The United States technical assistance programme in Japan, 1955-62

Business History

Volumn 42, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 117-136

  Tiratsoo, Nick ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BEDFORDSHIRE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AID FLOW; ECONOMIC HISTORY; TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT;

JAPAN; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033754170     PISSN: 00076791     EISSN: 17437938     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00076790000000304     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. J.M. Silberman, 'The History of the Technical Assistance Programs of the Marshall Plan and Successor Agencies, 1948-1961', unpublished draft report to the World Bank, Nov. 1992; R. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanisation (Berkeley, CA, 1993); N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, 'Exporting the "Gospel of Productivity": United States Technical Assistance and British Industry, 1945-1960', Business History Review, Vol.71 (1997), pp.41-81; N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, The Conservatives and Industrial Efficiency, 1951-64: Thirteen Wasted Years? (London, 1998); and contributions in M. Kipping and O. Bjarnar (eds.), The Americanisation of European Business (London, 1998), and T.R. Gourvish and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), Missionaries and Managers: American Influences on European Management Education, 1945-60 (Manchester, 1998).
2. J.M. Silberman, 'The History of the Technical Assistance Programs of the Marshall Plan and Successor Agencies, 1948-1961', unpublished draft report to the World Bank, Nov. 1992; R. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanisation (Berkeley, CA, 1993); N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, 'Exporting the "Gospel of Productivity": United States Technical Assistance and British Industry, 1945-1960', Business History Review, Vol.71 (1997), pp.41-81; N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, The Conservatives and Industrial Efficiency, 1951-64: Thirteen Wasted Years? (London, 1998); and contributions in M. Kipping and O. Bjarnar (eds.), The Americanisation of European Business (London, 1998), and T.R. Gourvish and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), Missionaries and Managers: American Influences on European Management Education, 1945-60 (Manchester, 1998).
3. J.M. Silberman, 'The History of the Technical Assistance Programs of the Marshall Plan and Successor Agencies, 1948-1961', unpublished draft report to the World Bank, Nov. 1992; R. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanisation (Berkeley, CA, 1993); N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, 'Exporting the "Gospel of Productivity": United States Technical Assistance and British Industry, 1945-1960', Business History Review, Vol.71 (1997), pp.41-81; N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, The Conservatives and Industrial Efficiency, 1951-64: Thirteen Wasted Years? (London, 1998); and contributions in M. Kipping and O. Bjarnar (eds.), The Americanisation of European Business (London, 1998), and T.R. Gourvish and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), Missionaries and Managers: American Influences on European Management Education, 1945-60 (Manchester, 1998).
4. J.M. Silberman, 'The History of the Technical Assistance Programs of the Marshall Plan and Successor Agencies, 1948-1961', unpublished draft report to the World Bank, Nov. 1992; R. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanisation (Berkeley, CA, 1993); N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, 'Exporting the "Gospel of Productivity": United States Technical Assistance and British Industry, 1945-1960', Business History Review, Vol.71 (1997), pp.41-81; N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, The Conservatives and Industrial Efficiency, 1951-64: Thirteen Wasted Years? (London, 1998); and contributions in M. Kipping and O. Bjarnar (eds.), The Americanisation of European Business (London, 1998), and T.R. Gourvish and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), Missionaries and Managers: American Influences on European Management Education, 1945-60 (Manchester, 1998).
5. J.M. Silberman, 'The History of the Technical Assistance Programs of the Marshall Plan and Successor Agencies, 1948-1961', unpublished draft report to the World Bank, Nov. 1992; R. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanisation (Berkeley, CA, 1993); N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, 'Exporting the "Gospel of Productivity": United States Technical Assistance and British Industry, 1945-1960', Business History Review, Vol.71 (1997), pp.41-81; N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, The Conservatives and Industrial Efficiency, 1951-64: Thirteen Wasted Years? (London, 1998); and contributions in M. Kipping and O. Bjarnar (eds.), The Americanisation of European Business (London, 1998), and T.R. Gourvish and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), Missionaries and Managers: American Influences on European Management Education, 1945-60 (Manchester, 1998).
6. J.M. Silberman, 'The History of the Technical Assistance Programs of the Marshall Plan and Successor Agencies, 1948-1961', unpublished draft report to the World Bank, Nov. 1992; R. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanisation (Berkeley, CA, 1993); N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, 'Exporting the "Gospel of Productivity": United States Technical Assistance and British Industry, 1945-1960', Business History Review, Vol.71 (1997), pp.41-81; N. Tiratsoo and J. Tomlinson, The Conservatives and Industrial Efficiency, 1951-64: Thirteen Wasted Years? (London, 1998); and contributions in M. Kipping and O. Bjarnar (eds.), The Americanisation of European Business (London, 1998), and T.R. Gourvish and N. Tiratsoo (eds.), Missionaries and Managers: American Influences on European Management Education, 1945-60 (Manchester, 1998).
7. A large number of people have provided me with help and encouragement during the research for this article. I would particularly like to thank Alan Booth; Terence R. Gourvish; Tomoo Koike; Takeshi Mori; Toshiaki Nishihara; Tamotsu Nishizawa (an exemplary and generous host at Hitotsubashi University); Jim Obelkevich; David Pfeiffer of the National Archives in Washington; Satoshi Sasaki; Tatsuya Tsubaki; the librarians of the Japan Productivity Center, Tokyo; and two anonymous referees (who made a number of highly pertinent observations on a previous draft). My greatest debt is to the Japan Foundation Endowment Committee, which generously supported a two-week research trip to Japan.
8. Japan Productivity Center (hereafter JPC), Productivity Drive in Japan (Tokyo, 1962), p.25.
9. C. Johnson, Japan's Public Companies (Washington, DC, 1978), pp.52-3.
10. . T. Morris-Suzuki, The Technological Transformation of Japan (Cambridge, 1984), pp.175-6.
11. See, for example, T. Nishizawa, 'Educational Change and In-Firm Training in Post-War Japan', in E. Abe and T. Gourvish (eds.), Japanese Success? British Failure? Comparisons in Business Performance Since 1945 (Oxford, 1997), pp.101-20; J. Price, Japan Works: Power and Paradox in Postwar Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY, 1997); K. Sunaga, 'American Technical Assistance Programs and the Productivity Movement in Japan', and S. Sasaki, 'The Emergence of the Productivity Improvement Movement in Postwar Japan and Japanese Productivity Missions Overseas', Japanese Yearbook on Business History, Vol.12 (1995), pp.23-38 and 39-71; and W.M. Tsutsui, Manufacturing Ideology: Scientific Management in Twentieth-Century Japan (Princeton, NJ, 1998).
12. See, for example, T. Nishizawa, 'Educational Change and In-Firm Training in Post-War Japan', in E. Abe and T. Gourvish (eds.), Japanese Success? British Failure? Comparisons in Business Performance Since 1945 (Oxford, 1997), pp.101-20; J. Price, Japan Works: Power and Paradox in Postwar Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY, 1997); K. Sunaga, 'American Technical Assistance Programs and the Productivity Movement in Japan', and S. Sasaki, 'The Emergence of the Productivity Improvement Movement in Postwar Japan and Japanese Productivity Missions Overseas', Japanese Yearbook on Business History, Vol.12 (1995), pp.23-38 and 39-71; and W.M. Tsutsui, Manufacturing Ideology: Scientific Management in Twentieth-Century Japan (Princeton, NJ, 1998).
13. See, for example, T. Nishizawa, 'Educational Change and In-Firm Training in Post-War Japan', in E. Abe and T. Gourvish (eds.), Japanese Success? British Failure? Comparisons in Business Performance Since 1945 (Oxford, 1997), pp.101-20; J. Price, Japan Works: Power and Paradox in Postwar Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY, 1997); K. Sunaga, 'American Technical Assistance Programs and the Productivity Movement in Japan', and S. Sasaki, 'The Emergence of the Productivity Improvement Movement in Postwar Japan and Japanese Productivity Missions Overseas', Japanese Yearbook on Business History, Vol.12 (1995), pp.23-38 and 39-71; and W.M. Tsutsui, Manufacturing Ideology: Scientific Management in Twentieth-Century Japan (Princeton, NJ, 1998).
14. See, for example, T. Nishizawa, 'Educational Change and In-Firm Training in Post-War Japan', in E. Abe and T. Gourvish (eds.), Japanese Success? British Failure? Comparisons in Business Performance Since 1945 (Oxford, 1997), pp.101-20; J. Price, Japan Works: Power and Paradox in Postwar Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY, 1997); K. Sunaga, 'American Technical Assistance Programs and the Productivity Movement in Japan', and S. Sasaki, 'The Emergence of the Productivity Improvement Movement in Postwar Japan and Japanese Productivity Missions Overseas', Japanese Yearbook on Business History, Vol.12 (1995), pp.23-38 and 39-71; and W.M. Tsutsui, Manufacturing Ideology: Scientific Management in Twentieth-Century Japan (Princeton, NJ, 1998).
15. See, for example, T. Nishizawa, 'Educational Change and In-Firm Training in Post-War Japan', in E. Abe and T. Gourvish (eds.), Japanese Success? British Failure? Comparisons in Business Performance Since 1945 (Oxford, 1997), pp.101-20; J. Price, Japan Works: Power and Paradox in Postwar Industrial Relations (Ithaca, NY, 1997); K. Sunaga, 'American Technical Assistance Programs and the Productivity Movement in Japan', and S. Sasaki, 'The Emergence of the Productivity Improvement Movement in Postwar Japan and Japanese Productivity Missions Overseas', Japanese Yearbook on Business History, Vol.12 (1995), pp.23-38 and 39-71; and W.M. Tsutsui, Manufacturing Ideology: Scientific Management in Twentieth-Century Japan (Princeton, NJ, 1998).
16. National Archives, Washington, Record Group 469 (hereafter NAW RG 469), Office of Far East Operations, box 28, file 'Japan - Programs 1955', C.L. Meyer et al., 'An Economic Program for Japan', July 1954, part 2, pp.1-2. See also, in a similar vein, A.J. Cottrell, J.E. Dougherty and E. Ervin, 'The United States and Japan', in R. Strausz-Hupe, A.J. Cottrell and J.E. Dougherty (eds.), American-Asian Tensions (London, 1956), especially p.99, where it is concluded: 'No matter which way the situation is analyzed, Japan emerges as the one processing nation in the free world whose long-range economic prospects appear rather bleak.'
17. National Archives, Washington, Record Group 469 (hereafter NAW RG 469), Office of Far East Operations, box 28, file 'Japan - Programs 1955', C.L. Meyer et al., 'An Economic Program for Japan', July 1954, part 2, pp.1-2. See also, in a similar vein, A.J. Cottrell, J.E. Dougherty and E. Ervin, 'The United States and Japan', in R. Strausz-Hupe, A.J. Cottrell and J.E. Dougherty (eds.), American-Asian Tensions (London, 1956), especially p.99, where it is concluded: 'No matter which way the situation is analyzed, Japan emerges as the one processing nation in the free world whose long-range economic prospects appear rather bleak.'
18. NAW RG 469, United States Mission to Japan (hereafter USOM) Executive Office, box 9, file 'USOM Productivity Program - Jan-March 1956', W.S. Landes, 'Survey of Japanese Productivity', 1 Jan. 1956, p.15.
19. Ibid., p.16.
20. NAW RG 469, USOM Program Office, box 12, file 'Public Relations - Folder No.2', Briefing Paper, 9 Aug. 1956, p.1; box 2, file '12a Government Finance - Attitudes Towards Productivity', Confidential Memo (n.d.), pp.14-16.
21. NAW RG 469, USOM Program Office, box 12, file 'Public Relations - Folder No.2', Briefing Paper, 9 Aug. 1956, p.1; box 2, file '12a Government Finance - Attitudes Towards Productivity', Confidential Memo (n.d.), pp.14-16.
22. N. Noda, How Japan Absorbed American Management Methods (Tokyo, 1970), pp.28-9; and Asian Productivity Organisation (hereafter APO), Achievements in the First Decade of the Productivity Drive In Japan (Tokyo, 1968), p.10.
23. N. Noda, How Japan Absorbed American Management Methods (Tokyo, 1970), pp.28-9; and Asian Productivity Organisation (hereafter APO), Achievements in the First Decade of the Productivity Drive In Japan (Tokyo, 1968), p.10.
24. For this important organisation, see M. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System: Tradition and Innovation (Cambridge, MA, 1968), pp.96-113; T. Nishizawa, 'Business Studies and Management Education in Japan's Economic Development: An Institutional Perspective', in R.P. Amdam (ed.), Management, Education and Competitiveness: Europe, Japan and the United States (London, 1996), pp.96-110; and B. Gao, Economic Ideology and Japanese Industrial Policy (Cambridge, 1997), pp.214-19.
25. For this important organisation, see M. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System: Tradition and Innovation (Cambridge, MA, 1968), pp.96-113; T. Nishizawa, 'Business Studies and Management Education in Japan's Economic Development: An Institutional Perspective', in R.P. Amdam (ed.), Management, Education and Competitiveness: Europe, Japan and the United States (London, 1996), pp.96-110; and B. Gao, Economic Ideology and Japanese Industrial Policy (Cambridge, 1997), pp.214-19.
26. For this important organisation, see M. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System: Tradition and Innovation (Cambridge, MA, 1968), pp.96-113; T. Nishizawa, 'Business Studies and Management Education in Japan's Economic Development: An Institutional Perspective', in R.P. Amdam (ed.), Management, Education and Competitiveness: Europe, Japan and the United States (London, 1996), pp.96-110; and B. Gao, Economic Ideology and Japanese Industrial Policy (Cambridge, 1997), pp.214-19.
27. S.L. Levine, Industrial Relations in Postwar Japan (Urbana, IL, 1958); A. Gordon, The Wages of Affluence: Labor and Management in Postwar Japan (Cambridge, MA, 1998); and Price, Japan Works.
28. S.L. Levine, Industrial Relations in Postwar Japan (Urbana, IL, 1958); A. Gordon, The Wages of Affluence: Labor and Management in Postwar Japan (Cambridge, MA, 1998); and Price, Japan Works.
29. S.L. Levine, Industrial Relations in Postwar Japan (Urbana, IL, 1958); A. Gordon, The Wages of Affluence: Labor and Management in Postwar Japan (Cambridge, MA, 1998); and Price, Japan Works.
30. The following paragraph is based on material in NAW RG 469, USOM Office of the Director, box 4, file 'Program - Productivity Agreement'; JPC/USOM, The Productivity Program in Japan (Tokyo, 1960), p.10;
31. and APO, Achievements, pp.11-13.
32. NAW RG 469, USOM Office of the Director, box 4, file 'Program', letter from J.M. Allison, the American Ambassador, to M. Shigemitsu, Minister of Foreign Affairs, 7 April 1955.
33. See, for example, 'Technical Assistance in the Far East, South Asia, and Middle East: A Report by Senator Theodore Francis Green', Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Final Report on Technical Assistance (Washington, DC, 1957), pp.538-9.
34. Sasaki, 'The Emergence', p.49; APO, Achievements, pp.29-31; and D. Potter, The Japan Productivity Program, Seisansei: An Evaluation of the Participant Training Program in Japan, 1956-1962 (Department of State, Agency for International Development, Washington, 1966), especially pp.73-8.
35. Sasaki, 'The Emergence', p.49; APO, Achievements, pp.29-31; and D. Potter, The Japan Productivity Program, Seisansei: An Evaluation of the Participant Training Program in Japan, 1956-1962 (Department of State, Agency for International Development, Washington, 1966), especially pp.73-8.
36. Sasaki, 'The Emergence', p.49; APO, Achievements, pp.29-31; and D. Potter, The Japan Productivity Program, Seisansei: An Evaluation of the Participant Training Program in Japan, 1956-1962 (Department of State, Agency for International Development, Washington, 1966), especially pp.73-8.
37. APO, Achievements, pp.49-50; JPC/USOM, The Productivity Program, pp.19 and 33.
38. APO, Achievements, pp.49-50; JPC/USOM, The Productivity Program, pp.19 and 33.
39. APO, Achievements, pp.95-101; JPC/USOM, The Productivity Program, pp.22-4.
40. APO, Achievements, pp.95-101; JPC/USOM, The Productivity Program, pp.22-4.
41. APO, Achievements, pp.21, 44-5 and 57-67.
42. NAW RG 469, USOM Office of the Director, box 3, file 'Program. Labor', memo, 29 Jan. 1957; and USOM Executive Office, box 5, file 'Labor Productivity Team, 1956', letter E. Edwards to T. Walsh, 20 April 1956.
43. NAW RG 469, USOM Office of the Director, box 3, file 'Program. Labor', memo, 29 Jan. 1957; and USOM Executive Office, box 5, file 'Labor Productivity Team, 1956', letter E. Edwards to T. Walsh, 20 April 1956.
44. NAW RG 469, Mission to Japan, USOM Office of the Director, box 3, file 'Program. Labor', memo by C. Winn, 6 June 1955, pp.2-3.
45. Gomberg had been National Officer of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union before becoming Professor of Industrial Engineering at Washington University, Missouri. For his extensive involvement in the various technical assistance initiatives, see A. Carew, Labour under the Marshall Plan: The Politics of Productivity and the Marketing of Management Science (Manchester, 1987), passim.
46. NAW RG 469, USOM Office of the Director, box 3, file 'Program. Labor', report by E. Edwards, 17 Nov. 1956, pp.3-4.
47. NAW RG 469, USOM Program Office, box 5, file '47(d) Productivity - JPC', translation from Sankei Jiji, 16 April 1956.
48. International Cooperation Administration, Team Visits to the United States (Washington, 1957); Potter, An Evaluation, pp.75-8; and Tiratsoo and Tomlinson, 'Exporting the "Gospel"', pp.58-60.
49. International Cooperation Administration, Team Visits to the United States (Washington, 1957); Potter, An Evaluation, pp.75-8; and Tiratsoo and Tomlinson, 'Exporting the "Gospel"', pp.58-60.
50. International Cooperation Administration, Team Visits to the United States (Washington, 1957); Potter, An Evaluation, pp.75-8; and Tiratsoo and Tomlinson, 'Exporting the "Gospel"', pp.58-60.
51. NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 2, file 'Productivity - Automotive Industry', letter R.L. Goodrich to J.G. Harlan, 5 May 1955 and enclosures.
52. NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 6, file 'Productivity - Program (April - May 1956)', letter R.L. Goodrich to K. Van Auken, 11 May 1956.
53. NAW RG 469, USOM Office of the Director, box 4, file 'Program - Study Teams 1958', letter B.H. Thibodeaux to L.A. Brown, 12 March 1958; and box 3, file 'Program. Labour', memo, 29 Jan. 1957.
54. NAW RG 469, USOM Office of the Director, box 4, file 'Program - Study Teams 1958', letter B.H. Thibodeaux to L.A. Brown, 12 March 1958; and box 3, file 'Program. Labour', memo, 29 Jan. 1957.
55. NAW RG 469, Office of Far East Operations, box 41, file 'Japan - Productivity 1956', letter L.A. Randall to R.L. Goodrich, 25 Oct. 1956.
56. NAW RG 469, USOM Office of the Director, box 3, file 'Program. Labor', memo by E. Edwards, 10 Aug. 1956.
57. NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 3, file 'USOM Productivity - General', memo, 20 Nov. 1958.
58. NAW RG 469, USOM Office of the Director, box 3, file 'Program. Labor', memo by D. MacArthur II, 5 June 1957.
59. NAW RG 469, Office of Far East Operations, box 28, file 'Japan. Productivity', Foreign Service Despatch, 28 Sept. 1955.
60. NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 5, file 'Productivity - Marketing Seminar -1956'.
61. See, for example, Technical Aids Branch, Foreign Operations Administration, A List of Industrial Reports and Publications (Washington, DC, 1955); International Cooperation Administration, Activities and Institutions of the Industrial Technical Cooperation Program (Washington, DC, 1956), pp.177-80; and M.C. Alexander-Frutschi, Small Industry: An International Annotated Bibliography (Glencoe, IL, 1960), pp.106-14.
62. See, for example, Technical Aids Branch, Foreign Operations Administration, A List of Industrial Reports and Publications (Washington, DC, 1955); International Cooperation Administration, Activities and Institutions of the Industrial Technical Cooperation Program (Washington, DC, 1956), pp.177-80; and M.C. Alexander-Frutschi, Small Industry: An International Annotated Bibliography (Glencoe, IL, 1960), pp.106-14.
63. See, for example, Technical Aids Branch, Foreign Operations Administration, A List of Industrial Reports and Publications (Washington, DC, 1955); International Cooperation Administration, Activities and Institutions of the Industrial Technical Cooperation Program (Washington, DC, 1956), pp.177-80; and M.C. Alexander-Frutschi, Small Industry: An International Annotated Bibliography (Glencoe, IL, 1960), pp.106-14.
64. NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 12, file 'Production - Waseda-Michigan University Exchange - 1957', letter F.L. Turner to M. Salter, 30 Dec. 1957.
65. JPC, Automotive Parts Industry (Tokyo, 1959), p.16.
66. JPC, Heavy Electrical Machinery (Tokyo, 1959), p.13.
67. JPC, Oil and Fat Processing (Tokyo, 1959), p.16.
68. For example, JPC, Industrial Machinery (Tokyo, 1959), p.15.
69. Potter, An Evaluation, pp.44 and 60.
70. APO, Achievements, pp.112-13 and 116-17.
71. APO, The Participation in APO (Tokyo, 1968).
72. NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 6, file 'Productivity - Program (April - May 1956)', airgram by R.L. Goodrich, 1 May 1956, p.3.
73. JPC/USOM, The Productivity Program, p.47; NAW RG 469, USOM Program Office, box 3, JPC, A Survey on the Effect of the Productivity Team (Tokyo, 1958).
74. JPC/USOM, The Productivity Program, p.47; NAW RG 469, USOM Program Office, box 3, JPC, A Survey on the Effect of the Productivity Team (Tokyo, 1958).
75. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System, pp.243-53; a nd M. Tsuda, 'Study of Japanese Management Development Practices', parts one to four, Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies, Vol.9 (1977), pp.1-12, Vol.10 (1978), pp.14-35, Vol.11 (1979), pp.4-16 and Hitotsubashi Journal of Arts and Sciences, Vol.18 (1977), pp.1-19.
76. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System, pp.243-53; a nd M. Tsuda, 'Study of Japanese Management Development Practices', parts one to four, Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies, Vol.9 (1977), pp.1-12, Vol.10 (1978), pp.14-35, Vol.11 (1979), pp.4-16 and Hitotsubashi Journal of Arts and Sciences, Vol.18 (1977), pp.1-19.
77. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System, pp.243-53; a nd M. Tsuda, 'Study of Japanese Management Development Practices', parts one to four, Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies, Vol.9 (1977), pp.1-12, Vol.10 (1978), pp.14-35, Vol.11 (1979), pp.4-16 and Hitotsubashi Journal of Arts and Sciences, Vol.18 (1977), pp.1-19.
78. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System, pp.243-53; a nd M. Tsuda, 'Study of Japanese Management Development Practices', parts one to four, Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies, Vol.9 (1977), pp.1-12, Vol.10 (1978), pp.14-35, Vol.11 (1979), pp.4-16 and Hitotsubashi Journal of Arts and Sciences, Vol.18 (1977), pp.1-19.
79. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System, pp.243-53; a nd M. Tsuda, 'Study of Japanese Management Development Practices', parts one to four, Hitotsubashi Journal of Social Studies, Vol.9 (1977), pp.1-12, Vol.10 (1978), pp.14-35, Vol.11 (1979), pp.4-16 and Hitotsubashi Journal of Arts and Sciences, Vol.18 (1977), pp.1-19.
80. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System, pp.107-12. For an anatomy of the traditional customs and beliefs that often continued to regulate business practice in Japan, see NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 15, file 'USOM General (Sept.-Dec. 1957)', C.B. Gordy, 'Japan Manufacturing Plants: Are They Well Managed?', 12 Nov. 1957.
81. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System, pp.107-12. For an anatomy of the traditional customs and beliefs that often continued to regulate business practice in Japan, see NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 15, file 'USOM General (Sept.-Dec. 1957)', C.B. Gordy, 'Japan Manufacturing Plants: Are They Well Managed?', 12 Nov. 1957.
82. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System, pp.107-12. For an anatomy of the traditional customs and beliefs that often continued to regulate business practice in Japan, see NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 15, file 'USOM General (Sept.-Dec. 1957)', C.B. Gordy, 'Japan Manufacturing Plants: Are They Well Managed?', 12 Nov. 1957.
83. NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 2, file 'FOA Productivity - Top Management Team 1955', 'Evaluation Meeting with the Japanese Top Management Study Group, 10 October 1955', p.1; APO, Achievements, pp.71-3.
84. NAW RG 469, USOM Executive Office, box 2, file 'FOA Productivity - Top Management Team 1955', 'Evaluation Meeting with the Japanese Top Management Study Group, 10 October 1955', p.1; APO, Achievements, pp.71-3.
85. APO, Industrial Relations and Productivity in Japan (Tokyo, 1971), pp.60-63. It is also clear that many Japanese trade unionists were unsure about American ideas; see, for example, B. Karsh, 'The Exportability of Trade Union Movements: The Japan-U.S. Trade Union "Cultural Exchange Program"', in Japan Institute of Labour, The Changing Patterns of Industrial Relations (Tokyo, 1965), pp.55-68.
86. APO, Industrial Relations and Productivity in Japan (Tokyo, 1971), pp.60-63. It is also clear that many Japanese trade unionists were unsure about American ideas; see, for example, B. Karsh, 'The Exportability of Trade Union Movements: The Japan-U.S. Trade Union "Cultural Exchange Program"', in Japan Institute of Labour, The Changing Patterns of Industrial Relations (Tokyo, 1965), pp.55-68.
87. See, for example, APO, Introduction and Development of Industrial Engineering in Japan (Tokyo, 1970); and H. Sugisawa and M. Imaizumi, 'Trends and Future Problems of IE Activities in the Japanese Steel Industry', in R. Muramatsu and N.A. Dudley (eds.), Production and Industrial Systems: Future Development and the Role of Industrial and Production Engineering (London, 1978), pp.57-64.
88. See, for example, APO, Introduction and Development of Industrial Engineering in Japan (Tokyo, 1970); and H. Sugisawa and M. Imaizumi, 'Trends and Future Problems of IE Activities in the Japanese Steel Industry', in R. Muramatsu and N.A. Dudley (eds.), Production and Industrial Systems: Future Development and the Role of Industrial and Production Engineering (London, 1978), pp.57-64.
89. S.G. Yulke Company, 'Report on a Project of Technical Assistance to the Japan Productivity Center' (Washington. DC, n.d., but 1958), pp.27-8.
90. See, for example, Wolf Management Engineering Company, 'Final Report of Corporation Control Specialist Japan' (Washington, DC, 1958), p.9.
91. Yulke Company, 'Report', p.42.
92. Ibid., p.30.
93. Potter, An Evaluation, pp.45-7.
94. B.C. Dees, The Allied Occupation and Japan's Economic Miracle (Richmond, Surrey, 1997).
95. U.S. Department of Commerce, Investment in Japan (Washington, 1956), especially pp.61-6.
96. R.J. Samuels, 'Rich Nation, Strong Army': National Security and the Technological Transformation of Japan (Ithaca, NY, 1994).
97. See, for example, the feature on some Japanese executives' travels abroad in the Oriental Economist, 29 April 1950.
98. It is easy to overlook the fact that the Japanese found foreign travel very difficult during these years, for both administrative and economic reasons.
99. S. Takezawa, Japan Work Ways, 1960-1976-1990 (Tokyo, 1995), pp.2-3; see also Tsutsui, Manufacturing Ideology, pp.160-61.
100. S. Takezawa, Japan Work Ways, 1960-1976-1990 (Tokyo, 1995), pp.2-3; see also Tsutsui, Manufacturing Ideology, pp.160-61.
101. K. Koyanagi, Statistical Quality Control in Japanese Industry (Tokyo, 1952); W. Tsutsui, 'W. Edwards Deming and the Origins of Quality Control in Japan', Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol.22 (1996), pp.295-325.
102. K. Koyanagi, Statistical Quality Control in Japanese Industry (Tokyo, 1952); W. Tsutsui, 'W. Edwards Deming and the Origins of Quality Control in Japan', Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol.22 (1996), pp.295-325.
103. See, for example, Landes, 'Survey'; Quality Control Specialist Study Team, Quality Control in Japan (Tokyo, 1958); and M.J. Peck and S. Tamura, 'Technology', in H. Patrick and H. Rosovsky (eds.), Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, DC, 1976), pp.537-8, n.19 (which presents interesting survey findings on Japanese perceptions of the 'technology gap' with America).
104. See, for example, Landes, 'Survey'; Quality Control Specialist Study Team, Quality Control in Japan (Tokyo, 1958); and M.J. Peck and S. Tamura, 'Technology', in H. Patrick and H. Rosovsky (eds.), Asia's New Giant: How the Japanese Economy Works (Washington, DC, 1976), pp.537-8, n.19 (which presents interesting survey findings on Japanese perceptions of the 'technology gap' with America).
105. W.S. Hunsberger, Japan and the United States in World Trade (New York, 1964), pp.80-82.
106. Yoshino, Japan's Managerial System, pp.33-4.
107. For example, 46 per cent of the 141 US-Japanese agreements completed between 1950 and 1954 concerned chemicals or communications: see the listing in US Department of Commerce, Investment in Japan, pp.103-14.
108. Anon., 'Japan's Technological Regeneration', Oriental Economist, Vol. 25 (1957), p.293.
109. R.J. Filer, 'Foreign Productivity Centers - What We Can Import from Them', Management Review, Vol.64 (1975), pp.22-8.