Language, nationalism, and populism in Belarus

Nationalities Papers

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 661-677

  Goujon, Alexandra ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION; LANGUAGE; NATIONALISM; POWER RELATIONS;

BELARUS;

EID: 0033506618     PISSN: 00905992     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/009059999108885     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. On the Belarusian language, see Belaruskaia mova. entsyklapedyia (Minsk: Belaruskaia Entsyklapedyia, 1994); Alexandra Goujon and Virginie Symaniec, Parlons biélorussien: langue et culture (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1997).
2. On the Belarusian language, see Belaruskaia mova. entsyklapedyia (Minsk: Belaruskaia Entsyklapedyia, 1994); Alexandra Goujon and Virginie Symaniec, Parlons biélorussien: langue et culture (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1997).
3. On the Lukashenka regime, see Heinz Timmermann, "Belarus: eine Diktatur in Europa," Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik, Vol. 42, No. 5, 1997, pp. 597-607; Rainer Lindner, "Präsidialdiktatur in Weissrussland: Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft unter Loukasenka," Osteuropa, Vol. 47, Nos 10-11, 1997, pp. 1038-1052.
4. On the Lukashenka regime, see Heinz Timmermann, "Belarus: eine Diktatur in Europa," Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik, Vol. 42, No. 5, 1997, pp. 597-607; Rainer Lindner, "Präsidialdiktatur in Weissrussland: Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft unter Loukasenka," Osteuropa, Vol. 47, Nos 10-11, 1997, pp. 1038-1052.
5. On the relationship between language and power, see "La division des langues" in: Roland Barthes, Le Bruissement de la langue. Essais critiques IV (Paris: Seuil, 1984), pp. 119-133; Benedict Anderson, Language and Power. Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Jean-William Lapierre, Le pouvoir politique et les langues. Babel et Leviathan (Paris, PUF, 1988).
6. On the relationship between language and power, see "La division des langues" in: Roland Barthes, Le Bruissement de la langue. Essais critiques IV (Paris: Seuil, 1984), pp. 119-133; Benedict Anderson, Language and Power. Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Jean-William Lapierre, Le pouvoir politique et les langues. Babel et Leviathan (Paris, PUF, 1988).
7. On the relationship between language and power, see "La division des langues" in: Roland Barthes, Le Bruissement de la langue. Essais critiques IV (Paris: Seuil, 1984), pp. 119-133; Benedict Anderson, Language and Power. Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); Jean-William Lapierre, Le pouvoir politique et les langues. Babel et Leviathan (Paris, PUF, 1988).
8. Ernest Gellner, Nations et nationalisme (Paris: Editions Payot, 1989), p. 13.
9. On the relationship between language and nationalism, see Joshua A. Fishman, Language and nationalism. Two Integrative Essays (Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1975).
10. On nationalism in Belarus, see Alexandra Goujon, "Belarusian Statehood and Lukashenka's Politics," Belarusian Review, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1998, pp. 7-10; Alexandra Goujon, "La construction de l'Etat-nation en Biélorussie: les fondements politiques et sociaux de deux formes de nationalisme," Cahiers Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, No. 4, 1999, pp. 141-150.
11. On nationalism in Belarus, see Alexandra Goujon, "Belarusian Statehood and Lukashenka's Politics," Belarusian Review, Vol. 10, No. 4, 1998, pp. 7-10; Alexandra Goujon, "La construction de l'Etat-nation en Biélorussie: les fondements politiques et sociaux de deux formes de nationalisme," Cahiers Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, No. 4, 1999, pp. 141-150.
12. On populism, see Margaret Canovan, Populism (New York: Harcourt Brace Janovich, 1981); Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner, eds, Populism. Its Meanings and National Characteristics (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969).
13. On populism, see Margaret Canovan, Populism (New York: Harcourt Brace Janovich, 1981); Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner, eds, Populism. Its Meanings and National Characteristics (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1969).
14. Listy da Harbacova (London: Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain, 1987); Roman Solchanyk, "Letters to Belorussians' Weekly Evidence Strong Support for Native Language," Radio Liberty Research, RL 425/86, 9 November 1986; "A Letter to Gorbachev: Belorussian Intellectuals on the Language Question," Radio Liberty Research, RL 142/87, 20 April, 1987; "An Open Letter to Gorbachev from Belarussia," Radio Liberty Research, RL 344/87, 19 August, 1987.
15. Listy da Harbacova (London: Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain, 1987); Roman Solchanyk, "Letters to Belorussians' Weekly Evidence Strong Support for Native Language," Radio Liberty Research, RL 425/86, 9 November 1986; "A Letter to Gorbachev: Belorussian Intellectuals on the Language Question," Radio Liberty Research, RL 142/87, 20 April, 1987; "An Open Letter to Gorbachev from Belarussia," Radio Liberty Research, RL 344/87, 19 August, 1987.
16. Listy da Harbacova (London: Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain, 1987); Roman Solchanyk, "Letters to Belorussians' Weekly Evidence Strong Support for Native Language," Radio Liberty Research, RL 425/86, 9 November 1986; "A Letter to Gorbachev: Belorussian Intellectuals on the Language Question," Radio Liberty Research, RL 142/87, 20 April, 1987; "An Open Letter to Gorbachev from Belarussia," Radio Liberty Research, RL 344/87, 19 August, 1987.
17. Listy da Harbacova (London: Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain, 1987); Roman Solchanyk, "Letters to Belorussians' Weekly Evidence Strong Support for Native Language," Radio Liberty Research, RL 425/86, 9 November 1986; "A Letter to Gorbachev: Belorussian Intellectuals on the Language Question," Radio Liberty Research, RL 142/87, 20 April, 1987; "An Open Letter to Gorbachev from Belarussia," Radio Liberty Research, RL 344/87, 19 August, 1987.
18. Benedict Anderson, L'imaginaire national. Réflexions sur l'origine et l'essor du nationalisme (Paris: La Découverte, 1996), pp 77-91.
19. On the history of Belarusian nation, see David Marples, Belarus. A Denationalized Nation (Amsterdam: Harwood University Press, 1999).
20. On the history of language issues in Belarus, see Virginie Symaniec, "Biélorussie: langues et politique," Nouveaux Mondes, No. 9 (Geneva: CRES, 1999), pp. 61-80; James Dingley, "Ukrainian and Belorussian - A Testing Ground," in Michael Kirkwood, ed., Language Planning in the Soviet Union (Basingstoke: MacMillan Press, 1989), pp. 174-188.
21. On the history of language issues in Belarus, see Virginie Symaniec, "Biélorussie: langues et politique," Nouveaux Mondes, No. 9 (Geneva: CRES, 1999), pp. 61-80; James Dingley, "Ukrainian and Belorussian - A Testing Ground," in Michael Kirkwood, ed., Language Planning in the Soviet Union (Basingstoke: MacMillan Press, 1989), pp. 174-188.
22. On language policy in the Soviet Union, see Glyn E. Lewis, Multilingualism in the Soviet Union: Aspects of Language Policy and Its Implementation (Paris: La Hague-Mouton, 1973).
23. On Soviet nationalities policy, see Jeremy R. Azrael, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices (New York: Praeger, 1978); Henry R. Huttenbach, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies. Ruling Ethnic Groups in the USSR (London: Mansell, 1990); Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed. Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
24. On Soviet nationalities policy, see Jeremy R. Azrael, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices (New York: Praeger, 1978); Henry R. Huttenbach, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies. Ruling Ethnic Groups in the USSR (London: Mansell, 1990); Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed. Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
25. On Soviet nationalities policy, see Jeremy R. Azrael, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices (New York: Praeger, 1978); Henry R. Huttenbach, ed., Soviet Nationality Policies. Ruling Ethnic Groups in the USSR (London: Mansell, 1990); Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed. Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
26. It is necessary to note precisely that in the 1930s all languages in the Soviet Union, including Russian, were reformed in order to show the well-founded policy of the friendship between people (druzba narodov).
27. Isabelle Kreindler, "The Changing Status of Russian in the Soviet Union," International Journal of the Sociology of Language, No. 33, 1982, pp. 7-39; Patrick Sériot, "La langue, corps pur de la nation. Le discours sur la langue dans la Russie brejnévienne," Les Temps modernes, No. 550, 1992, pp. 186-208.
28. Isabelle Kreindler, "The Changing Status of Russian in the Soviet Union," International Journal of the Sociology of Language, No. 33, 1982, pp. 7-39; Patrick Sériot, "La langue, corps pur de la nation. Le discours sur la langue dans la Russie brejnévienne," Les Temps modernes, No. 550, 1992, pp. 186-208.
29. Jan Zaprudnik, "Developments in Belorussia since 1964," in George W. Simmonds, ed., Nationalism in the USSR and Eastern Europe in the Era of Brezhnev and Kosygin (Detroit: University of Detroit Press, 1977), p. 111.
30. Aleh Bembel', Rodnae Slova i Maral'na-estetychny progress (London: Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain, 1985); Letter to a Russian Friend: A "Samizdat" Publication from Soviet Byelorussia (London: Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain, 1979). Initially published anonymously, this book is known to have been written by Aliakseï Kauka.
31. Aleh Bembel', Rodnae Slova i Maral'na-estetychny progress (London: Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain, 1985); Letter to a Russian Friend: A "Samizdat" Publication from Soviet Byelorussia (London: Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain, 1979). Initially published anonymously, this book is known to have been written by Aliakseï Kauka.
32. The Association of Byelorussians in Great Britain played a deciding role in this respect.
33. On the history of the Belarusian Popular Republic, see Vitaut and Zora Kipel, Byelorussian Statehood: Reader and Bibliography (New York: Belorusian Institute of Arts and Sciences, 1988).
34. For example, Said Negipoglu, " 'Your Second Native Language'. The Soviet Campaign of Cultural Genocide," Problems of the Peoples of the USSR, No. 17, 1963, pp. 3-7.
35. On these questions, see Alexandra Goujon, "Le processus de formation d'une opposition politique et nationale en Biélorussie: le Front populaire biélorussien (1988-1991)," Revue d'Etudes Comparatives Est-Ouest, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1998, pp. 69-96.
36. Ustanouchy Z'ezd Tavarystva Belaruskai Movy Imia Frantsiska Skaryny (Minsk: Navuka i Tèkhnika, 1992). See also Litaratura i Mastatstva, 30 May 1989.
37. Ustanouchy Z'ezd Tavarystva Belaruskai Movy Imia Frantsiska Skaryny (Minsk: Navuka i Tèkhnika, 1992). See also Litaratura i Mastatstva, 30 May 1989.
38. Jan Zaprudnik, "Belorussian Reawakening," Problems of Communism, July-August 1989, p. 50.
39. Notably, the Belarusian Language Society was created several days after the Founding Congress of the Popular Front.
40. The Belarusian Cultural Fund is, in fact, the Belarusian branch of the Soviet Cultural Fund.
41. The creation of such organizations is also a way to keep on the official side some intellectuals who might otherwise be tempted to work in informal structures.
42. See the language law in Litaratura i Mastatstva, 2 February 1990.
43. On language laws in other Soviet and post-Soviet Republics, see William Fierman, ed., "Implementing Language Law: Perestroika and Its Legacy in Five Republics," Nationalities Papers, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1995, pp. 505-659.
44. "Dziarzhaunaia pragrama razvitsia belaruskai movy i inshykh natsyianal'nykh mou u Belaruskai SSR," Litaratura i Mastatstva, 28 September 1990, pp. 1-3.
45. Hil Hilevich, "Nezalezhnasts' movy - nezalezhnasts' dukhu," in Iak ne spynic' uzykhodu Sontsa... (Minsk: Navuka i Tèkhnika, 1993), p. 7; Valentin Taras, "lazyk ili mova?" Narodnaia hazeta, 26 June 1993.
46. Hil Hilevich, "Nezalezhnasts' movy - nezalezhnasts' dukhu," in Iak ne spynic' uzykhodu Sontsa... (Minsk: Navuka i Tèkhnika, 1993), p. 7; Valentin Taras, "lazyk ili mova?" Narodnaia hazeta, 26 June 1993.
47. Konstitutsiia Respubliki Belarus' (Minsk: Polymia, 1994), p. 6.
48. One should note the difference between Lukashenka and Leonid Kuchma, the Ukrainian president, who began to speak Ukrainian after his election in 1994.
49. See Lukashenka's program in Narodnaia hazeta, 14 June 1994; Nezavisimaia gazeta, 29 May 1997.
50. See Lukashenka's program in Narodnaia hazeta, 14 June 1994; Nezavisimaia gazeta, 29 May 1997.
51. Ustina Markus, "The Bilingualism Question in Belarus and Ukraine," Transitions, Vol. 2, No. 29, 1996, p. 18.
52. Kanstytutsyia Rèspubliki Belarus' (Minsk: Belarus, 1997), p. 8.
53. Sovetskaia Belorussiia, 26 November 1998, p. 2.
54. Alexander Lukashenko, Belarus Tomorrow (Geneva: East European Development Association, 1998), pp. 36-37.
55. Ustina Markus, "Lukashenka's Victory", Transitions, Vol 1, No. 14, 1995, pp. 75-78; "A War of Referenda in Belarus," Transitions, Vol. 2, No. 25, 1996, pp. 12-15.
56. Ustina Markus, "Lukashenka's Victory", Transitions, Vol 1, No. 14, 1995, pp. 75-78; "A War of Referenda in Belarus," Transitions, Vol. 2, No. 25, 1996, pp. 12-15.
57. Pierre-André Taguieff, "Le populisme et la science politique. Du mirage conceptual aux vrais problèmes," Vingtième siècle, No. 56, 1997, p. 16.
58. When the language law was adopted in January 1990, Popular Front had no seats in the Supreme Soviet. It gained some seats only after parliamentary elections in March 1990.
59. Concerning this period, many Russian speakers, even if they supported the Language Law, were apprehensive about the methods by which this law would be implemented.
60. Interview with S. Navumchyk, 5 January 1996.
61. Viktar Mukhin, "Bèènèfauskaia mova," Nasha Niva, Vol. 124, No. 3, 1999. Bèènèfauskaia mova means literally the language of the BNF, Belarusia Narodny Front, Belarusian Popular Front.
62. Svaboda, No. 19, 1995.
63. In the post-Soviet Belarus the concept of "fascism" seems stronger than the one of "nationalism" to denounce the opposition.
64. In this respect, Lukashenka said that the Russian language is, in fact, not a "Russian language," but the language that Slavs founded together. Imia, 17 May 1995, p. 11.
65. Isabelle T. Kreindler, "A Second Missed Opportunity: Russian in Retreat as a Global Language," International Political Science Review, Vol. 14, No. 3, 1993, pp. 261-262.
66. In his interview with a Russian newspaper, Lukashenka mentioned, indirectly, the association between language and rural origins. Nezavisimaia gazeta, 29 May 1997.
67. Concerning the concept of "high culture," see Ernest Gellner, Nations et nationalisme (Paris: Editions Payot, 1989).
68. Nezavisimaia gazeta, 29 May 1997.
69. In Belarus, most of all in rural areas, Russian is presented as the language of educated and cultured people (hramatny), contrary to Belarusian, which is considered the language of uneducated people. Lukashenka also uses such stereotypes. See Komsomol'skaia pravda, 3 July 1997.
70. Milton J. Esman, "The State and Language Policy," International Political Science Review, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1992, p. 389.
71. "O vnesenii izmenenii i dopolnenii v zakon Respubliki Belarus'; 'O iazykakh v Respublike Belarus,' " 13 July 1998.
72. Zenon Pozniak, "Bilingualism and Bureaucratism," Nationalities Papers, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1988, p. 269. The original version is Zenon Pozniak, "Dvuiazychnie i Biurokratizm", in Sapraudnae ablichcha (Minsk: Palifakt, 1992) p. 49.
73. Zenon Pozniak, "Bilingualism and Bureaucratism," Nationalities Papers, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1988, p. 269. The original version is Zenon Pozniak, "Dvuiazychnie i Biurokratizm", in Sapraudnae ablichcha (Minsk: Palifakt, 1992) p. 49.
74. Pozniak, "Bilingualism and Bureaucratism," p. 270; "Dvuiazychnie i Biurokratizm," in Sapraudnae Ablichcha, pp. 50-51.
75. Pozniak, "Bilingualism and Bureaucratism," p. 270; "Dvuiazychnie i Biurokratizm," in Sapraudnae Ablichcha, pp. 50-51.
76. Alexandra Goujon, "La construction de l'Etat-nation en Biélorussie: les fondements politiques et sociaux de deux formes de nationalisme," Cahiers Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, No. 4, 1999, pp. 141-150.
77. Virginie Symaniec, "Biélorussie: langues et politique, in Nouveaux Mondes, No. 9 (Geneva: CRES, 1999), pp. 61-80.
78. The Belarusian Language Society adopts regularly statements concerning the Belarusian language situation. See its newspaper, Nasha slova. See also, RFE/RL Newsline, Vol. 3, No. 2, Part II, 1999.
79. The Belarusian Language Society adopts regularly statements concerning the Belarusian language situation. See its newspaper, Nasha slova. See also, RFE/RL Newsline, Vol. 3, No. 2, Part II, 1999.
80. The radio broadcasts from Poland.
81. The successor of the newspaper Svaboda is Naviny.
82. On this affair, see Nasha Niva, No. 11, No. 13, No. 14, No. 15, No. 16, and No. 18, 1998. See also, Jan Maksymiuk, "Belarus: Language Goes on Trial," RFE/RL Newsline, Vol. 2, No. 152, Part II, 1998.
83. On this affair, see Nasha Niva, No. 11, No. 13, No. 14, No. 15, No. 16, and No. 18, 1998. See also, Jan Maksymiuk, "Belarus: Language Goes on Trial," RFE/RL Newsline, Vol. 2, No. 152, Part II, 1998.
84. Vintsuk Viachorka, "Ahul'napryniatyia Normy," Nasha niva. No. 11, 1998.
85. See also the newspaper Holas Radzimy, which is dedicated to Belarusian people abroad.
86. "Pra dyskryminatsyiu belaruskai movy u Rèspublicy Belarus," Rèzalutsyia Kangresa dèmakratychnykh sil Belarusi, 30 January 1999.
87. On the relationship between language and nation, see Pierre Caussat, Dariusz Adamski, and Marc Crepon, La langue, source de la nation. Messianismes séculiers en Europe centrale et orientale (du XVIIIème au XXème siècle) (Liège: Editions Mardaga, 1996).
88. One should note the distinction in the meaning of "nationalism" between that of Western countries and the post-Soviet states, in which it is linked to the past negative use of the term by Soviet propaganda.
89. See for example, Astrid Von Busekist, La Belgique: politique des langues et construction de l'Etat de 1780 à nos jours (Brussels: Duculot, 1998).
90. Virginie Symaniec, "Pas à pas et au cas par cas," Perspectives Biélorussiennes, No. 10, 1998, p. 9.
91. On this event, see Nasha niva, No. 20, No. 21, 1998; No. 3, 1999.
92. On this event, see Nasha niva, No. 20, No. 21, 1998; No. 3, 1999.
93. See, for example, Siargej Pul'sha, "Razmauliaiu pa-belarusku. Kronika udalaha èkspèrymèntu," Nasha niva, No. 3, 1999.
94. The amendments to the 1990 Law adopted in July 1998 are one way to answer such requests.
95. See the newspaper Prava na Volju, the news bulletin of the Human Rights Center "Viasna-96" (Spring-96), in which there are regular articles on language issues.
96. "Belarus: New Clampdown on Press Spells Further Repression," Paper of Article 19, 5 August 1998.
97. In this respect the Ukrainian case is different because of the existence of one official Ukrainian language.
98. On the question of purism in language issues, see Paul N. Wexler, Purism and Language: A Study in Modern Ukrainian and Belarussian Nationalism (1840-1967) (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974).
99. See Nasha niva, No. 20, 1998.
100. Patrick Sériot, "La langue, corps pur de la nation. Le discours sur la langue dans la Russie brejnévienne," Les Temps modernes, No. 550, 1992, pp. 186-208.
101. On the relationship between language and ethnicity in Belarus, see T. M. Mikulich, Mova i etnichnaia samasviadomasts' (Minsk: Navuka i Tèkhnika, 1996).
102. Alexandra Goujon, " 'Genozid': A Rallying Cry in Belarus," Journal of Genocide Research, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1999, forthcoming.
103. Martine Fourier and Geneviève Vermes, Qu'est-ce que la recherche interculturelle? Ethnicisation des rapports sociaux. Racismes, nationalismes, ethnicismes et culturalismes, Vol. 3 (Paris: ENS Fontenay Saint-Cloud, L'Harmattan, 1994).
104. "Ne-kul'turnamu henatsydu belaruskae natsyi!," Zaiava Soimu BNF "Adradzhèn'ne," 13 June 1998.
105. Nasha slova, No. 10, 1999.
106. Brian D. Silver, "The Ethnic and Language Dimensions in Russian and Soviet Censuses," in Ralph S. Clem, ed., Research Guide to the Russian and Soviet Censuses (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986) pp. 70-97.
107. Malady Front, No. 2, 1999, p. 4.
108. Concerning the Belarusian Popular Front's recommendations, see BelaPAN, No. 70, 1999.
109. "Ni pad iakim natsiskam ne admovimsia ad rodnai movy," Narodnaia Voua, 30 January 1999.
110. Serge Tchakhotine, Le viol des foules par la propagande politique (Paris: Gallimard, 1952).