The benefits of difficult transitions

Democratization

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 46-62

  Casper, Gretchen ^a  

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUTHORITARIANISM; DEMOCRATIC TRANSITION; DEMOCRATIZATION; POLITICAL CHANGE;

EID: 0033751447     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510340008403671     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p.6.
2. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
3. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
4. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
5. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
6. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
7. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
8. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
9. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
10. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
11. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
12. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
13. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
14. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
15. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
16. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
17. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
18. See Dankwart Rustow, 'Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Politics, Vol.2 (1970), pp.337-63; Edward C. Epstein, 'Legitimacy, Institutionalization, and Opposition in Exclusionary Bureaucratic-Authoritarian Regimes', Comparative Politics, Vol.17 (1984), pp.37-54; Fernando H. Cardoso, 'Entrepreneurs and the Transition Process: The Brazilian Case', in Guillermo O'Donnell, Philippe G. Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); Jonathan Hartlyn and Samuel Morley, Latin American Political Economy, (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1986); Adam Przeworski, 'Some Problems in the Study of the Transition to Democracy', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Alfred Stepan, 'Paths toward Redemocratization: Theoretical and Comparative Considerations', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Laurence Whitehead, 'International Aspects of Democratization', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op cit.; Cole Blasier, 'The United States and Democracy in Latin America', in James M. Malloy and Mitchell A. Seligson (eds.), Authoritarians and Democrats: Regime Transition in Latin America (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987); Susan Eckstein, 'Power and Popular Protest in Latin America', in Susan Eckstein (ed.). Power and Popular Protest: Latin American Social Movements (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1989); Terry Lynn Karl, 'Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.23 (1990), pp.1-22; Thomas Carothers, In the Name of Democracy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1991); Ruth Berins Collier and David Collier, Shaping the Political Arena (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 1991); Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Nancy Bermeo, 'Democracy and the Lessons of Dictatorship', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.305-22; Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Karen L. Remmer, 'New Theoretical Perspectives on Democratization', Comparative Politics, Vol.28 (1995), pp. 103-22.
19. See Stepan, 'Paths'; Karl, 'Dilemmas'; Robert M. Fishman, 'Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe's Transition to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.42 (1990), pp.422-10; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe', International Social Science Journal, Vol.43 (1991), pp.269-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Robert H. Dix, 'History and Democracy Revisited', Comparative Politics, Vol.27 (1994), pp.91-105; Deborah J. Yashar, 'Coalitions of Counter-Reform: Explaining Democracy and Authoritarianism in Costa Rica and Guatemala', paper presented at the American Political Science Association meetings, New York Hilton, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Felipe Aguero, 'Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America', Mershon International Studies Review, Vol.42 (1998), pp.383-404.
20. See Stepan, 'Paths'; Karl, 'Dilemmas'; Robert M. Fishman, 'Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe's Transition to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.42 (1990), pp.422-10; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe', International Social Science Journal, Vol.43 (1991), pp.269-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Robert H. Dix, 'History and Democracy Revisited', Comparative Politics, Vol.27 (1994), pp.91-105; Deborah J. Yashar, 'Coalitions of Counter-Reform: Explaining Democracy and Authoritarianism in Costa Rica and Guatemala', paper presented at the American Political Science Association meetings, New York Hilton, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Felipe Aguero, 'Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America', Mershon International Studies Review, Vol.42 (1998), pp.383-404.
21. See Stepan, 'Paths'; Karl, 'Dilemmas'; Robert M. Fishman, 'Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe's Transition to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.42 (1990), pp.422-10; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe', International Social Science Journal, Vol.43 (1991), pp.269-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Robert H. Dix, 'History and Democracy Revisited', Comparative Politics, Vol.27 (1994), pp.91-105; Deborah J. Yashar, 'Coalitions of Counter-Reform: Explaining Democracy and Authoritarianism in Costa Rica and Guatemala', paper presented at the American Political Science Association meetings, New York Hilton, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Felipe Aguero, 'Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America', Mershon International Studies Review, Vol.42 (1998), pp.383-404.
22. See Stepan, 'Paths'; Karl, 'Dilemmas'; Robert M. Fishman, 'Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe's Transition to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.42 (1990), pp.422-10; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe', International Social Science Journal, Vol.43 (1991), pp.269-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Robert H. Dix, 'History and Democracy Revisited', Comparative Politics, Vol.27 (1994), pp.91-105; Deborah J. Yashar, 'Coalitions of Counter-Reform: Explaining Democracy and Authoritarianism in Costa Rica and Guatemala', paper presented at the American Political Science Association meetings, New York Hilton, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Felipe Aguero, 'Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America', Mershon International Studies Review, Vol.42 (1998), pp.383-404.
23. See Stepan, 'Paths'; Karl, 'Dilemmas'; Robert M. Fishman, 'Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe's Transition to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.42 (1990), pp.422-10; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe', International Social Science Journal, Vol.43 (1991), pp.269-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Robert H. Dix, 'History and Democracy Revisited', Comparative Politics, Vol.27 (1994), pp.91-105; Deborah J. Yashar, 'Coalitions of Counter-Reform: Explaining Democracy and Authoritarianism in Costa Rica and Guatemala', paper presented at the American Political Science Association meetings, New York Hilton, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Felipe Aguero, 'Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America', Mershon International Studies Review, Vol.42 (1998), pp.383-404.
24. See Stepan, 'Paths'; Karl, 'Dilemmas'; Robert M. Fishman, 'Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe's Transition to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.42 (1990), pp.422-10; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe', International Social Science Journal, Vol.43 (1991), pp.269-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Robert H. Dix, 'History and Democracy Revisited', Comparative Politics, Vol.27 (1994), pp.91-105; Deborah J. Yashar, 'Coalitions of Counter-Reform: Explaining Democracy and Authoritarianism in Costa Rica and Guatemala', paper presented at the American Political Science Association meetings, New York Hilton, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Felipe Aguero, 'Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America', Mershon International Studies Review, Vol.42 (1998), pp.383-404.
25. See Stepan, 'Paths'; Karl, 'Dilemmas'; Robert M. Fishman, 'Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe's Transition to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.42 (1990), pp.422-10; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe', International Social Science Journal, Vol.43 (1991), pp.269-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Robert H. Dix, 'History and Democracy Revisited', Comparative Politics, Vol.27 (1994), pp.91-105; Deborah J. Yashar, 'Coalitions of Counter-Reform: Explaining Democracy and Authoritarianism in Costa Rica and Guatemala', paper presented at the American Political Science Association meetings, New York Hilton, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Felipe Aguero, 'Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America', Mershon International Studies Review, Vol.42 (1998), pp.383-404.
26. See Stepan, 'Paths'; Karl, 'Dilemmas'; Robert M. Fishman, 'Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe's Transition to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.42 (1990), pp.422-10; Terry Lynn Karl and Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Modes of Transition in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe', International Social Science Journal, Vol.43 (1991), pp.269-84; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK and London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Robert H. Dix, 'History and Democracy Revisited', Comparative Politics, Vol.27 (1994), pp.91-105; Deborah J. Yashar, 'Coalitions of Counter-Reform: Explaining Democracy and Authoritarianism in Costa Rica and Guatemala', paper presented at the American Political Science Association meetings, New York Hilton, 1-4 Sept. 1994; Felipe Aguero, 'Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America', Mershon International Studies Review, Vol.42 (1998), pp.383-404.
27. See Terry Lynn Karl, 'Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Charles Guy Gillespie, Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Przeworski, Market; Gary Marks, 'Rational Sources of Chaos in Democratic Transition', American Behavioral Scientist, Vol.35 (1992), pp.397-421; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Baohui Zhang, 'Corporatism, Totalitarianism, and Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.27 (1994), pp.108-36; Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Transitology: The Science or the Art of Democratization', in Joseph S. Tulchin (ed.), The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995).
28. See Terry Lynn Karl, 'Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Charles Guy Gillespie, Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Przeworski, Market; Gary Marks, 'Rational Sources of Chaos in Democratic Transition', American Behavioral Scientist, Vol.35 (1992), pp.397-421; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Baohui Zhang, 'Corporatism, Totalitarianism, and Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.27 (1994), pp.108-36; Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Transitology: The Science or the Art of Democratization', in Joseph S. Tulchin (ed.), The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995).
29. See Terry Lynn Karl, 'Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Charles Guy Gillespie, Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Przeworski, Market; Gary Marks, 'Rational Sources of Chaos in Democratic Transition', American Behavioral Scientist, Vol.35 (1992), pp.397-421; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Baohui Zhang, 'Corporatism, Totalitarianism, and Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.27 (1994), pp.108-36; Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Transitology: The Science or the Art of Democratization', in Joseph S. Tulchin (ed.), The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995).
30. See Terry Lynn Karl, 'Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Charles Guy Gillespie, Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Przeworski, Market; Gary Marks, 'Rational Sources of Chaos in Democratic Transition', American Behavioral Scientist, Vol.35 (1992), pp.397-421; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Baohui Zhang, 'Corporatism, Totalitarianism, and Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.27 (1994), pp.108-36; Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Transitology: The Science or the Art of Democratization', in Joseph S. Tulchin (ed.), The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995).
31. See Terry Lynn Karl, 'Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Charles Guy Gillespie, Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Przeworski, Market; Gary Marks, 'Rational Sources of Chaos in Democratic Transition', American Behavioral Scientist, Vol.35 (1992), pp.397-421; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Baohui Zhang, 'Corporatism, Totalitarianism, and Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.27 (1994), pp.108-36; Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Transitology: The Science or the Art of Democratization', in Joseph S. Tulchin (ed.), The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995).
32. See Terry Lynn Karl, 'Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Charles Guy Gillespie, Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Przeworski, Market; Gary Marks, 'Rational Sources of Chaos in Democratic Transition', American Behavioral Scientist, Vol.35 (1992), pp.397-421; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Baohui Zhang, 'Corporatism, Totalitarianism, and Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.27 (1994), pp.108-36; Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Transitology: The Science or the Art of Democratization', in Joseph S. Tulchin (ed.), The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995).
33. See Terry Lynn Karl, 'Petroleum and Political Pacts: The Transition to Democracy in Venezuela', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.; Charles Guy Gillespie, Negotiating Democracy: Politicians and Generals in Uruguay (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Przeworski, Market; Gary Marks, 'Rational Sources of Chaos in Democratic Transition', American Behavioral Scientist, Vol.35 (1992), pp.397-421; J. Samuel Valenzuela, 'Democratic Consolidation in Post-Transitional Settings: Notion, Process, and Facilitating Conditions', in Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and J. Samuel Valenzuela (eds.), Issues in Democratic Consolidation (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992); Baohui Zhang, 'Corporatism, Totalitarianism, and Transitions to Democracy', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.27 (1994), pp.108-36; Philippe C. Schmitter, 'Transitology: The Science or the Art of Democratization', in Joseph S. Tulchin (ed.), The Consolidation of Democracy in Latin America (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995).
34. See Eduardo Viola and Scott Mainwaring, 'Transitions to Democracy: Brazil and Argentina in the 1980s', International Affairs, Vol.38 (1985), pp.193-219.
35. See Michael Bratton and Nicholas Van de Walle, 'Popular Protest and Political Reform in Africa', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.419-42; Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Nancy Bermeo, 'Myths of Moderation: Confrontation and Conflict during Democratic Transitions', Comparative Politics, Vol.29 (April 1997), pp.305-22.
36. See Michael Bratton and Nicholas Van de Walle, 'Popular Protest and Political Reform in Africa', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.419-42; Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Nancy Bermeo, 'Myths of Moderation: Confrontation and Conflict during Democratic Transitions', Comparative Politics, Vol.29 (April 1997), pp.305-22.
37. See Michael Bratton and Nicholas Van de Walle, 'Popular Protest and Political Reform in Africa', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.419-42; Juan Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); Nancy Bermeo, 'Myths of Moderation: Confrontation and Conflict during Democratic Transitions', Comparative Politics, Vol.29 (April 1997), pp.305-22.
38. See María Helena Moreira Alves, 'Dilemmas of the Consolidation of Democracy from the Top in Brazil', Latin American Perspectives, Vol.15 (1988), pp.47-63; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'.
39. See María Helena Moreira Alves, 'Dilemmas of the Consolidation of Democracy from the Top in Brazil', Latin American Perspectives, Vol.15 (1988), pp.47-63; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'.
40. See Donald Share, 'Transitions to Democracy and Transitions through Transaction', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.19 (1987), pp.525-48.
41. Todd Eisenstadt, 'Eddies in the Third Wave? Protracted Transitions and Theories of Democratization', background paper for a conference of the same name at El Colegio de México, May 1999, p.1.
42. S.M. Lipset, Political Man (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), p.27. See also Robert A. Dahl, Poliarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1971); S.P. Huntington, op. cit.; Linz and Stepan, op. cit; D. Collier and S. Levitsky, 'Democracy with Adjectives', World Politics, Vol.49 (1997), pp.430-51; Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens, op. cit.
43. S.M. Lipset, Political Man (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), p.27. See also Robert A. Dahl, Poliarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1971); S.P. Huntington, op. cit.; Linz and Stepan, op. cit; D. Collier and S. Levitsky, 'Democracy with Adjectives', World Politics, Vol.49 (1997), pp.430-51; Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens, op. cit.
44. S.M. Lipset, Political Man (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), p.27.
45. S.M. Lipset, Political Man (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), p.27. See also Robert A. Dahl, Poliarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1971); S.P. Huntington, op. cit.; Linz and Stepan, op. cit; D. Collier and S. Levitsky, 'Democracy with Adjectives', World Politics, Vol.49 (1997), pp.430-51; Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens, op. cit.
46. S.M. Lipset, Political Man (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), p.27. See also Robert A. Dahl, Poliarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1971); S.P. Huntington, op. cit.; Linz and Stepan, op. cit; D. Collier and S. Levitsky, 'Democracy with Adjectives', World Politics, Vol.49 (1997), pp.430-51; Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens, op. cit.
47. S.M. Lipset, Political Man (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963), p.27. See also Robert A. Dahl, Poliarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1971); S.P. Huntington, op. cit.; Linz and Stepan, op. cit; D. Collier and S. Levitsky, 'Democracy with Adjectives', World Politics, Vol.49 (1997), pp.430-51; Huber, Rueschemeyer, and Stephens, op. cit.
48. Valenzuela, op. cit., p.82.
49. Ibid., p.62.
50. See Rustow, op. cit.; Daniel H. Levine, 'Venezuela since 1958: The Consolidation of Democratic Politics', in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan (eds.), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Karl, op. cit. and Schmitter, op. cit.; Bermeo, 'Democracy'; John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
51. See Rustow, op. cit.; Daniel H. Levine, 'Venezuela since 1958: The Consolidation of Democratic Politics', in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan (eds.), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Karl, op. cit. and Schmitter, op. cit.; Bermeo, 'Democracy'; John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
52. See Rustow, op. cit.; Daniel H. Levine, 'Venezuela since 1958: The Consolidation of Democratic Politics', in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan (eds.), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Karl, op. cit. and Schmitter, op. cit.; Bermeo, 'Democracy'; John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
53. See Rustow, op. cit.; Daniel H. Levine, 'Venezuela since 1958: The Consolidation of Democratic Politics', in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan (eds.), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Karl, op. cit. and Schmitter, op. cit.; Bermeo, 'Democracy'; John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
54. See Rustow, op. cit.; Daniel H. Levine, 'Venezuela since 1958: The Consolidation of Democratic Politics', in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan (eds.), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Karl, op. cit. and Schmitter, op. cit.; Bermeo, 'Democracy'; John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
55. See Rustow, op. cit.; Daniel H. Levine, 'Venezuela since 1958: The Consolidation of Democratic Politics', in Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan (eds.), The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Latin America (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); Karl, op. cit. and Schmitter, op. cit.; Bermeo, 'Democracy'; John Higley and Richard Gunther (eds.), Elites and Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
56. See Douglas A. Chalmers and Craig H. Robinson, 'Why Power Contenders Choose Liberalization', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.26 (1982), pp.3-36; Robert R. Kaufman, 'Liberalization and Democratization in South America: Perspectives from the 1970s', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.
57. See Douglas A. Chalmers and Craig H. Robinson, 'Why Power Contenders Choose Liberalization', International Studies Quarterly, Vol.26 (1982), pp.3-36; Robert R. Kaufman, 'Liberalization and Democratization in South America: Perspectives from the 1970s', in O'Donnell, Schmitter and Whitehead, op. cit.
58. See Gretchen Casper and Michelle M. Taylor. Negotiating Democracy: Transitions from Authoritarian Rule (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996).
59. For a detailed discussion of the coding scheme for the outcome of the transition process, see ibid., pp.43-7.
60. See Fredom House, Freedom at Issue (1989-92); Freedom in the World (New York: Freedom House, 1984, 1993, 1994). Freedom House ranks political rights and civil liberties across a 7-point scale, where 1=free and 7=not free. We combined the two scales into a 14-point scale. Then, we followed Freedom House's coding of countries into Free, Partly Free and Not Free categories: countries that ranged between 2-5 were coded consolidating democracies, those between 5-10 were considered democratic installation cases, and those between 11-14 were labeled continued authoritarianism. For a discussion of Freedom House rankings and their correlation with scores from alternate sources, see Mark J. Gasiorowski, 'An Overview of the Political Regime Change Dataset', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.29 (1996), pp.469-83; Mike Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub, Fernando Limongi, and Adam Przeworski, 'Classifying Political Regimes', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.31 (1996), pp.3-36; Alex Inkeles (ed.), On Measuring Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Institute for National Policy Research, 1991), pp.27-51. For a study that uses Freedom House rankings to test the relationship between economic development and democracy, see Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review. Vol.88 (1994), pp.903-10.
61. See Fredom House, Freedom at Issue (1989-92); Freedom in the World (New York: Freedom House, 1984, 1993, 1994). Freedom House ranks political rights and civil liberties across a 7-point scale, where 1=free and 7=not free. We combined the two scales into a 14-point scale. Then, we followed Freedom House's coding of countries into Free, Partly Free and Not Free categories: countries that ranged between 2-5 were coded consolidating democracies, those between 5-10 were considered democratic installation cases, and those between 11-14 were labeled continued authoritarianism. For a discussion of Freedom House rankings and their correlation with scores from alternate sources, see Mark J. Gasiorowski, 'An Overview of the Political Regime Change Dataset', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.29 (1996), pp.469-83; Mike Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub, Fernando Limongi, and Adam Przeworski, 'Classifying Political Regimes', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.31 (1996), pp.3-36; Alex Inkeles (ed.), On Measuring Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Institute for National Policy Research, 1991), pp.27-51. For a study that uses Freedom House rankings to test the relationship between economic development and democracy, see Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review. Vol.88 (1994), pp.903-10.
62. See Fredom House, Freedom at Issue (1989-92); Freedom in the World (New York: Freedom House, 1984, 1993, 1994). Freedom House ranks political rights and civil liberties across a 7-point scale, where 1=free and 7=not free. We combined the two scales into a 14-point scale. Then, we followed Freedom House's coding of countries into Free, Partly Free and Not Free categories: countries that ranged between 2-5 were coded consolidating democracies, those between 5-10 were considered democratic installation cases, and those between 11-14 were labeled continued authoritarianism. For a discussion of Freedom House rankings and their correlation with scores from alternate sources, see Mark J. Gasiorowski, 'An Overview of the Political Regime Change Dataset', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.29 (1996), pp.469-83; Mike Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub, Fernando Limongi, and Adam Przeworski, 'Classifying Political Regimes', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.31 (1996), pp.3-36; Alex Inkeles (ed.), On Measuring Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Institute for National Policy Research, 1991), pp.27-51. For a study that uses Freedom House rankings to test the relationship between economic development and democracy, see Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review. Vol.88 (1994), pp.903-10.
63. See Fredom House, Freedom at Issue (1989-92); Freedom in the World (New York: Freedom House, 1984, 1993, 1994). Freedom House ranks political rights and civil liberties across a 7-point scale, where 1=free and 7=not free. We combined the two scales into a 14-point scale. Then, we followed Freedom House's coding of countries into Free, Partly Free and Not Free categories: countries that ranged between 2-5 were coded consolidating democracies, those between 5-10 were considered democratic installation cases, and those between 11-14 were labeled continued authoritarianism. For a discussion of Freedom House rankings and their correlation with scores from alternate sources, see Mark J. Gasiorowski, 'An Overview of the Political Regime Change Dataset', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.29 (1996), pp.469-83; Mike Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub, Fernando Limongi, and Adam Przeworski, 'Classifying Political Regimes', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.31 (1996), pp.3-36; Alex Inkeles (ed.), On Measuring Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Institute for National Policy Research, 1991), pp.27-51. For a study that uses Freedom House rankings to test the relationship between economic development and democracy, see Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review. Vol.88 (1994), pp.903-10.
64. See Fredom House, Freedom at Issue (1989-92); Freedom in the World (New York: Freedom House, 1984, 1993, 1994). Freedom House ranks political rights and civil liberties across a 7-point scale, where 1=free and 7=not free. We combined the two scales into a 14-point scale. Then, we followed Freedom House's coding of countries into Free, Partly Free and Not Free categories: countries that ranged between 2-5 were coded consolidating democracies, those between 5-10 were considered democratic installation cases, and those between 11-14 were labeled continued authoritarianism. For a discussion of Freedom House rankings and their correlation with scores from alternate sources, see Mark J. Gasiorowski, 'An Overview of the Political Regime Change Dataset', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.29 (1996), pp.469-83; Mike Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub, Fernando Limongi, and Adam Przeworski, 'Classifying Political Regimes', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.31 (1996), pp.3-36; Alex Inkeles (ed.), On Measuring Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Institute for National Policy Research, 1991), pp.27-51. For a study that uses Freedom House rankings to test the relationship between economic development and democracy, see Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review. Vol.88 (1994), pp.903-10.
65. See Fredom House, Freedom at Issue (1989-92); Freedom in the World (New York: Freedom House, 1984, 1993, 1994). Freedom House ranks political rights and civil liberties across a 7-point scale, where 1=free and 7=not free. We combined the two scales into a 14-point scale. Then, we followed Freedom House's coding of countries into Free, Partly Free and Not Free categories: countries that ranged between 2-5 were coded consolidating democracies, those between 5-10 were considered democratic installation cases, and those between 11-14 were labeled continued authoritarianism. For a discussion of Freedom House rankings and their correlation with scores from alternate sources, see Mark J. Gasiorowski, 'An Overview of the Political Regime Change Dataset', Comparative Political Studies, Vol.29 (1996), pp.469-83; Mike Alvarez, José Antonio Cheibub, Fernando Limongi, and Adam Przeworski, 'Classifying Political Regimes', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.31 (1996), pp.3-36; Alex Inkeles (ed.), On Measuring Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Institute for National Policy Research, 1991), pp.27-51. For a study that uses Freedom House rankings to test the relationship between economic development and democracy, see Ross E. Burkhart and Michael S. Lewis-Beck, 'Comparative Democracy: The Economic Development Thesis', American Political Science Review. Vol.88 (1994), pp.903-10.
66. See Przeworski, Market; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'; Gretchen Casper, Fragile Democracies: The Legacies of Authoritarian Rule (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995); Deborah Norden, Military Rebellion in Argentina: Between Coups and Consolidation (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1996); Wendy Hunter, Eroding Military Influence in Brazil: Politicians Against Soldiers (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
67. See Przeworski, Market; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'; Gretchen Casper, Fragile Democracies: The Legacies of Authoritarian Rule (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995); Deborah Norden, Military Rebellion in Argentina: Between Coups and Consolidation (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1996); Wendy Hunter, Eroding Military Influence in Brazil: Politicians Against Soldiers (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
68. See Przeworski, Market; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'; Gretchen Casper, Fragile Democracies: The Legacies of Authoritarian Rule (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995); Deborah Norden, Military Rebellion in Argentina: Between Coups and Consolidation (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1996); Wendy Hunter, Eroding Military Influence in Brazil: Politicians Against Soldiers (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
69. See Przeworski, Market; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'; Gretchen Casper, Fragile Democracies: The Legacies of Authoritarian Rule (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995); Deborah Norden, Military Rebellion in Argentina: Between Coups and Consolidation (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1996); Wendy Hunter, Eroding Military Influence in Brazil: Politicians Against Soldiers (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
70. See Przeworski, Market; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'; Gretchen Casper, Fragile Democracies: The Legacies of Authoritarian Rule (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995); Deborah Norden, Military Rebellion in Argentina: Between Coups and Consolidation (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1996); Wendy Hunter, Eroding Military Influence in Brazil: Politicians Against Soldiers (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
71. See Scott Mainwaring, 'Democracy in Brazil and the Southern Cone: Achievements and Problems', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol.37 (1995), pp.113-79; Daniel H. Levine, 'Paradigm Lost: Dependency to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.40 (1994), pp.377-94; Adam Przeworski, Sustainable Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
72. See Scott Mainwaring, 'Democracy in Brazil and the Southern Cone: Achievements and Problems', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol.37 (1995), pp.113-79; Daniel H. Levine, 'Paradigm Lost: Dependency to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.40 (1994), pp.377-94; Adam Przeworski, Sustainable Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
73. See Scott Mainwaring, 'Democracy in Brazil and the Southern Cone: Achievements and Problems', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol.37 (1995), pp.113-79; Daniel H. Levine, 'Paradigm Lost: Dependency to Democracy', World Politics, Vol.40 (1994), pp.377-94; Adam Przeworski, Sustainable Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
74. See Huntington, op. cit.
75. The most straightforward transition is where the installation of a democratic government follows soon after. However, a transition may last for decades before democracy is installed. Or, an authoritarian regime may liberalize but block an actual move to democracy. It is also possible for countries to experience several transition attempts across the life-span of the regime, where the regime is successful in blocking all but the last attempt at change. To deal systematically with this range of variance, we chose one transition per country, and used a critical juncture to identify the starting point of that transition.
76. For a detailed discussion of how the structured comparisons were constructed, see Casper and Taylor, op. cit., pp.22-37.
77. Collier and Collier, Shaping, p.27.
78. Other scholars have used different starting points in researching transitions. Some have considered the date at which the authoritarian regime has starting a liberalization process. Others, including the scholars in this volume, have chosen to start their analysis at the point when the opposition becomes a vocal actor for political change. Bratton and van de Walle use the date of the first protest as a starting point; however, they concede that 'pinpointing the genesis of these events is difficult, since there is no logical place to start a chronology' (Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest', p.422). Given these considerations, we chose critical junctures because they were identifiable and conservative indicators of political openings.
79. For a detailed discussion regarding the coding scheme for these three factors, see Casper and Taylor, op. cit., pp.47-56.
80. We consider three actors: the defender, the challenger, and the mass public. The defender is the incumbent actor. Usually this is the authoritarian regime, but it could be an actor that overthrew the regime during the critical juncture and is the status quo ruler. The challenger wants to replace the defender as ruler. Both the defender and the challenger can be individuals but are more likely to be elite coalitions. The mass public can signal its support or opposition to the defender and the challenger. For more discussion of the identification of actors, see Casper and Taylor, op. cit., pp. 19-22.
81. Good examples would be Turkey, from 1980 to 1983, and Sudan, from 1985 to 1986. Bratton and van de Walle argue that military oligarchies are more willing to exit than other types of authoritarian regimes, in Michael Bratton & Nicholas Van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspectives (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
82. See Francisco Nemenzo, 'A Season of Coups', Kasarinlan, Vol.2 (1987), pp.5-14; David Wurfel, Filipino Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988).
83. See Francisco Nemenzo, 'A Season of Coups', Kasarinlan, Vol.2 (1987), pp.5-14; David Wurfel, Filipino Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988).
84. See Raymond Bonner, Waltzing with a Dictator (New York: Times Books, 1987); Bryan Johnson, The Four Days of Courage (New York: Free Press, 1987); Mark R. Thompson, The Anti-Marcos Struggle (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).
85. See Raymond Bonner, Waltzing with a Dictator (New York: Times Books, 1987); Bryan Johnson, The Four Days of Courage (New York: Free Press, 1987); Mark R. Thompson, The Anti-Marcos Struggle (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).
86. See Raymond Bonner, Waltzing with a Dictator (New York: Times Books, 1987); Bryan Johnson, The Four Days of Courage (New York: Free Press, 1987); Mark R. Thompson, The Anti-Marcos Struggle (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995).
87. See Belinda A. Aquino, 'The Philippines: End of an Era', Current History, Vol.85 (1986), pp.155-8 and 184-5; William H. Overholt, 'The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand Marcos', Asian Survey, Vol.26 (1986), pp.1137-63; Bernardo Villegas, 'The Philippines in 1986: Democratic Reconstruction in the Post-Marcos Era', Asian Survey, Vol.27 (1987), pp. 194-205.
88. See Belinda A. Aquino, 'The Philippines: End of an Era', Current History, Vol.85 (1986), pp.155-8 and 184-5; William H. Overholt, 'The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand Marcos', Asian Survey, Vol.26 (1986), pp.1137-63; Bernardo Villegas, 'The Philippines in 1986: Democratic Reconstruction in the Post-Marcos Era', Asian Survey, Vol.27 (1987), pp. 194-205.
89. See Belinda A. Aquino, 'The Philippines: End of an Era', Current History, Vol.85 (1986), pp.155-8 and 184-5; William H. Overholt, 'The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand Marcos', Asian Survey, Vol.26 (1986), pp.1137-63; Bernardo Villegas, 'The Philippines in 1986: Democratic Reconstruction in the Post-Marcos Era', Asian Survey, Vol.27 (1987), pp. 194-205.
90. For a detailed discussion of the comparative case histories, see Casper and Taylor, op. cit., pp.41-2. For a study that uses secondary sources to explain variance across institutional structures, see Matthew Soberg Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
91. For a detailed discussion of the comparative case histories, see Casper and Taylor, op. cit., pp.41-2. For a study that uses secondary sources to explain variance across institutional structures, see Matthew Soberg Shugart and John M. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
92. For further discussion of data collection regarding democratic consolidation, see Casper and Taylor, op. cit., pp. 186-8.
93. See Karl, 'Dilemmas'; David Collier and Deborah L. Norden, 'Strategic Choice Models of Political Change in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.229-43; Higley and Gunther, op. cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'.
94. See Karl, 'Dilemmas'; David Collier and Deborah L. Norden, 'Strategic Choice Models of Political Change in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.229-43; Higley and Gunther, op. cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'.
95. See Karl, 'Dilemmas'; David Collier and Deborah L. Norden, 'Strategic Choice Models of Political Change in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.229-43; Higley and Gunther, op. cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'.
96. See Karl, 'Dilemmas'; David Collier and Deborah L. Norden, 'Strategic Choice Models of Political Change in Latin America', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (1992), pp.229-43; Higley and Gunther, op. cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, 'Protest'.
97. See Sung-Joo Han, 'South Korea in 1987', Asian Review, Vol.28 (1988), pp.52-60; James Cotton, 'From Authoritarianism to Democracy in South Korea', Political Studies, Vol.37 (1989), pp.244-59.
98. See Sung-Joo Han, 'South Korea in 1987', Asian Review, Vol.28 (1988), pp.52-60; James Cotton, 'From Authoritarianism to Democracy in South Korea', Political Studies, Vol.37 (1989), pp.244-59.
99. See L. W. Pevsner, Turkey's Political Crisis: Background, Perspectives, Prospects (New York: Praeger, 1984); Kemal H. Karpat, 'Military Interventions: Army-Civilian Relations in Turkey Before and After 1980', in Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (eds.), State, Democracy, and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988).
100. See L. W. Pevsner, Turkey's Political Crisis: Background, Perspectives, Prospects (New York: Praeger, 1984); Kemal H. Karpat, 'Military Interventions: Army-Civilian Relations in Turkey Before and After 1980', in Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (eds.), State, Democracy, and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988).
101. See Burma Watcher, 'Burma in 1988: There Came a Whirlwind', Asian Survey, Vol.29 (1989), pp.174-80; Mya Maung, 'The Burma Road from the Union of Burma to Myanmar', Asian Survey, Vol.30 (1990), pp.603-24; James Guyol, 'Myanmar in 1990: The Unconsummated Election', Asian Survey, Vol.31 (1991), pp.205-11.
102. See Burma Watcher, 'Burma in 1988: There Came a Whirlwind', Asian Survey, Vol.29 (1989), pp.174-80; Mya Maung, 'The Burma Road from the Union of Burma to Myanmar', Asian Survey, Vol.30 (1990), pp.603-24; James Guyol, 'Myanmar in 1990: The Unconsummated Election', Asian Survey, Vol.31 (1991), pp.205-11.
103. See Burma Watcher, 'Burma in 1988: There Came a Whirlwind', Asian Survey, Vol.29 (1989), pp.174-80; Mya Maung, 'The Burma Road from the Union of Burma to Myanmar', Asian Survey, Vol.30 (1990), pp.603-24; James Guyol, 'Myanmar in 1990: The Unconsummated Election', Asian Survey, Vol.31 (1991), pp.205-11.
104. Certain paths are more likely to result in democratic installation or a consolidating democracy. However, it is also possible for countries that have followed the extreme conflict path to experience successful democratization, and for countries on the compromise path to consolidate (Schmitter, op. cit., p.32; Casper and Taylor, op. cit., pp.142, 207-13). Examples include the Philippines, Hungary, Portugal and Spain.
105. Certain paths are more likely to result in democratic installation or a consolidating democracy. However, it is also possible for countries that have followed the extreme conflict path to experience successful democratization, and for countries on the compromise path to consolidate (Schmitter, op. cit., p.32; Casper and Taylor, op. cit., pp.142, 207-13). Examples include the Philippines, Hungary, Portugal and Spain.
106. See M. Bratton and N. van de Walle, 'Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa', World Politics, Vol.46 (1994), pp.453-89; Linz and Stepan, op. cit., B. Geddes, 'What Do We Know about Democratization After Twenty Years?', paper presented at the APSA meetings, Boston, 3-6 Sept. 1998.
107. See M. Bratton and N. van de Walle, 'Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa', World Politics, Vol.46 (1994), pp.453-89; Linz and Stepan, op. cit., B. Geddes, 'What Do We Know about Democratization After Twenty Years?', paper presented at the APSA meetings, Boston, 3-6 Sept. 1998.
108. See M. Bratton and N. van de Walle, 'Neopatrimonial Regimes and Political Transitions in Africa', World Politics, Vol.46 (1994), pp.453-89; Linz and Stepan, op. cit., B. Geddes, 'What Do We Know about Democratization After Twenty Years?', paper presented at the APSA meetings, Boston, 3-6 Sept. 1998.
109. See Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); Karen L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Winchester: Unwin, Hyman, 1989); Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Casper, op.cit.; Norden, op.cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; Hunter, op. cit.
110. See Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); Karen L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Winchester: Unwin, Hyman, 1989); Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Casper, op.cit.; Norden, op.cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; Hunter, op. cit.
111. See Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); Karen L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Winchester: Unwin, Hyman, 1989); Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Casper, op.cit.; Norden, op.cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; Hunter, op. cit.
112. See Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); Karen L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Winchester: Unwin, Hyman, 1989); Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Casper, op.cit.; Norden, op.cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; Hunter, op. cit.
113. See Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); Karen L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Winchester: Unwin, Hyman, 1989); Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Casper, op.cit.; Norden, op.cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; Hunter, op. cit.
114. See Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); Karen L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Winchester: Unwin, Hyman, 1989); Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Casper, op.cit.; Norden, op.cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; Hunter, op. cit.
115. See Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); Karen L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Winchester: Unwin, Hyman, 1989); Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Casper, op.cit.; Norden, op.cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; Hunter, op. cit.
116. See Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988); David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and Peru (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); Karen L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Winchester: Unwin, Hyman, 1989); Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); Casper, op.cit.; Norden, op.cit.; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; Hunter, op. cit.
117. See Bratton and van de Walle, 'Neopatrimonial'.
118. See Bratton and van de Walle, 'Neopatrimonial', and Huntington, op. cit..
119. See Linz and Stepan; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; H.E. Chehabi and Juan J. Linz (eds.), Sultanistic Regimes (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
120. See Linz and Stepan; Bratton and van de Walle, Democratic; H.E. Chehabi and Juan J. Linz (eds.), Sultanistic Regimes (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
121. See Huntington, op. cit.; Mark J. Gasiorowski, The Political Regime Change Datatset (unpublished manuscript, Louisiana State University, 1993); and Alvarez et al., op. cit.
122. See Huntington, op. cit.; Mark J. Gasiorowski, The Political Regime Change Datatset (unpublished manuscript, Louisiana State University, 1993); and Alvarez et al., op. cit.
123. See Huntington, op. cit.; Mark J. Gasiorowski, The Political Regime Change Datatset (unpublished manuscript, Louisiana State University, 1993); and Alvarez et al., op. cit.
124. It should be noted that the transitions were measured from the critical juncture, whereas other scholars have used different starting points in assessing transitions toward democracy. Several authors in this volume suggest that the 'protractedness' of a transition may best be measured from the opposition's perspective, that is from the moment that the opposition was first able to articulate large-scale defiance.