Democracy and state in South Asia: Between fragmentation and consolidation?

Asian Survey

Volumn 40, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 908-924

  Wagner, Christian ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRATIZATION; POLITICAL CHANGE; STATE ROLE;

ASIA;

EID: 0033501348     PISSN: 00044687     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3021145     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. For the per capita income figure, see World Bank, World Development Report 1997: The State in a Changing World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 215. For the HDI, see UNDP, Report on Human Development, on the World Wide Web at 〈http://www.undp.org/undp/ hdro/hdi3.htm〉.
2. For the per capita income figure, see World Bank, World Development Report 1997: The State in a Changing World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 215. For the HDI, see UNDP, Report on Human Development, on the World Wide Web at 〈http://www.undp.org/undp/ hdro/hdi3.htm〉.
3. South Asian Commission on Poverty Alleviation, Meeting the Challenge (Kathmandu: SAARC Secretariat, 1992), p. 5.
4. For the figures, see World Bank, World Development Report 1997, p. 215.
5. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
6. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
7. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
8. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
9. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
10. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
11. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
12. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
13. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
14. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
15. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
16. Regarding the development of democracy in South Asia in a comparative perspective, see among others Ayesha Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia: A Comparative and Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). There are a number of important country studies on India such as Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990); Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, In Pursuit of Lakshmi: The Political Economy of the Indian State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). The New Delhi-based Centre for Policy Research published a number of country studies under the common heading of Problems of Governance. See Lok Raj Baral, Nepal (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); Bhabani Sen Gupta, India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996); Akmal Hussain and Mushahid Hussain, Pakistan (Lahore: Vanguard Books, 1993); Rehman Sobhan, Bangladesh (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993); and K. M. de Silva, ed., Sri Lanka (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1993). Similarly, there are numerous case studies on India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka in the Democracy in Developing Countries volumes edited by Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989), and Democracy in Asia, Michèle Schmiegelow, ed. (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
17. Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 16-37.
18. Regarding the role of the state, see Subrata K. Mitra, ed., The Post-Colonial State in Asia: Dialectics of Politics and Culture (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990); and Dietmar Rothermund, "The Role of the State in South Asia" (plenary lecture presented at the 15th Conference on Modern South Asian Studies, Charles University, Prague, September 1998).
19. Regarding the role of the state, see Subrata K. Mitra, ed., The Post-Colonial State in Asia: Dialectics of Politics and Culture (New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1990); and Dietmar Rothermund, "The Role of the State in South Asia" (plenary lecture presented at the 15th Conference on Modern South Asian Studies, Charles University, Prague, September 1998).
20. Joseph A. Schumpeter, Kapitalismus, Sozialismus und Demokratie [Capitalism, socialism, and democracy] (Tuebingen/Basel: Francke Verlag, 7th ed., 1993); and Robert Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1971).
21. Joseph A. Schumpeter, Kapitalismus, Sozialismus und Demokratie [Capitalism, socialism, and democracy] (Tuebingen/Basel: Francke Verlag, 7th ed., 1993); and Robert Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1971).
22. Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset, "Introduction: Comparing Experiences with Democracy," in Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy, eds. Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1990), pp. 6-7.
23. Sri Lankan government official, author interview, Colombo, August 14, 1994, and Bangladeshi government official, author interview, Dhaka, June, 10, 1996. See also Hussain Zillur Rahman, "Landscape of Violence: Local Elections and Political Culture in Bangladesh," Economic and Political Weekly, November 24, 1990, pp. 2622-24.
24. The figure includes only "founding elections," i.e., the first elections to be held after the end of authoritarian rule, and elections held under democratic governments. The elections thus considered are for Bangladesh (1970, 1991, 1996); India (1952, 1957, 1962, 1967, 1971, 1977, 1980, 1984, 1989, 1991, 1996, 1998): Nepal (1959, 1991, 1994, 1995); Pakistan (1970, 1977, 1988, 1990, 1993, 1997); and Sri Lanka (1947, 1952, 1956, March and July 1960, 1965, 1970, 1977, 1989, 1994).
25. Changes of government at the national level took place in Bangladesh in 1970, 1991, and 1996; India in 1977, 1980, 1989, 1991, 1996, and 1998; Nepal in 1959, 1991, 1994, and 1995; Pakistan in 1970, 1988, 1990, 1993, and 1997: and Sri Lanka in 1956, March and July 1960, 1965, 1970, 1977, and 1994.
26. "The Loan Rangers (1985-90)." Friday Times. August 26-September 1, 1993, p. 5.
27. Freedom House Survey Team. Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights & Civil Liberties 1993-1994 (New York: Freedom House, 1994).
28. Seymour M. Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), p. 31.
29. Larry Diamond, "Economic Development and Democracy Reconsidered" in Reexamining Democracy, eds. G. Marks and Larry Diamond (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992), p. 109.
30. Adam Przeworski, Michael Alvarez, José A. Cheibub, and Fernando Limongi, "What Makes Democracy Endure?" Journal of Democracy 7:1 (January 1996), p. 49.
31. Adam Przeworski, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
32. Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 3.
33. Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1985), pp. 133-57; and Clark D. Neher, "Asian Style Democracy," Asian Survey 34:11 (November 1994), p. 958.
34. Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1985), pp. 133-57; and Clark D. Neher, "Asian Style Democracy," Asian Survey 34:11 (November 1994), p. 958.
35. Michèle Schmiegelow, "The Meaning of Democracy in Asia" in Democracy in Asia, ed. Michèle Schmiegelow (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997), p. 52.
36. Daniel A. Bell, David Brown, Kanishka Jayasuriya, and David Martin Jones, eds., Toward Illiberal Democracy in Pacific Asia (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press, 1995).
37. Fareed Zakaria, "The Rise of Illiberal Democracy," Foreign Affairs 76:6 (November/December 1997), p. 24.
38. Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
39. Myron Weiner, "Institution Building in South Asia" in Asian Political Institutionalization, eds. Robert A. Scalapino, Seizaburo Sato, and Jusuf Wanandi (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1986), pp. 288-312; Jyotirindra Das Gupta, "India: Democratic Becoming and Combined Development" in Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, eds. Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1989), pp. 53-104; and Richard Sisson, "Culture and Democratization in India" in Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries, ed. Larry Diamond (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1993), pp. 39-49.
40. Myron Weiner, "Institution Building in South Asia" in Asian Political Institutionalization, eds. Robert A. Scalapino, Seizaburo Sato, and Jusuf Wanandi (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1986), pp. 288-312; Jyotirindra Das Gupta, "India: Democratic Becoming and Combined Development" in Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, eds. Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1989), pp. 53-104; and Richard Sisson, "Culture and Democratization in India" in Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries, ed. Larry Diamond (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1993), pp. 39-49.
41. Myron Weiner, "Institution Building in South Asia" in Asian Political Institutionalization, eds. Robert A. Scalapino, Seizaburo Sato, and Jusuf Wanandi (Berkeley: Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, 1986), pp. 288-312; Jyotirindra Das Gupta, "India: Democratic Becoming and Combined Development" in Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, eds. Larry Diamond, Juan J. Linz, and Seymour M. Lipset (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1989), pp. 53-104; and Richard Sisson, "Culture and Democratization in India" in Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries, ed. Larry Diamond (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1993), pp. 39-49.
42. Jalal, Democracy and Authoritarianism, p. 3.
43. Huntington, The Third Wave, p. 267.
44. Larry Diamond. "Toward Democratic Consolidation," Journal of Democracy 5:3 (July 1994), pp. 4-17.
45. Przeworski, Democracy and the Market, p. 26.
46. Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, "Toward Consolidated Democracies," Journal of Democracy 7:2 (April 1996), p. 15.
47. Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 5-6.
48. Wolfgang Merkel, "Theorien der Transformation: Die demokratische Konsolidierung postautoritärer Gesellschaften" [Theories of transformation: The democratic consolidation of postauthoritarian societies] in Politische Theorien in der Ära der Transformation [Political theories in the era of transformation], eds. Klaus von Beyme and Claus Offe (Opladen, Germany: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1996), pp. 38-51.
49. Andreas Schedler, "What Is Democratic Consolidation?" Journal of Democracy 9:2 (April 1998), p. 103.
50. Subrata K. Mitra, "Das Wahlverhalten und die Legitimität der indischen Demokratie" [Voting patterns and the legitimacy of Indian democracy], Indo-Asia 39:2 (Spring 1997), pp. 39-40.
51. For example, in 1988 Hadenius rated India nine out of 10 points for a fully developed democracy and Pakistan with 8.3 points. Axel Hadenius, Democracy and Development (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
52. Guillermo O'Donnell, "The State, Democratization, and Some Conceptual Problems: A Latin American View with Some Glances at Some Post-Communist Countries," in Latin American Political Economy in the Age of Neoliberal Reform, eds. William C. Smith et al. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1995), pp. 157-80.
53. "A Snapshot of Long-Term Processes of Democratic Politics," Hindu, April 9, 1996.
54. Lloyd Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, The Modernity of Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).
55. "A.P. Scheme Suspended," Hindu, July 29, 1999, on the World Wide Web at 〈http:// www.indiaserver.com/thehindu/1999/07/29/stories/01290004.htm〉.
56. Gunnar Myrdal, Politisches Manifest über die Armut in der Welt [The challenge of world poverty] (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1970), pp. 125-50.
57. For the election results, see Island (Colombo), August 19, 1994, p. 3.
58. Government officials, author's interview, Ampari, August 15, 1994.
59. Home Minister Advani of the BJP government announced in early 1998 that the introduction of identity cards was intended to cope with the problem of illegal immigrants in India. See "Multipurpose ID Cards for All Soon: Advani," Hindu, April 3, 1998, on the World Wide Web at 〈http://www.webpage.com/hindu/daily/980403/02/02030006.htm〉.
60. Joseph Rothschild, Ethnopolitics: A Conceptual Framework (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), p. 2.
61. Whether India can be regarded as a model of consociational democracy as proposed by Lijphart remains an open question. It is debatable whether the Congress Party can be regarded as a "grand coalition" in the sense of his own model of consociational democracy. See Arend Lijphart, "The Puzzle of Indian Democracy: A Consociational Interpretation," American Political Science Review 90:2 (June 1996), pp. 259-60. For a broader discussion of Lijphart's arguments, see Ian S. Lustick, "Lijphart, Lakatos, and Consociationalism" World Politics 50:1 (October 1997), pp. 88-117.
62. Whether India can be regarded as a model of consociational democracy as proposed by Lijphart remains an open question. It is debatable whether the Congress Party can be regarded as a "grand coalition" in the sense of his own model of consociational democracy. See Arend Lijphart, "The Puzzle of Indian Democracy: A Consociational Interpretation," American Political Science Review 90:2 (June 1996), pp. 259-60. For a broader discussion of Lijphart's arguments, see Ian S. Lustick, "Lijphart, Lakatos, and Consociationalism" World Politics 50:1 (October 1997), pp. 88-117.