark, "Remaking the Political Field in Hungary: From the Politics of Confrontation to the Politics of Competition," Journal of International Affairs, 45 (1991), 201-45.
51. Adras Bozoki, "Party Formation and Constitutional Change in Hungary," in Terry Cox and Andy Furlong, eds., Hungary: The Politics of Transition (London: Frank Cass, 1995).
52. Gerardo L. Munck, Authoritarianism and Democratization: Soldiers and Workers in Argentina, 1976-83, in Comparative Perspective (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, forthcoming), ch. 6.
53. Lijphart, pp. 216-17.
54. Carol Skalnik Leff, The Czech and Slovak Republics: Nation versus State (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996).
55. Georgi Karasimeonov, "Parliamentary Elections of 1994 and the Development of the Bulgarian Party System," Party Politics, 1 (October 1995), 579-88.