Treatment of attention-deficit - Hyperactivity disorder

New England Journal of Medicine

Volumn 340, Issue 10, 1999, Pages 780-788

  Elia, Josephine ^a,b   Ambrosini, Paul J ^c   Rapoport, Judith L ^d  

^a CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OF PHILADELPHIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^c DREXEL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; CLONIDINE; DEXAMPHETAMINE; IMIPRAMINE; METHYLPHENIDATE; PEMOLINE; PSYCHOSTIMULANT AGENT; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

ANTICHOLINERGIC EFFECT; APPETITE DISORDER; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG HALF LIFE; GASTROINTESTINAL TOXICITY; GENETICS; HUMAN; NEUROTOXICITY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSOCIAL CARE; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; TIC; TOXIC HEPATITIS; TRANSDERMAL DRUG ADMINISTRATION;

EID: 0033545537     PISSN: 00284793     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199903113401007     Document Type: Review

References (84)

1. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed.: DSM-IV. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
2. Weiss G, Hechtman L, Milroy T, Perlman T. Psychiatric status of hyperactives as adults: a controlled prospective 15-year follow-up of 63 hyperactive children. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1985;24:211-20.
3. Gittelman R, Mannuzza S, Shenkcr R, Bonagura N. Hyperactive boys almost grown up. I. Psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:937-47.
4. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A, Malloy P, LaPadula M. Adult outcome of hyperactive boys: educational achievement, occupational rank, and psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:565-76.
5. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bonagura N, Malloy P, Giampino TL, Addalli KA. Hyperactive boys almost grown up. V. Replication of psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:77-83.
6. Mannuzza S, Klein RG, Bessler A, Malloy P, LaPadula M. Adult psychiatric status of hyperactive boys grown up. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155: 493-8.
7. Claude D, Firestone P. The development of ADHD boys: a 12-year follow-up. Can J Behav Sci 1995;27:226-49.
8. Levy F, Hay DA, McStephcn M, Wood C, Waldman I. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36:737-44.
9. McConaughy SH, Achenbach TM. Comorbidity of empirically based syndromes in matched general population and clinic samples. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1994;35:1141-57.
10. Wolraich ML, Hannah JN, Pinnock TY, Baumgaertel A, Brown J. Comparison of diagnostic criteria for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in a county-wide sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996; 35:319-24.
11. Zametkin AJ, Ernst M. Problems in the management of attention-deficit-hypcractivity disorder. N Engl J Med 1999;340:40-6.
12. Hyperkinetic disorder: prevalence, definition, and associations. In: Taylor E, Sandberg S, Thorley G, Giles S. The epidemiology of childhood hyperactivity. Maudsley monographs no. 33. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1991:93-113.
13. Baumgaertel A, Wolraich ML, Dietrich M. Comparison of diagnostic criteria for attention deficit disorders in a German elementary school sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995;34:629-38.
14. Anderson JC, Williams S, McGee R, Silva PA. DSM-III disorders in preadolescent children: prevalence in a large sample from the general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:69-76.
15. Bird HR, Gould MS, Staghezza BM. Patterns of diagnostic comorbidity in a community sample of children aged 9 through 16 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993;32:361-8.
16. Szatmari P, Boyle M, Offord DR. ADDH and conduct disorder: degree of diagnostic overlap and differences among correlates. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1989;28:865-72.
17. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Lynskey MT. Prevalence and comorbidity of DSM-III-R diagnoses in a birth cohort of 15 year olds. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993;32:1127-34.
18. Cohen P, Cohen J, Kasen S, et al. An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence. I. Age-and gender-specific prevalence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1993;34:851-67
19. Shaffer D, Fisher P, Dulcan MK, et al. The NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children version 2.3 (DISC-2.3): description, acceptability, prevalence rates, and performance in the MECA Study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:865-77.
20. August GJ, Realmuto GM, MacDonald AW III, Nugent SM, Crosby R. Prevalence of ADHD and comorbid disorders among elementary school children screened for disruptive behavior. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1996;24:571-95.
21. Barkley RA, Fischer M, Edelbrock CS, Smallish L. The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria. I. An 8-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990;29: 546-57.
22. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Spencer T, Wilens T, Mick E, Lapey KA. Gender differences in a sample of adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res 1994;53:13-29.
23. Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Marsh WL, et al. Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996,53:607-16
24. Giros B, Jaber M, Jones SR, Wightman RM, Caron MG. Hyperlocomotion and indifference to cocaine and amphetamine in mice lacking the dopamine transporter. Nature 1996;379:606-12.
25. Cook EH Jr, Stein MA, Krasowski MD, et al. Association of attention-deficit disorder and the dopamine transporter gene. Am J Hum Genet 1995;56:993-8.
26. Gill M, Daly G, Heron S, Hawi Z, Fitzgerald M. Confirmation of association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and a dopamine transporter polymorphism. Mol Psychiatry 1997;2:311-3.
27. LaHoste GJ, Swanson JM, Wigal SB, et al. Dopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphism is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mol Psychiatry 1996;1:121-4.
28. Swanson JM, Sunohara GA, Kennedy JL, et al. Association of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene with a refined phenotype of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a family-based approach. Mol Psychiatry 1998;3:38-41.
29. Castellanos FX, Lau E, Tayebi N, et al. Lack of association between a dopamine-4 receptor polymorphism and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: genetic and brain morphometric analyses. Mol Psychiatry 1998; 3:431-4.
30. Shaffer D. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Am J Psychiatry 1994;151:633-8.
31. Hart EL, Lahey BB, Loeber R, Applegate B, Frick PJ. Developmental change in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in boys: a four-year longitudinal study. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1995;23:729-49.
32. Biederman J, Faraone S, Milberger S, et al. A prospective 4-year follow-up study of attention-deficit hyperactivity and related disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:437-46.
33. Mannuzza D, Klein RG, Bonagura N, Konig PH, Shenker R. Hyperactive boys almost grown up. II. Status of subjects without a mental disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:13-8.
34. Hechtman L, Weiss G, Perlman T. Young adult outcome of hyperactive children who received long-term stimulant treatment. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1984;23:261-9.
35. Fischer M, Barkley RA, Fletcher KE, Smallish L. The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children: predictors of psychiatric, academic, social, and emotional adjustment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1993;32: 324-32.
36. Bradley C. Behavior of children receiving benzedrine. Am J Psychiatry 1937;94:577-85.
37. Spencer T, Biederman J, Wilens T, Harding M, O'Donnell D, Griffin S. Pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder across the life cycle. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:409-32.
38. Gillberg C, Melander H, von Knorring AL, et al. Long-term stimulant treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997;54:857-54.
39. Klorman R, Brumaghim JT, Fitzpatrick PA, Borgstedt AD. Clinical effects of a controlled trial of methylphenidate on adolescents with attention deficit disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1990;29:702-9.
40. Barkley RA. Hyperactive girls and boys: stimulant drug effects on mother-child interactions. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1989;30:379-90. [Erratum, J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1993;34:437]
41. Whalen CK, Henker B. Social impact of stimulant treatment for hyperactive children. J Learn Disabil 1991;24:231-41.
42. Elia J, Welsh PA, Gullotta CS, Rapoport JL. Classroom academic performance: improvement with both methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine in ADHD boys. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 1993;34:785-804.
43. Rapport MD, Denney C, DuPaul GJ, Gardner MJ. Attention deficit disorder and methylphenidate: normalization rates, clinical effectiveness, and response prediction in 76 children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1994;33:882-93.
44. Rapport MD, Kelly KL. Psychostimulant effects on learning and cognitive function: findings and implications for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clin Psychol Rev 1991;11:61-92.
45. Rapoport JL, Buchsbaum MS, Weingartner H, Zahn TP, Ludlow C, Mikkelsen EJ. Dextroamphetamine: its cognitive and behavioral effects in normal and hyperactive boys and normal men. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980; 37:933-43.
46. Aman MG, Pejeau C, Osborne P, Rojahn J, Handen B. Four-year follow-up of children with low intelligence and ADHD. Res Dev Disabil 1996;17:417-32.
47. Klein RG, Abikoff H, Klass E, Ganeles D, Seese LM, Pollack S. Clinical efficacy of methylphenidate in conduct disorder with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997;54:1073-80.
48. Pelham WE Jr, Greenslade KE, Vodde-Hamilton M, et al. Relative efficacy of long-acting stimulants on children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of standard methylphenidate, sustained-release methylphenidate, sustained-release dextroamphetamine, and pemoline. Pediatrics 1990;86:226-37.
49. Gross-Tsur V, Manor O, van der Meere J, Joseph A, Shalev RS. Epilepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders: is methylphenidate safe and effective? J Pediatr 1997;130:670-4.
50. Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Elia J, et al. Controlled stimulant treatment of ADHD and comorbid Tourette's syndrome: effects of stimulant and dose. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36:589-96.
51. Gadow KD, Sverd J, Sprafkin J, Nolan EE, Ezor SN. Efficacy of methylphenidate for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children with tic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:444-5. [Erratum, Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:836.]
52. Swanson JM, Lerner M, Williams L. More frequent diagnosis of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. N Engl J Med 1995;333:944.
53. Millichap JG, Fowler GW. Treatment of "minimal brain dysfunction" syndromes: selection of drugs for children with hyperactivity and learning disabilities. Pediatr Clin North Am 1967;14:767-77:
54. Elia J, Borcherding BG, Rapoport JL, Keysor CS. Methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine treatments of hyperactivity: are there true nonresponders? Psychiatry Res 1991;36:141-55.
55. Winsberg BG, Press M, Bialer I, Kupietz S. Dextroamphctamine and methylphenidate in the treatment of hyperactive-aggressive children. Pediatrics 1974;53:236-41.
56. Birmaher B, Greenhill LL, Cooper TB, Fried J, Maminski B. Sustained release methylphenidate: pharmacokinetic studies in ADDH males. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1989;28:768-72.
57. Brown GL, Ebert MH, Mikkelsen EJ, Hunt RD. Behavior and motor activity response in hyperactive children and plasma amphetamine levels following a sustained release preparation. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry 1980;19:225-39.
58. Brown GL, Hunt RD, Ebert MH, Bunney WE Jr, Kopin IJ. Plasma levels of d-amphetamine in hyperactive children: serial behavior and motor responses. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1979;62:133-40.
59. Sallee FR, Stiller RL, Perel JM. Pharmacodynamics of pemoline in attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1992;31:244-51.
60. Pelham WE Jr, Swanson JM, Furman MB, Schwindt H. Pemoline effects on children with ADHD: a time-response by dose-response analysis on classroom measures. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995;34: 1504-13.
61. Barkley RA, DuPaul GJ, McMurray MB. Attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity: clinical response to three dose levels of methylphenidate. Pediatrics 1991;87:519-31.
62. Rapport MD, Denney C. Titrating methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: is body mass predictive of clinical response? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36:523-30.
63. Klein RG, Bessler AW. Stimulant side effects in children. In: Kane JM, Lieberman JA, eds. Adverse effects of psychotropic drugs. New York: Guilford Press, 1992:470-96.
64. Klein RG, Landa B, Mattes JA, Klein DF. Methylphenidate and growth in hyperactive children: a controlled withdrawal study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:1127-30.
65. Klein RG, Mannuzza S. Hyperactive boys almost grown up. III. Methylphenidate effects on ultimate height. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988;45:1131-4.
66. Spencer TJ, Biederman J, Harding M, O'Donnell D, Faraone SV, Wilens TE. Growth deficits in ADHD children revisited: evidence for disorder-associated growth delays? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996; 35:1460-9.
67. Summaries of "dear health professional" letters and other safety notifications. FDA Med Bull 1997;27(1):6.
68. Denckla MB, Bemporad JR, MacKay MC. Tics following methylphenidate administration: a report of 20 cases. JAMA 1976;235:1349-51.
69. Price RA, Leckman JF, Pauls DL, Cohen DJ, Kidd KK. Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: tics and central nervous system stimulants in twins and nontwins. Neurology 1986;36:232-7.
70. Volkow ND, Ding YS, Fowler JS, et al. Is methylphenidate like cocaine? Studies on their pharmacokinetics and distribution in the human brain. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:456-63.
71. Pliszka SR, McCracken JT, Maas JW. Catecholamines in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current perspectives. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:264-72.
72. Elia J, Borcherding BG, Potter WZ, Mefford IN, Rapoport JL, Keysor CS. Stimulant drug treatment of hyperactivity: biochemical correlates. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990;48:57-66.
73. Quinn PO, Rapoport JL. One-year follow-up of hyperactive boys treated with imipramine or methylphenidate. Am J Psychiatry 1975;132: 241-5.
74. Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Wright V, Knee D, Harmatz JS, Goldblatt A. A double-blind placebo controlled study of desipramine in the treatment of ADD. II. Serum drug levels and cardiovascular findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1989;28:903-11.
75. Singer HS, Brown J, Quaskey S, Rosenberg LA, Mellits ED, Denckla MB. The treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in Tourette's syndrome: a double-blind placebo-controlled study with clonidine and desipramine. Pediatrics 1995;95:74-81.
76. Biederman J, Thisted RA, Greenhill LL, Ryan ND. Estimation of the association between desipramine and the risk for sudden death in 5 to 14-year-old children. J Clin Psychiatry 1995;56:87-93.
77. Varlcy CK, McClellan J. Case study: two additional sudden deaths with tricyclic antidepressants. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36: 390-4.
78. Conners CK, Casat CD, Gualtieri CT, et al. Bupropion hydrochloride in attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1996;35:1314-21.
79. Hunt RD, Capper L, O'Connell P. Clonidine in child and adolescent psychiatry. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 1990;1:87-102.
80. Fenichel RR. Combining methylphenidate and clonidine: the role of post-marketing surveillance. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 1995;5: 155-6.
81. Cantwell DP, Swanson J, Connor DF. Case study: adverse response to clonidine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36:539-44.
82. Pelham WE, Wheeler T, Chronis A. Empirically supported psychosocial treatments for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Psychol 1998;27:190-205.
83. Richters JE, Arnold LE, Jensen PS, et al. NIMH collaborative multisite multimodal treatment study of children with ADHD. I. Background and rationale. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995;34:987-1000.
84. Abikoff H, Gittelman R. Hyperactive children treated with stimulants: is cognitive training a useful adjunct? Arch Gen:Psychiatry 1985;42:953-61.