Direct mapping of bioelectric activity

Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering

Volumn 27, Issue 3-5, 1999, Pages 339-358

  Smith, William M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiac arrhythmias; Cardiac electrophysiology; Electrical mapping; Neural electrophysiology; Optical mapping

Indexed keywords

CARDIOLOGY; DYES; ELECTRODES; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; MEDICAL COMPUTING; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY;

ELECTRICAL MAPPING; OPTICAL MAPPING;

BIOELECTRIC PHENOMENA;

BIOENERGY; BRAIN ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; ELECTRIC ACTIVITY; ELECTRODE; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; INFORMATION PROCESSING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SIGNAL PROCESSING;

ANIMALS; BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING; BRAIN MAPPING; COMPUTERS; ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; ELECTRODES; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; HEART; HUMANS; VENTRICULAR FIBRILLATION;

EID: 0033499795     PISSN: 0278940X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Kornreich, F., Montague, T. J., Rautaharju, P. M., Kavadias, M., Horacek, M. B., and Taccardi, B., Multigroup diagnosis of body surface potential maps, J. Electrocardiol., 22, 169-178, 1990.
2. Greensite, F. and Huiskamp, G., An improved method for estimating epicardial potentials from the body surface, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 45, 98-104, 1998.
3. Huiskamp, G. and van Oosterom, A., Tailored versus realistic geometry in the inverse problem of electrocardiography, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 36, 827-835, 1989.
4. Oster, H. S., Taccardi, B., Lux, R. L., Ershler, P. R., and Rudy, Y., Noninvasive electrocardiographic imaging: reconstruction of epicardial potentials, electrograms, and isochrones and localization of single and multiple electrocardiac events, Circulation, 96, 1012-1024, 1997.
5. Throne, R. D., Olson, L. G., Hrabik, T. J., and Windle, J. R., Generalized eigensystem techniques for the inverse problem of electrocardiography applied to a realistic heart-torso geometry, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 44, 447-454, 1997.
6. He, B. and Cohen, R. J., Body surface Laplacian mapping: a review, Crit. Rev. Biomed. Eng., 23, 475-510, 1995.
7. Oostendorp, T. F. and van Oosterom, A., The surface Laplacian of the potential: theory and application, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 43, 394-405, 1996.
8. Umetani, K., Okamoto, Y., Mashima, S., Ono, K., Hosaka, H., and He, B., Body surface Laplacian mapping in patients with left or right ventricular bundle branch block, Pacing Clin. Electrophys., 21, 2043-2054, 1998.
9. El-Sherif, N., Scherlag, B. J., Lazzara, R., and Hope, R. R., Reentrant ventricular arrhythmias in the late myocardial infarction period 1. Conduction characteristics in the infarction zone, Circulation, 55, 686-701, 1977.
10. Chinushi, M., Restivo, M., Caref, E. B., and El-Sherif, N., Electrophysiological basis of arrhythmogenicity of QT/T alternans in the long-QT syndrome. Tridimensional analysis of the kinetics of cardiac repolarization, Circ. Res., 83, 614-628, 1998.
11. Peters, N. S., Coromilas, J., Hanna, M. S., Josephson, M. E., Costeas, C., and Wit, A. L., Characteristics of the temporal and spatial excitable gap in anisotropic reentrant circuits causing sustained ventricular tachycardia, Circ. Res., 82, 279-293, 1998.
12. Costeas, C., Peters, N. S., Waldecker, B., Ciaccio, E. J., Wit, A. L., and Coromilas, J., Mechanisms causing sustained ventricular tachycardia with multiple QRS morphologies: results of mapping studies in the infarcted canine heart, Circulation, 96, 3721-3731, 1997.
13. Wu, T.-J., Yashima, M., Xie, F., Athill, C. A., Kim, Y.-H., Fishbein, M. C., Qu, A., Garfinkel, A., Weiss, J. N., Karagueuzian, H. S., and Chen, P.-S., Role of pectinate muscle bundles in the generation and maintenance of intra-atrial reentry. Potential implication for the mechanism of conversion between atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter, Circ. Res., 83, 448-462, 1998.
14. Gotoh, M., Uchida, T., Mandel, W. J., Fishbein, M. C., Chen, P.-S., and Karaguezian, H. S., Cellular graded responses and ventricular vulnerability to reentry by a premature stimulus in isolated canine ventricle, Circulation, 95, 2141-2154, 1997.
15. Wu, T.-J., Ong, J. J. C., Hwang, C., Lee, J. J., Fishbein, M. C., Czer, L., Trento, A., Blanche, C., Kass, R. M., Mandel, W. J., Karagueuzian, H. S., and Chen, P.-S., Characteristics of wave fronts during ventricular fibrillation in human hearts with dilated cardiomyopathy: Role of increased fibrosis in the generation of reentry, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 32, 187-196, 1998.
16. Wolf, P. D., Rollins, D. L., Simpson, E. V., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., A 528 channel system for the acquisition and display of defibrillation and electrocardiographic potentials, in Proc. Computers in Cardiology, Murray, A. and Arzbaecher, R., Eds., Piscataway, NJ, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., 1993, 125-128.
17. Neuman, M. R., Biopotential electrodes, in Medical Instrumentation Application and Design, Webster, J. G., Ed., Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA, 1992, 227-287.
18. Arisi, G., Macchi, E., Baruffi, S., Spaggiari, S., and Taccardi, B., Potential fields on the ventricular surface of the exposed dog heart during normal excitation, Circ. Res., 52, 706-715, 1983.
19. Arisi, G., Macchi, E., Corradi, C., Lux, R. L., and Taccardi, B., Epicardial excitation during ventricular pacing: Relative independence of breakthrough sites from excitation sequence in canine right ventricles, Circ. Res., 71, 840-849, 1992.
20. Shibata, N., Chen, P.-S., Dixon, E. G., Wolf, P. D., Danieley, N. D., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., Epicardial activation following unsuccessful defibrillation shocks in dogs, Am. J. Physiol, 255 (Heart Circ. Physiol, 24), H902-H909, 1988.
21. Witkowski, F. X., Penkoske, P. A., and Plonsey, R., Mechanism of cardiac defibrillation in open-chest dogs with unipolar DC-coupled simultaneous activation and shock potential recordings, Circulation, 82, 244-260, 1990.
22. Vidaillet, H. J., Jr., Lowe, J. E., German, L. D., Chen, P.-S., Greer, G. S., Gilbert, M. R., Smith, W. M., Worley, S. J., and Ideker, R. E., Computer-assisted intraoperative mapping of the entire ventricular epicardium in patients with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, Am. J. Cardiol., 58, 940-948, 1986.
23. Worley, S. J., Ideker, R. E., Mastrotatoro, J., Smith, W. M., Vidaillet, H. J., Jr., Chen, P.-S., and Lowe, J. E., A new sock electrode for recording epicardial activation from the human heart: one size fits all. Pacing Clin. Electrophys., 10, 21-31, 1987.
24. Wolf, P. D., Smith, W. M., and Pilkington, T. C., A method for determining surface electrode location and boundary shape using impedance measurements, in Proc. 14th Ann. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc., Morucci, J. P., Plonsey, R., Coatrieux, J. L., and Laxminarayan, S., Eds., Paris, France, 1992, 1724-1725.
25. Chen, P.-S., Wolf, P. D., Clay don, F. J., III, Dixon, E. G., Vidaillet, H. J., Jr., Danieley, N. D., Pilkington, T. C., and Ideker, R. E., The potential gradient field created by epicardial defibrillation electrodes in dogs, Circulation, 74, 626-636, 1986.
26. Idriss, S. F., Melnick, S. B., Wolf, P. D., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., Predicting the potential gradient field in ventricular fibrillation from shocks delivered in paced rhythm, Am. J. Physiol., 268 (Heart Circ. Physiol., 37), H2336-H2344, 1995.
27. Cooper, R. A. S., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., Multichannel mapping of atrial activation sequences after internal defibrillation shocks, J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 29(Abstract), 255A 1997.
28. Kumagai, K., Khrestian, C., and Waldo, A. L., Simultaneous multisite mapping studies during induced atrial fibrillation in the sterile pericarditis model, Circulation, 95, 511-521, 1997.
29. Ortiz, J., Niwano, S., Abe, H., Rudy, Y., Johnson, N. J., and Waldo, A. L., Mapping the conversion of atrial flutter to atrial fibrillation and atrial fibrillation to atrial flutter: Insights into mechanisms, Circ. Res., 74, 882-894, 1994.
30. Bayly, P. V., KenKnight, B. H., Rogers, J. M., Johnson, E. E., Ideker, R. E., and Smith, W. M., Spatial organization, predictability, and determinism in ventricular fibrillation, Chaos, 8, 103-115, 1998.
31. Bayly, P. V., KenKnight, B. H., Rogers, J. M., Hillsley, R. E., Ideker, R. E., and Smith, W. M., Estimation of conduction velocity vector fields from epicardial mapping data, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 45, 563-571, 1998.
32. Rogers, J. M., Usui, M., KenKnight, B. H., Ideker, R. E., and Smith, W. M., A quantitative framework for analyzing epicardial activation patterns during ventricular fibrillation, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 25, 749-760, 1997.
33. Rogers, J., Usui, M., KenKnight, B., Ideker, R., and Smith, W., Recurrent wavefront morphologies: a method for quantifying the complexity of epicardial activation patterns, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 25, 761-768, 1997.
34. Sih, H. J., Sahakian, A. V., Arentzen, C. E., and Swiryn, S., A frequency domain analysis of spatial organization of epicardial maps, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 42, 718-727, 1995.
35. Barnette, A. R., Bayly, P. V., Zhang, S., Walcott, G. P., Ideker, R. E., and Smith, W. M., Estimation of 3-D conduction velocity vector fields from cardiac mapping data, in Proc. Computers in Cardiology, Murray, A. and Swiryn, S., Eds., The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., Piscataway, NJ, 1998, 605-608.
36. Huang, J., Rogers, J. M., KenKnight, B. H., Rollins, D. L., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., Evolution of the organization of epicardial activation patterns during ventricular fibrillation, J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol., 9, 1291-1304, 1998.
37. Sih, H. J., Berbari, E. J., and Zipes, D. P., Epicardial maps of atrial fibrillation after linear ablation lesions, J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol., 8, 1046-1054, 1997.
38. Taccardi, B., Macchi, E., Lux, R. L., Ershler, P. R., Spaggiari, S., Baruffi, S., and Vyhmeister, Y., Effect of myocardial fiber direction on epicardial potentials, Circulation, 90, 3076-3090, 1994.
39. Watabe, S., Taccardi, B., Lux, R. L., and Ershler, P. R., Effect of nontransmural necrosis on epicardial potential fields. Correlations with fiber direction, Circulation, 82, 2115-2127, 1990.
40. Kirchhof, C., Chorro, F., Scheffer, G. J., Brugada, J., Konings, K., Zetelaki, Z., and Allessie, M., Regional entrainment of atrial fibrillation studied by high-resolution mapping in open-chest dogs, Circulation, 88, 736-749, 1993.
41. Konings, K. T. S., Kirchof, C. J. H. J., Smeets, J. R. L. M., Wellens, H. J. J., Penn, O. C., and Allessie, M. A., High-Density mapping of electrically induced atrial fibrillation in humans, Circulation, 89, 1665-1680, 1994.
42. Witkowski, F. X. and Penkoske, P. A., A new fabrication technique for directly coupled transmural cardiac electrodes, Am. J. Physiol., 254 (Heart Circ. Physiol, 23), H804-H810, 1988.
43. Moore, K. B., Kimball, T., and Steadman, B., Silver-silver chloride plunge electrode needles and chloriding monitor, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 37, 532-546, 1990.
44. Mastrotatoro, J. J., Massoud, H. Z., Pilkington, T. C., and Ideker, R. E., Rigid and flexible thin-film multielectrode arrays for transmural cardiac recording, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 39, 271-279, 1992.
45. Chen, P.-S., Wolf, P. D., Dixon, E. G., Danieley, N. D., Frazier, D. W., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., Transmural activation during electrically induced ventricular fibrillation in dogs, Circulation, 74(Abstract), II-343, 1986.
46. Pogwizd, S. M., Chung, M. K., and Cain, M. E., Termination of ventricular tachycardia in the human heart - insights from three-dimensional mapping of nonsustained and sustained ventricular tachycardias, Circulation, 95, 2528-2540, 1997.
47. Pogwizd, S. M. and Corr, P. B., Reentrant and nonreentrant mechanisms contribute to arrhythmogenesis during early myocardial ischemia: results using three-dimensional mapping, Circ. Res., 61, 352-371, 1987.
48. Spach, M. S. and Barr, R. C., Ventricular intramural and epicardial potential distributions during ventricular activation and repolarization in the intact dog, Circ. Res., 37, 243-257, 1975.
49. Durrer, D., van Dam, R. T., Freud, G. E., Janse, M. J., Meijler, F. L., and Arzbaecher, R. C., Total excitation of the isolated human heart. Circulation, 41, 899-912, 1970.
50. Chen, P.-S., Wolf, P. D., Dixon, E. G., Danieley, N. D., Frazier, D. W., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., Mechanism of ventricular vulnerability to single premature stimuli in open-chest dogs, Circ. Res., 62, 1191-1209, 1988.
51. Tang, A. S. L., Wolf, P. D., Claydon, F. J., III, Smith, W. M., Pilkington, T. C., and Ideker, R. E., Measurement of defibrillation shock potential distributions and activation sequences of the heart in three-dimensions, Proc. IEEE, 76, 1 176-1186, 1988.
52. Chen, P.-S., Shibata, N., Dixon, E. G., Wolf, P. D., Danieley, N. D., Sweeney, M. B., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., Activation during ventricular defibrillation in open-chest dogs: evidence of complete cessation and regeneration of ventricular fibrillation after unsuccessful shocks, J. Clin. Invest., 77, 810-823, 1986.
53. Laxer, C., Johnson, G. A., Kavanagh, K. M., Simpson, E. V., Ideker, R. E., and Smith, W. M., An interactive graphics system for locating plunge electrodes in cardiac MRI images, in Image Capture, Formatting and Display, Kim, Y, Ed., 1991, 190-195.
54. Witkowski, F. X. and Penkoske, P. A., A new technique for three-dimensional localization of transmural electrodes, Biomed. Inst. Technol., 23, 396-402, 1989.
55. Wolf, P. D., Danieley, N. D., Ideker, R. E., and Smith, W. M., A digital tape recorder for electrophysiologic waveforms, in Proc. 38th Annual Conf. on Engineering in Medicine and Biology, 1985, 124.
56. Witkowski, F. X. and Penkoske, P. A., A completely automated activation-repolarization interval algorithm for directly coupled unipolar electrograms and its three-dimensional correlation with refractory periods, J. Electrocardiol., 21, 273-282, 1988.
57. Spach, M. S., Barr, R. C., Serwer, G. A., Kootsey, J. M., and Johnson, E. A., Extracellular potentials related to intracellular action potentials in dog Purkinje system, Circ. Res., 30, 505-519, 1972.
58. Blanchard, S. M., Smith, W. M., Buhrman, W. C., Tedder, M., Ideker, R. E., and Lowe, J. E., Wavefront orientation effects on bipolar epicardial electrograms, in Proc. Computers in Cardiology, Murray, A. and Arzbaecher, R., Eds., Los Alamitos, CA, IEEE Computer Society Press, 1991, 111-114.
59. Simpson, E. V., Ideker, R. E., Cabo, C., Yabe, S., Zhou, X., Melnick, S. B., and Smith, W. M., Evaluation of an automatic cardiac activation detector for bipolar electrograms, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 31, 118-128, 1993.
60. Kanaan, N., Robinson, N., Roth, S. I., Ye, D., Goldberger, J., and Kadish, A., Ventricular tachycardia in healing canine myocardial infarction: evidence for multiple reentrant mechanisms, Pacing Clin. Electrophys., 20, 245-60, 1997.
61. Kadish, A. H., Spear, J. F., Levine, J. H., Hanich, R. F., Prood, C., and Moore, E. N., Vector mapping of myocardial activation. Circulation, 74, 603-615, 1986.
62. Bayly, P. V., Johnson, E. E., Wolf, P. D., Greenside, H. S., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., A quantitative measurement of spatial order in ventricular fibrillation, J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol, 4, 533-546, 1993.
63. Bayly, P. V., Johnson, E. E., Wolf, P. D., Smith, W. M., and Ideker, R. E., Predicting patterns of epicardial potentials during ventricular fibrillation, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 42, 898-907, 1995.
64. Berbari, E. J., Lander, P., Scherlag, B. J., Lazzara, R., and Geselowitz, D. B., Ambiguities of epicardial mapping, J. Electrocardiol., 24(Suppl.), 16-20, 1991.
65. Ideker, R. E., Smith, W. M., Blanchard, S. M., Reiser, S. L., Simpson, E. V., Wolf, P. D., and Danieley, N. D., The assumptions of isochronal cardiac mapping, Pacing Clin. Electrophys., 12, 456-478, 1989.
66. Barr, R. C., Gallie, T. M., and Spach, M. S., Automated production of contour maps for electrophysiology: III. Construction of contour maps, Comput. Biomed. Res., 13, 171-191, 1980.
67. Barr, R. C., Gallie, T. M., and Spach, M. S., Automated production of contour maps for electrophysiology: II. Triangulation, verification, and organization of the geometric model, Comput. Biomed. Res., 13, 154-170, 1980.
68. Barr, R. C., Gallie, T. M., and Spach, M. S., Automated production of contour maps for electrophysiology: I. Problem definition, solution strategy, and specification of geometric model, Comput. Biomed. Res., 13, 142-153, 1980.
69. Simpson, E. V., Ideker, R. E., Kavanagh, K. M., Alferness, C. A., Melnick, S. B., and Smith, W. M., Discrete smooth interpolation as an aid to visualizing electrical variables in the heart wall, in Proc. of Computers in Cardiology, Murray, A. and Arzbaecher, R., Eds., The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Piscataway, NJ, 1991, 409-412.
70. Burnes, J. E., Kaelber, D. C., Taccardi, B., Lux, R. L., Ershler, P. R., and Rudy, Y., A field-compatible method for interpolating biopotentials, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 26, 37-47, 1998.
71. Simpson, E. V., Palmer, T. C., and Smith, W. M., Visualization in cardiac mapping of ventricular fibrillation and defibrillation, in Proc. Computers in Cardiology, Murray, A. and Arzbaecher, R., Eds., IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA, 1992, 339-342.
72. Palmer, T. C., Simpson, E. V., Kavanagh, K. M., and Smith, W. M., Visualization of bioelectric phenomena, in High-Performance Computing in Biomedical Research, Pilkington, T. C., Loftis, B., Thompson, J. P., L-Y. Woo, S., Palmer, T. C., and Budinger, T. F., Eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1993, 429-446.
73. Palmer, T. C., Simpson, E. V., and Smith, W. M., A language for the classification and shading of multivariate volume data, J. Vis. Comput. Anim., 4, 199-211, 1993.
74. Gray, C. M. and McCormick, D. A., Chattering cells: superficial pyramidal neurons contributing to the generation of synchronous oscillations in the visual cortex, Science, 274, 109-113, 1996.
75. Riehle, A., Grün, S., Diesmann, M., and Aertsen, A., Spike synchronization and rate modulation differentially involved in motor cortical function, Science, 278, 1960-1963, 1997.
76. Stopfer, M., Bhagavan, S., Smith, B. H., and Laurent, G., Impaired odour discrimination on desynchronization of odour-encoding neural assemblies, Nature, 390, 70-74, 1997.
77. Fries, P., Roelfsema, P. R., Engel, A. K., König, P., and Singer, W., Synchronization of oscillatory responses in visual cortex correlates with perception in interocular rivalry, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 94, 12699-12704, 1997.
78. Arroyo, S., Lesser, R. P., Awad, I. A., Goldring, S., Sutherling, W. W., and Resnick, T. J., Subdural and epidural grids and strips, in Surgical Treatment of the Epilepsies, Engel, J., Jr., Ed., Raven Press, New York, 1993, 377-386.
79. Mizuno-Matsumoto, Y., Okazaki, K., Kato, A., Yoshimine, T., Sato, Y., Tamura, S., and Hayakawa, T., Visualization of epileptogenic phenomena using cross-correlation analysis: localization of epileptic foci and propagation of epileptiform discharges, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 46, 271-279, 1999.
80. Wise, K. D. and Najafi, K., Microfabrication techniques for integrated sensors and microsystems, Science, 254, 1335-1342, 1991.
81. Ji, J., Najafi, K., and Wise, K. D., A low-noise demultiplexing system for active multichannel microelectrode arrays, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 38, 75-81, 1991.
82. Chen, J., Wise, K. D., Hetke, J. F., and Bledsoe, S. C., Jr., A multichannel neural probe for selective chemical delivery at the cellular level, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 44, 760-769, 1997.
83. Chen, J. and Wise, K. D., A silicon probe with integrated microheaters for thermal marking and monitoring of neural tissue, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 44, 770-779, 1997.
84. Hoogerwerf, A. C. and Wise, K. D., A three-dimensional microelectrode array for chronic neural recording, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 41, 1136-1146, 1994.
85. Ziaie, B., Nardin, M. D., Coghlan, A. R., and Najafi, K., A single-channel implantable microstimulator for functional neuromuscular stimulation, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 44, 909-920, 1997.
86. Rau, G., Disselhorst-Klug, C., and Silny, J., Noninvasive approach to motor unit characterization: muscle structure, membrane dynamics, and neuronal control, J. Biomech., 30, 441-446, 1997.
87. Disselhorst-Klug, C., Silny, J., and Rau, G., Improvement of spatial resolution in surface-EMG: a theoretical and experimental comparison of different spatial filters, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 44, 567-574, 1997.
88. Seki, N., Karim, O. M. A., and Mostwin, J. L., Changes in electrical properties of guinea pig smooth muscle membrane by experimental bladder outflow obstruction, Am. J. Physiol., 262 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol., 31), F885-F891, 1992.
89. Jepson, P. M. and Martin, D. C., Canine vesicourethral electrornyography, Invest. Urol, 11, 149-153, 1973.
90. Fredericks, C. M., Anderson, G. F., Rasmussen, E. A., and Pierce, J. M., Electrophysiology of the canine urinary bladder, Invest. Urol, 1, 33-40, 1969.
91. Shafik, A., Electrovesicography in benign prostatic hyperplasia, Arch. Androl., 33, 201-207, 1994.
92. Gallegos, C. R. R. and Fry, C. H., Alterations to the electrophysiology of isolated human detrusor smooth muscle cells in bladder disease, J. Urol., 151, 754-758, 1994.
93. Hald, T., Freed, P. S., and Kantrowitz, A., Urinary bladder: mode of excitation during stimulation, Invest. Urol., 4, 239-246, 1966.
94. Teague, C. T. and Merrill, D. C., Electric pelvic floor stimulation. Mechanism of action, Invest. Urol., 15, 65-69, 1977.
95. Walter, J. S., Zaszczurynski, P., Cai, W., Wheeler, J. S., Riedy, L., and Scarpine, V. E., Direct bladder stimulation with percutaneous electrodes and impedance monitoring of volume in an SCI animal model, J. Spinal Cord Med., 18, 98-102, 1995.
96. Devedeux, D., Marque, C., Mansour, S., Germain, G., and Duchêne, J., Uterine electromyography: a critical review, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 169, 1636-1653, 1993.
97. Mansour, S., Devedeux, D., Germain, G., Marque, C., and Duchene, J., Uterine EMG spectral analysis and relationship to mechanical activity in pregnant monkeys, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 34, 115-121, 1996.
98. Garfield, R. E., Blennerhassett, M. G., and Miller, S. M., Control of myometrial contractility: role and regulation of gap junctions, Oxford Rev. Reprod. Biol., 10, 436-490, 1988.
99. Sakai, N., Tabb, T., and Garfield, R. E., Studies of connexin 43 and cell-to-cell coupling in cultured human uterine smooth muscle, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol, 167, 1267-1277, 1992.
100. Sakai, N., Tabb, T., and Garfield, R. E., Modulation of cell-to-cell coupling between myometrial cells of the human uterus during pregnancy, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 167, 472-480, 1992.
101. Harding, R., Poore, E. R., Bailey, A., Thorburn, G. D., Jansen, C. A., and Nathanielsz, P. W., Electromyographic activity of the nonpregnant and pregnant sheep uterus, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol, 142, 448-457, 1982.
102. Talo, A. and Kärki, A. E., Electric activity of the rat myometrium in vivo during the estrous cycle, Acta Physiol. Scand., 97, 495-500, 1976.
103. Sakaguchi, M. and Nakajima, A., Electrical activity of the human uterus in labor, Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 108, 992-993, 1970.
104. Hofmeister, J. F., Slocumb, J. C., Kottmann, L. M., Picchiottino, J. B., and Ellis, D. G., A noninvasive method for recording the electrical activity of the human uterus in vivo, Biomed. Inst. Technol., 28, 391-404, 1994.
105. Lammers, W. J., el-Kays, A., Arafat, K., and el-Sharkawy, T. Y., Wave mapping: detection of co-existing multiple wavefronts in high-resolution electrical mapping, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 33, 476-481, 1995.
106. Chen, J. D. Z., Schirmer, B. D., and McCallum, R. W., Measurement of electrical activity of the human small intestine using surface electrodes, IEEE Trans. Biomed, Eng., 40, 598-602, 1993.
107. Chen, J. and McCallum, R. W., Response of the electric activity in the human stomach to water and a solid meal, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 29, 351-357, 1991.
108. Chen, J. and McCallum, R. W., Electrogastrography: measurement, analysis, and prospective applications, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 29, 339-350, 1991.
109. Familoni, B. O., Abell, T. L., and Bowes, K. L., A model of gastric electrical activity in health and disease, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 42, 647-657, 1995.
110. Mintchev, M. and Bowes, K., Computer model of gastric electrical stimulation, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 25, 726-730, 1997.
111. Daniel, E. E., Bardakjian, B. L., Huizinga, J. D., and Diamant, N. E., Relaxation oscillator and core conductor models are needed for understanding of GI electrical activities, Am. J. Physiol., 266 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol., 29), G339-G349, 1994.
112. Aldrete, J. S., Shepard, R. B., Halpern, N. B., Jimenez, H., and Piantadosi, S., Effects of various operations on the electrical activity of the human stomach recorded during the postoperative recovery period, Ann. Surg., 195, 662-669, 1982.
113. Halpern, N. B., Shepard, R. B., Laws, H. L., Jimenez, H., and Aldrete, J. S., Effects of partitioning operations on the electrical activity of the human stomach, J. Surg. Res., 32, 275-282, 1982.
114. Ravelli, A. M., Helps, B. A., Devane, S. P., Lask, B. D., and Milla, P. J., Normal gastric antral myoelectrical activity in early onset anorexia nervosa, Arch. Dis. Child, 69, 342-346, 1993.
115. Chen, J. D., Schirmer, B. D., and McCallum, R. W., Serosal and cutaneous recordings of gastric myoelectrical activity in patients with gastroparesis, Am. J. Physiol., 266 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol., 29), G90-G98, 1994.
116. Mintchev, M. P., Stickel, A., Otto, S. J., and Bowes, K. L., Reliability of percent distribution of power of the electrogastrogram in recognizing gastric electrical uncoupling, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 44, 1288-1291, 1997.
117. Aldrete, J. S., Shepard, R. B., and Jimenez, H., Autocorrelation, cross correlation, and coherence analyses of the electrical activity of the human stomach in the postoperative period, Surg. Gynecol. Obstet., 154, 359-365, 1982.
118. Chen, J., Vandewalle, J., Sansen, W., Vantrappen, G., and Janssens, J., Adaptive spectral analysis of cutaneous electrogastric signals using autoregressive moving average modelling, Med. Biol. Eng. Comput., 28, 531-536, 1990.
119. Wang, Z., He, Z., and Chen, J. D. Z., Optimized overcomplete signal representation and its applications to time-frequency analysis of the electrogastrogram, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 26, 859-869, 1998.
120. Lammers, W. J., al-Kais, A., Singh, S., Arafat, K., and el-Sharkawy, T. Y., Multielectrode mapping of slow-wave activity in the isolated rabbit duodenum, J. Appl. Physiol., 74, 1454-1461, 1993.
121. Witkowski, F. and Penkoske, P., A cardiac monophasic action potential recording array, in Proc. Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc., Pedersen, P. C. and Onaral, B., Eds., The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Piscataway, NJ, 1990, 595-596.
122. Lin, S.-F. and Wikswo, J. P., Panoramic optical imaging of electrical propagation in isolated heart, J. Biomed. Optics, 4, 200-207, 1999.
123. Knisley, S. B. and Smith, W. M., Experimental techniques for investigating cardiac electrical activity and response to electrical stimuli, Proc. IEEE, 84, 417-427, 1996.
124. Fluhler, E., Burnham, V. G., and Loew, L. M., Spectra, membrane binding, and potentiometric responses of new charge shift probes, Biochemistry, 24, 5749-5755, 1985.
125. Knisley, S. B., Blitchington, T. F., Hill, B. C., Grant, A. O., Smith, W. M., Pilkington, T. C., and Ideker, R. E., Optical measurements of transmembrarie potential changes during electric field stimulation of ventricular cells, Circ. Res., 72, 255-270, 1993.
126. Gross, D., Loew, L. M., and Webb, W. W., Optical imaging of cell membrane potential changes induced by applied electric fields, Biophys. J., 50, 339-348, 1986.
127. Thandroyen, F. T., Morris, A. C., Hagler, H. K., Ziman, B., Pai, L., Willerson, J. T., and Buja, L. M., Intracellular calcium transients and arrhythmia in isolated heart cells, Circ. Res., 69, 810-819, 1991.
128. Hill, B. C. and Courtney, K. R., Design of a multi-point laser scanned optical monitor of cardiac action potential propagation: application to microreentry in guinea pig atrium, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 15, 567-577, 1987.
129. Dillon, S. and Morad, M., A new laser scanning system tor measuring action potential propagation in the heart, Science, 214, 453-456, 1981.
130. Dillon, S. M., Optical recordings in the rabbit heart show that defibrillation strength shocks prolong the duration of depolarization and the refractory period. Circ. Res., 69, 842-856, 1991.
131. Neunlist, M. and Tung, L., Optical recordings of ventricular excitability of frog heart by an extracellular stimulating point electrode, Pacing Clin. Electrophys., 17, 1641-1654, 1994.
132. Girouard, S. D., Patore, J. M., Laurita, K. R., Gregory, K. W., and Rosenbaum, D. S., Optical mapping in a new guinea pig model of ventricular tachycardia reveals mechanisms for multiple wavelengths in a single reentrant circuit, Circulation, 93, 603-613, 1996.
133. Windisch, H., Ahammer, H., Schaffer, P., Müller, W., and Koidl, B., Optical multisite detection of membrane potentials in single cardiomyocytes during voltage clamp, in Proc. Annu. Int. Conf. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc., 1991, 605-606.
134. Efimov, I. R., Cheng, Y. N., Biermann, M., Van Wagoner, D. R., Mazgalev, T. N., and Tchou, P. J., Transmembrane voltage changes produced by real and virtual electrodes during monophasic defibrillation shock delivered by an implantable electrode, J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol.,8, 1031-1045, 1997.
135. Witkowski, F. X., Leon, L. J., Penkoske, P. A., Clark, R. B., Spano, M. L., Ditto, W. L., and Giles, W. R., A method for visualization of ventricular fibrillation: design of a cooled fiberoptically coupled image intensified CCD data acquisition system incorporating wavelet shrinkage based adaptive filtering, Chaos, 8, 94-102, 1998.
136. Baxter, W. T., Davidenko, J. M., Loew, L. M., Wuskell, J. P., and Jalife, J., Technical features of a CCD video camera system to record cardiac fluorescence data, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 25, 713-725, 1997.
137. Iijima, T., Witter, M. P., Ichikawa, M., Tominaga, T., Kajiwara, R., and Matsumoto, G., Entorhinal-hippocampal interactions revealed by real-time imaging, Science, 272, 1176-1179, 1996.
138. Witkowski, F. X., Leon, L. J., Penkoske, P. A., Giles, W. R., Spano, M. L., Ditto, W. L., and Winfree, A. T., Spatiotemporal evolution of ventricular fibrillation, Nature, 392, 78-82, 1998.
139. Banville, L, Gray, R. A., and Ideker, R. E., Optimization of high-resolution video imaging system to study cardiac spatiotemporal patterns, Ann. Biomed. Eng., 26(Abstract), S-19, 1998.
140. Entcheva, E., Trayanova, N. A., and Claydon, F. J., Patterns of and mechanisms for shock-induced polarization in the heart: a bidomain analysis, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 46, 260-270, 1999.
141. Knisley, S. B., Hill, B. C., and Ideker, R. E., Virtual electrode effects in myocardial fibers, Biophys. J., 66, 719-728, 1994.
142. Gray, R. A., Jalife, J., Panfilov, A. V., Baxter, W. T., Cabo, C., Davidenko, J. M., and Pertsov, A. M., Non-stationary vortex-like reentry as a mechanism of polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in the isolated rabbit heart, Circulation. 91, 2454-2469, 1995.
143. Gray, R. A., Jalife, J., Panfilov, A. V., Baxter, W. T., Cabo, C., Davidenko, J. M., and Pertsov, A. M., Mechanisms of cardiac fibrillation: drifting rotors as a mechanism of cardiac fibrillation, Science, 270, 1222-1225, 1995.
144. Witkowski, F. X. and Penkoske, P. A., Activation patterns during ventricular fibrillation, in Mathematical Approaches to Cardiac Arrhythmias, vol. 591, Jalife, J., Ed., The New York Academy of Sciences, New York, 1990, 219-231.
145. Tanifuji, M., Sugiyama, T., and Murase, K., Horizontal propagation of excitation in rat visual cortical slices revealed by optical imaging, Science, 266, 1057-1059, 1994.
146. Sutor, B., Hablitz, J. J., Rucker, F., and ten Bruggencate, G., Spread of epileptiform activity in the immature rat neocortex studied with voltage-sensitive dyes and laser scanning microscopy, J. Neurophysiol, 12, 1756-1768, 1994.