Innovation and Amnesia: Engineering Rationality and the Fate of Interchangeable Parts Manufacturing in France

Technology and Culture

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 273-311

  Alder, Ken ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0031525719     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3107124     Document Type: Article

References (179)

1. Honoré Blanc, Mémoire important sur les fabrications des armes de guerre (Paris, 1790).
2. Jefferson to John Jay, August 30, 1785, The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton, 1950-), 8: 452-56.
3. Robert S. Woodbury, "The Legend of Eli Whitney and Interchangeable Parts," Technology and Culture 1 (1959): 235-53.
4. Edwin A. Battison, "Eli Whitney and the Milling Machine," The Smithsonian Journal of History 1 (1966): 9-34. Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, 1979). David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1983). See also Carolyn C. Cooper, Robert B. Gordon, Patrick M. Malone, and Michael Raber, Model Establishment: A History of the Springfield Armory 1794-1918 (forthcoming).
5. Edwin A. Battison, "Eli Whitney and the Milling Machine," The Smithsonian Journal of History 1 (1966): 9-34. Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, 1979). David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1983). See also Carolyn C. Cooper, Robert B. Gordon, Patrick M. Malone, and Michael Raber, Model Establishment: A History of the Springfield Armory 1794-1918 (forthcoming).
6. Edwin A. Battison, "Eli Whitney and the Milling Machine," The Smithsonian Journal of History 1 (1966): 9-34. Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, 1979). David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1983). See also Carolyn C. Cooper, Robert B. Gordon, Patrick M. Malone, and Michael Raber, Model Establishment: A History of the Springfield Armory 1794-1918 (forthcoming).
7. Edwin A. Battison, "Eli Whitney and the Milling Machine," The Smithsonian Journal of History 1 (1966): 9-34. Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, 1979). David Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States (Baltimore, 1983). See also Carolyn C. Cooper, Robert B. Gordon, Patrick M. Malone, and Michael Raber, Model Establishment: A History of the Springfield Armory 1794-1918 (forthcoming).
8. George Daniels, "The Big Questions in the History of American Technology," Technology and Culture 11 (1960): 1-35.
9. Selma Thomas briefly highlighted Blanc's achievement in " 'La plus grande économie et la précision la plus exacte,' L'oeuvre d'Honoré Blanc," Bulletin trimestriel des Amis du Musée d'Armes de Liège 7 (1979): 1-4. See also W. F. Durfee, "The First Systematic Attempt at Interchangeability in Firearms," Cassier's Magazine (April 1894): 469-77; and John E. Sawyer, "The Social Basis of the American System of Manufacturing," Journal of Economic History 14 (1954): 361-79.
10. Selma Thomas briefly highlighted Blanc's achievement in " 'La plus grande économie et la précision la plus exacte,' L'oeuvre d'Honoré Blanc," Bulletin trimestriel des Amis du Musée d'Armes de Liège 7 (1979): 1-4. See also W. F. Durfee, "The First Systematic Attempt at Interchangeability in Firearms," Cassier's Magazine (April 1894): 469-77; and John E. Sawyer, "The Social Basis of the American System of Manufacturing," Journal of Economic History 14 (1954): 361-79.
11. Selma Thomas briefly highlighted Blanc's achievement in " 'La plus grande économie et la précision la plus exacte,' L'oeuvre d'Honoré Blanc," Bulletin trimestriel des Amis du Musée d'Armes de Liège 7 (1979): 1-4. See also W. F. Durfee, "The First Systematic Attempt at Interchangeability in Firearms," Cassier's Magazine (April 1894): 469-77; and John E. Sawyer, "The Social Basis of the American System of Manufacturing," Journal of Economic History 14 (1954): 361-79.
12. Nathan Rosenberg, ed., The American System of Manufactures (Edinburgh, 1969); see especially the editor's introduction. For attempts to alert the French to these methods, see S.H.A.T. 4f8/1 Kreutzberger, "Rapport addressé à M. le Président de la Comité d'Artillerie," 1856.
13. Nathan Rosenberg, ed., The American System of Manufactures (Edinburgh, 1969); see especially the editor's introduction. For attempts to alert the French to these methods, see S.H.A.T. 4f8/1 Kreutzberger, "Rapport addressé à M. le Président de la Comité d'Artillerie," 1856.
14. Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Historical Alternatives to Mass Production: Politics, Markets and Technology in Nineteenth-Century Industrialization," Past and Present 108 (1986): 133-76. Yves Cohen, "Inventivité organisationnelle et compétitivité: L'interchangeabilité des pièces face à la crise de la machine-outil en France autour de 1900," Entreprises et histoire 5 (1994): 53-72. For a warning against describing 18th-century developments with 20th-century terms such as "mass" production and "mass" consumption, see John Styles, "Manufacture, Consumption, and Design in Eighteenth-Century England," in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London, 1993), pp. 527-52.
15. Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Historical Alternatives to Mass Production: Politics, Markets and Technology in Nineteenth-Century Industrialization," Past and Present 108 (1986): 133-76. Yves Cohen, "Inventivité organisationnelle et compétitivité: L'interchangeabilité des pièces face à la crise de la machine-outil en France autour de 1900," Entreprises et histoire 5 (1994): 53-72. For a warning against describing 18th-century developments with 20th-century terms such as "mass" production and "mass" consumption, see John Styles, "Manufacture, Consumption, and Design in Eighteenth-Century England," in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London, 1993), pp. 527-52.
16. Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Historical Alternatives to Mass Production: Politics, Markets and Technology in Nineteenth-Century Industrialization," Past and Present 108 (1986): 133-76. Yves Cohen, "Inventivité organisationnelle et compétitivité: L'interchangeabilité des pièces face à la crise de la machine-outil en France autour de 1900," Entreprises et histoire 5 (1994): 53-72. For a warning against describing 18th-century developments with 20th-century terms such as "mass" production and "mass" consumption, see John Styles, "Manufacture, Consumption, and Design in Eighteenth-Century England," in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London, 1993), pp. 527-52.
17. Lindy Biggs, The Rational Factory: Architecture, Technology and Work in America's Age of Mass Production (Baltimore, 1996).
18. Werner Sombart, Krieg und Kapitalismus (New York, 1975), pp. 74-116. Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York, 1934), pp. 89-98. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD. 990-1992, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1992).
19. Werner Sombart, Krieg und Kapitalismus (New York, 1975), pp. 74-116. Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York, 1934), pp. 89-98. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD. 990-1992, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1992).
20. Werner Sombart, Krieg und Kapitalismus (New York, 1975), pp. 74-116. Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization (New York, 1934), pp. 89-98. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD. 990-1992, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1992).
21. Jacques-Antoine-Hippolyte de Guibert, Essai général de tactique (London, 1772). See also Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763- 1815 (Princeton, 1997), pp. 23-124.
22. Jacques-Antoine-Hippolyte de Guibert, Essai général de tactique (London, 1772). See also Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, 1997), pp. 23-124.
23. [Philippe-Charles-Jean-Baptiste Tronson Du Coudray], L'ordre profond et l'ordre mince, considérés par rapport aux effets de l'artillerie (Metz, 1776), p. 92 (translations from French are the author's throughout). One might say that within the army's "killing system," the musket represented a "critical problem" that attracted attention from military system builders. Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 51-82.
24. [Philippe-Charles-Jean-Baptiste Tronson Du Coudray], L'ordre profond et l'ordre mince, considérés par rapport aux effets de l'artillerie (Metz, 1776), p. 92 (translations from French are the author's throughout). One might say that within the army's "killing system," the musket represented a "critical problem" that attracted attention from military system builders. Thomas P. Hughes, "The Evolution of Large Technological Systems," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 51-82.
25. S.H.A.T. 4f22/1 Gribeauval, Montbarey, Du Châtelet, [No title], January 24-February 7, 1776. S.H.A.T. 4f3 Blanc, "Etat de dépenses," March 18, 1777.
26. S.H.A.T. MR1741 Honoré Blanc, "Mémoire historique sur les progrès," April 27, 1777.
27. Jean Boudriot, "L'évolution de la platine de l'arme d'infantrie française," Gazette des armes 68 (1979): 35. Artillery professor Lombard later suggested how to maximize the performance of the M1777 in conjunction with Guibert's tactics. Jean-Louis Lombard, Traité du mouvement des projectiles (Dijon, year V [1796-97]), pp. 186-201.
28. Jean Boudriot, "L'évolution de la platine de l'arme d'infantrie française," Gazette des armes 68 (1979): 35. Artillery professor Lombard later suggested how to maximize the performance of the M1777 in conjunction with Guibert's tactics. Jean-Louis Lombard, Traité du mouvement des projectiles (Dijon, year V [1796-97]), pp. 186-201.
29. Maurice Bottet, Monographies de l'arme blanche (1789-1870) et de l'arme à feu portative (1718-1900) des armées françaises de terre et de mer (Paris, 1959), pp. 135-62.
30. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (Berkeley, 1968), 2: 1155-56. David Noble, "Command Performance: A Perspective on the Social and Economic Consequences of Military Enterprise," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change, ed. Merritt Roe Smith (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), pp. 329-46.
31. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (Berkeley, 1968), 2: 1155-56. David Noble, "Command Performance: A Perspective on the Social and Economic Consequences of Military Enterprise," in Military Enterprise and Technological Change, ed. Merritt Roe Smith (Cambridge, Mass., 1985), pp. 329-46.
32. Diderot, "Art," Encyclopédie (Paris, 1751), 1: 716.
33. Le Duc, "Mémoire concernant la connaissance, le détail et l'usage des principaux attirails de l'artillerie," 1750, cited in Howard Rosen, "The Système Gribeauval: A Study of Technological Development and Institutional Change in Eighteenth- century France," (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1981), pp. 135-37.
34. Le Duc, "Mémoire concernant la connaissance, le détail et l'usage des principaux attirails de l'artillerie," 1750, cited in Howard Rosen, "The Système Gribeauval: A Study of Technological Development and Institutional Change in Eighteenth-century France," (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1981), pp. 135-37.
35. Woodbury, "Eli Whitney" (n. 2 above).
36. For a suggestive hint along these lines, see Steve Lubar, "Representation and Power," Technology and Culture 36 (1995): S54-S81.
37. Michael Buroway, Manufacturing Consent: Changes in the Labor Process under Monopoly Capitalism (Chicago, 1979), pp. 5-56.
38. Diderot (n. 17 above).
39. Bruno Latour, "Drawing Things Together," in Representations in Scientific Practice, ed. Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar (Cambridge, Mass., 1990), pp. 20-69.
40. Theodore Porter, Trust in Numbers: Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, 1995).
41. Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, Tables de construction des principaux attirails de l'artillerie proposées ou approuvées depuis 1764 jusqu'en 1789, ed. Jacques Charles Mason (Paris, 1792). For further information on the development of engineering drawing in the Enlightenment, see Alder, Engineering the Revolution (n. 10 above), pp. 136-46.
42. Jean-Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, Tables de construction des principaux attirails de l'artillerie proposées ou approuvées depuis 1764 jusqu'en 1789, ed. Jacques Charles Mason (Paris, 1792). For further information on the development of engineering drawing in the Enlightenment, see Alder, Engineering the Revolution (n. 10 above), pp. 136-46.
43. Robert B. Gordon, "Who Turned the Mechanical Ideal into Reality?" Technology and Cultured 29 (1988): 744-78.
44. Historians have usually located the earliest use of tolerance in the mid-19th century; see Peter Geoffrey Booker, A History of Engineering Drawing (London, 1979), pp. 187-89.
45. Porter, Trust in Numbers.
46. E. P. Thompson, "Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism," Past and Present 38 (1967): 56-97. The same pattern holds true in the transition from customary payment to wage labor, or from the anthropomorphic work-based measures to the metric system. Peter Linebaugh, The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 371-401. Ken Alder, "A Revolution to Measure: The Political Economy of the Metric System in France," in The Values of Precision, ed. M. Norton Wise (Princeton, 1995), pp. 37-71.
47. E. P. Thompson, "Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism," Past and Present 38 (1967): 56-97. The same pattern holds true in the transition from customary payment to wage labor, or from the anthropomorphic work-based measures to the metric system. Peter Linebaugh, The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 371-401. Ken Alder, "A Revolution to Measure: The Political Economy of the Metric System in France," in The Values of Precision, ed. M. Norton Wise (Princeton, 1995), pp. 37-71.
48. E. P. Thompson, "Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism," Past and Present 38 (1967): 56-97. The same pattern holds true in the transition from customary payment to wage labor, or from the anthropomorphic work-based measures to the metric system. Peter Linebaugh, The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 371-401. Ken Alder, "A Revolution to Measure: The Political Economy of the Metric System in France," in The Values of Precision, ed. M. Norton Wise (Princeton, 1995), pp. 37-71.
49. Philippe-Charles-Jean-Baptiste Tronson Du Coudray, L'artillerie nouvelle ou examen des changements faits dans l'artillerie française depuis 1765 (Amsterdam, 1773), p. 84.
50. Michael P. Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity: Artisans and Industrial Workers in Three French Towns, 1871-1914 (Urbana, 1980). Sabel and Zeitlin, "Historical Alternatives" (n. 7 above). This debate over Saint-Etienne mirrors a larger debate over the pattern of French industrialization; see Patrick O'Brien and Caglar Keyder, Economic Growth in Britain and France, 1780-1940: Two Paths to the Twentieth Century (London, 1978).
51. Michael P. Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity: Artisans and Industrial Workers in Three French Towns, 1871-1914 (Urbana, 1980). Sabel and Zeitlin, "Historical Alternatives" (n. 7 above). This debate over Saint-Etienne mirrors a larger debate over the pattern of French industrialization; see Patrick O'Brien and Caglar Keyder, Economic Growth in Britain and France, 1780-1940: Two Paths to the Twentieth Century (London, 1978).
52. Paul Maguin, Les armes de Saint-Etienne (Saint-Etienne, 1990), p. 51. Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière, Manufactures, arts et métiers, vol. 2, pt. 2, Encyclopédie méthodique (Paris, 1790), pp. 46-48. Louis-Joseph Gras, Histoire de l'armurerie stéphanoise (Saint-Etienne, 1905), p. 100.
53. Paul Maguin, Les armes de Saint-Etienne (Saint-Etienne, 1990), p. 51. Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière, Manufactures, arts et métiers, vol. 2, pt. 2, Encyclopédie méthodique (Paris, 1790), pp. 46-48. Louis-Joseph Gras, Histoire de l'armurerie stéphanoise (Saint-Etienne, 1905), p. 100.
54. Paul Maguin, Les armes de Saint-Etienne (Saint-Etienne, 1990), p. 51. Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière, Manufactures, arts et métiers, vol. 2, pt. 2, Encyclopédie méthodique (Paris, 1790), pp. 46-48. Louis-Joseph Gras, Histoire de l'armurerie stéphanoise (Saint-Etienne, 1905), p. 100.
55. A.N. F12 1309 "Mémoire: réponse des négociants aux objections des Entrepreneurs," [1765]. Maguin, Armes, p. 48. S.H.A.T. 4f5 Danzel de Rouvroy, "Etat et dénombrement général des ouvriers," January 1, 1782. François Bonnefoy, Les armes de guerre portatives en France du début du règne de Louis XIV à la veille de la Révolution (1660-1789): De l'indépendance à la primauté (Paris, 1991), pp. 237-68.
56. A.N. F12 1309 "Mémoire: réponse des négociants aux objections des Entrepreneurs," [1765]. Maguin, Armes, p. 48. S.H.A.T. 4f5 Danzel de Rouvroy, "Etat et dénombrement général des ouvriers," January 1, 1782. François Bonnefoy, Les armes de guerre portatives en France du début du règne de Louis XIV à la veille de la Révolution (1660-1789): De l'indépendance à la primauté (Paris, 1991), pp. 237-68.
57. A.N. F12 1309 "Mémoire: réponse des négociants aux objections des Entrepreneurs," [1765]. Maguin, Armes, p. 48. S.H.A.T. 4f5 Danzel de Rouvroy, "Etat et dénombrement général des ouvriers," January 1, 1782. François Bonnefoy, Les armes de guerre portatives en France du début du règne de Louis XIV à la veille de la Révolution (1660-1789): De l'indépendance à la primauté (Paris, 1991), pp. 237-68.
58. A.N. F12 1309 "Mémoire: réponse des négociants aux objections des Entrepreneurs," [1765]. Maguin, Armes, p. 48. S.H.A.T. 4f5 Danzel de Rouvroy, "Etat et dénombrement général des ouvriers," January 1, 1782. François Bonnefoy, Les armes de guerre portatives en France du début du règne de Louis XIV à la veille de la Révolution (1660-1789): De l'indépendance à la primauté (Paris, 1991), pp. 237-68.
59. On artisanal entrepreneurship in the ancien régime, see William Reddy, The Rise of Market Culture: The Textile Trade and French Society, 1750-1900 (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 19-47.
60. S.H.A.T. 4f5 Danzel, "Etat et dénombrement," January 1, 1782. A.D.L. 930(2) Dubouchet, "Dénombrement des ouvriers," and "Tableau des ouvriers," 18 nivôse, year II [January 7, 1794]. Maguin, Armes, p. 45.
61. S.H.A.T. 4f5 Danzel, "Etat et dénombrement," January 1, 1782. A.D.L. 930(2) Dubouchet, "Dénombrement des ouvriers," and "Tableau des ouvriers," 18 nivôse, year II [January 7, 1794]. Maguin, Armes, p. 45.
62. S.H.A.T. 4f5 Danzel, "Etat et dénombrement," January 1, 1782. A.D.L. 930(2) Dubouchet, "Dénombrement des ouvriers," and "Tableau des ouvriers," 18 nivôse, year II [January 7, 1794]. Maguin, Armes, p. 45.
63. Montbeillard, "Mémoire," in Jean-Baptiste Galley, L'élection de Saint-Etienne à la fin de l'ancien régime (Saint-Etienne, 1903), p. 390. S.H.A.T. 4f12 [Agoult], "Mémoire sur des épreuves de batterie de platines," January, 1769.
64. Montbeillard, "Mémoire," in Jean-Baptiste Galley, L'élection de Saint-Etienne à la fin de l'ancien régime (Saint-Etienne, 1903), p. 390. S.H.A.T. 4f12 [Agoult], "Mémoire sur des épreuves de batterie de platines," January, 1769.
65. Tellingly, the lauded northern manufacturers needed constant refinancing in the latter part of the 18th century. Bonnefoy, Armes de guerre, pp. 237-68.
66. Josette Gamier, Bourgeoisie et propriété immobilière, en Forez aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Saint-Etienne, 1982), pp. 106-25, 145-51, 252-54, 476-77, 479-83.
67. For the "sweated alternative," see Tessie P. Liu, The Weaver's Knot: The Contradictions of Class Struggle and Family Solidarity in Western France, 1750-1914 (Ithaca, 1994).
68. These objections date back to 1759-60, when the state first briefly tried this managerial method. S.H.A.T. 4f3/1 [Entrepreneurs de Saint-Etienne], "Extrait d'un mémoire donné au Ministre de la Guerre, "June 6, 1760. A.M.StE. HH12 "Concernant les nouveaux règlements établis dans la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," [1759].
69. S.H.A.T. 4f3 "Tableau du temps employé à la fabrication des pièces d'armes dans les différentes Manufactures" [1770s]. Compare with Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977).
70. Steven L. Kaplan, "Réflexions sur la police du monde du travail, 1700-1815," Revue historique 261 (1979): 17-77. "Règlement de 26 février 1777," reprinted in Gras, Armurerie (n. 31 above), pp. 42-48.
71. Steven L. Kaplan, "Réflexions sur la police du monde du travail, 1700-1815," Revue historique 261 (1979): 17-77. "Règlement de 26 février 1777," reprinted in Gras, Armurerie (n. 31 above), pp. 42-48.
72. S.H.A.T. 4f5 [Gribeauval], "Mémoire," October 29, 1781.
73. S.H.A.T. 9a10 Vallière, père, to Chamillart, November 10, 1728. S.H.A.T. 4f12 Montbeillard, "Mémoire," August 16, 1763; and "Mémoire sur les platines," May 6, 1764.
74. S.H.A.T. 9a10 Vallière, père, to Chamillart, November 10, 1728. S.H.A.T. 4f12 Montbeillard, "Mémoire," August 16, 1763; and "Mémoire sur les platines," May 6, 1764.
75. S.H.A.T. 4f7/1 [Bellegarde], "Mémoire," 1765. S.H.A.T. 4f3 "Examen des raisons qui ont rendu susceptible d'augmentations plusieurs pièces" [1777?]. Denis Descreux, Notices biographiques stéphanoises (Saint-Etienne, 1868), pp. 63-64.
76. S.H.A.T. 4f7/1 [Bellegarde], "Mémoire," 1765. S.H.A.T. 4f3 "Examen des raisons qui ont rendu susceptible d'augmentations plusieurs pièces" [1777?]. Denis Descreux, Notices biographiques stéphanoises (Saint-Etienne, 1868), pp. 63-64.
77. S.H.A.T. 4f7/1 [Bellegarde], "Mémoire," 1765. S.H.A.T. 4f3 "Examen des raisons qui ont rendu susceptible d'augmentations plusieurs pièces" [1777?]. Denis Descreux, Notices biographiques stéphanoises (Saint-Etienne, 1868), pp. 63-64.
78. Montbeillard, "Mémoire" (n. 35 above), 386-90. S.H.A.T. 4f7 Montbeillard, "Mémoire," August 1763.
79. S.H.A.T. 5a9/1 [Agoult?], "Mémoire," 1777.
80. For the debates over gun dimensions in 1804, see S.H.A.T. 4f22 Sirodon, "Mémoires sur les proportions dans les armes," year XIII [1804-1805]; Tuffet Saint-Martin, "Observations sur le règlement," year XIII [1804-1805]; C. G. Dufort, "Observations sur le règlement," year XIII [1804-1805]. S.H.A.T. 4f7 [Blanc et al.], "Mémoire sur la fabrication des armes à feu à la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," 1777.
81. For the debates over gun dimensions in 1804, see S.H.A.T. 4f22 Sirodon, "Mémoires sur les proportions dans les armes," year XIII [1804-1805]; Tuffet Saint-Martin, "Observations sur le règlement," year XIII [1804-1805]; C. G. Dufort, "Observations sur le règlement," year XIII [1804-1805]. S.H.A.T. 4f7 [Blanc et al.], "Mémoire sur la fabrication des armes à feu à la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," 1777.
82. For the debates over gun dimensions in 1804, see S.H.A.T. 4f22 Sirodon, "Mémoires sur les proportions dans les armes," year XIII [1804-1805]; Tuffet Saint-Martin, "Observations sur le règlement," year XIII [1804-1805]; C. G. Dufort, "Observations sur le règlement," year XIII [1804-1805]. S.H.A.T. 4f7 [Blanc et al.], "Mémoire sur la fabrication des armes à feu à la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," 1777.
83. For the debates over gun dimensions in 1804, see S.H.A.T. 4f22 Sirodon, "Mémoires sur les proportions dans les armes," year XIII [1804-1805]; Tuffet Saint-Martin, "Observations sur le règlement," year XIII [1804-1805]; C. G. Dufort, "Observations sur le règlement," year XIII [1804-1805]. S.H.A.T. 4f7 [Blanc et al.], "Mémoire sur la fabrication des armes à feu à la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," 1777.
84. Smith, Harpers Ferry (n. 3 above), pp. 102, 109-10. Cohen, "Inventivité organisationnelle" (n. 7 above). On gauges in the manufactures, see S.H.A.T. 4f3 [Gribeauval], "Circulaire à Montbeillard, Bellegarde, et Minard," March 1766. S.H.A.T. 4f6/ 3 Agoult, "Projet d'un règlement," [1770s].
85. Smith, Harpers Ferry (n. 3 above), pp. 102, 109-10. Cohen, "Inventivité organisationnelle" (n. 7 above). On gauges in the manufactures, see S.H.A.T. 4f3 [Gribeauval], "Circulaire à Montbeillard, Bellegarde, et Minard," March 1766. S.H.A.T. 4f6/ 3 Agoult, "Projet d'un règlement," [1770s].
86. Smith, Harpers Ferry (n. 3 above), pp. 102, 109-10. Cohen, "Inventivité organisationnelle" (n. 7 above). On gauges in the manufactures, see S.H.A.T. 4f3 [Gribeauval], "Circulaire à Montbeillard, Bellegarde, et Minard," March 1766. S.H.A.T. 4f6/ 3 Agoult, "Projet d'un règlement," [1770s].
87. Smith, Harpers Ferry (n. 3 above), pp. 102, 109-10. Cohen, "Inventivité organisationnelle" (n. 7 above). On gauges in the manufactures, see S.H.A.T. 4f3 [Gribeauval], "Circulaire à Montbeillard, Bellegarde, et Minard," March 1766. S.H.A.T. 4f6/ 3 Agoult, "Projet d'un règlement," [1770s].
88. S.H.A.T. 4f10 Blanc, "Observations sur 4 cannons," June 24, 1781. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Danzel, "Aperçu des travaux," May 16, 1783.
89. S.H.A.T. 4f10 Blanc, "Observations sur 4 cannons," June 24, 1781. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Danzel, "Aperçu des travaux," May 16, 1783.
90. S.H.A.T. 4f12 [Agoult], "Mémoire," January 1769. Montbeillard, "Mémoire" (n. 35 above), pp. 386-90. Battison, "Eli Whitney" (n. 3 above), pp. 11-16. On the gauges and jigs, see S.H.A.T. 4f6/3 "Projet de règlement pour la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," July 21, 1773.
91. S.H.A.T. 4f12 [Agoult], "Mémoire," January 1769. Montbeillard, "Mémoire" (n. 35 above), pp. 386-90. Battison, "Eli Whitney" (n. 3 above), pp. 11-16. On the gauges and jigs, see S.H.A.T. 4f6/3 "Projet de règlement pour la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," July 21, 1773.
92. S.H.A.T. 4f12 [Agoult], "Mémoire," January 1769. Montbeillard, "Mémoire" (n. 35 above), pp. 386-90. Battison, "Eli Whitney" (n. 3 above), pp. 11-16. On the gauges and jigs, see S.H.A.T. 4f6/3 "Projet de règlement pour la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," July 21, 1773.
93. S.H.A.T. 4f12 [Agoult], "Mémoire," January 1769. Montbeillard, "Mémoire" (n. 35 above), pp. 386-90. Battison, "Eli Whitney" (n. 3 above), pp. 11-16. On the gauges and jigs, see S.H.A.T. 4f6/3 "Projet de règlement pour la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," July 21, 1773.
94. S.H.A.T. MR1741 Blanc, "Mémoire historique sur les progrès," April 27, 1777. S.H.A.T. 4f1 [Agoult], "Règłement provisoire pour la Manufacture de Saint- Etienne," February 26, 1777.
95. S.H.A.T. MR1741 Blanc, "Mémoire historique sur les progrès," April 27, 1777. S.H.A.T. 4f1 [Agoult], "Règłement provisoire pour la Manufacture de Saint-Etienne," February 26, 1777.
96. S.H.A.T. MR1739 Agoult, "Mémoire remis à M. de Saint-Sernin," November 14, 1782.
97. S.H.A.T. 4f3 [Blanc] to Gribeauval, February 1, 1778.
98. A.N. F12 1309 "Ouvriers mis en prison par Agoult," [1781].
99. A.M.StE. 1D1 Conseil Municipal, Registres, October 2, 1781. A.N. F12 1309 Neyron et al. to Contrôleurs-Généraux, December 29, 1780.
100. "Règlement pour la police de la Manufacture d'Armes établie à Saint-Etienne," January 17, 1782, in Roland de la Platière, Manufactures, arts et métiers (n. 31 above), pp. 49-50. Alder, Engineering the Revolution (n. 10 above), pp. 213-20.
101. "Règlement pour la police de la Manufacture d'Armes établie à Saint-Etienne," January 17, 1782, in Roland de la Platière, Manufactures, arts et métiers (n. 31 above), pp. 49-50. Alder, Engineering the Revolution (n. 10 above), pp. 213-20.
102. S.H.A.T. 9a11 Danzel, "Mémoire," June 3, 1782. Louis XVI, "De par le roi," June 15, 1782.
103. S.H.A.T. 9a11 Danzel, "Mémoire," June 3, 1782. Louis XVI, "De par le roi," June 15, 1782.
104. S.H.A.T. 4f7 Danzel, "Décadence de la Manufacture," September 19, 1784.
105. S.H.A.T. 4F3 Gribeauval to Ségur, June 5, 1785.
106. William A. Johnson, ed. and trans., Christopher Polhem: The Father of Swedish Technology (Hartford, 1963).
107. S.H.A.T. 6c5 "Etat des épreuves de Deschamps" [1727]. The sole published reference to Deschamps's work is Jean-Jacques-Basilien Gassendi, Aide-mémoire à l'usage des officiers d'artillerie de France, 5th ed. (Paris, 1819), p. 591.
108. S.H.A.T. 6c5 "Etat des épreuves de Deschamps" [1727]. The sole published reference to Deschamps's work is Jean-Jacques-Basilien Gassendi, Aide-mémoire à l'usage des officiers d'artillerie de France, 5th ed. (Paris, 1819), p. 591.
109. Gordon, "Mechanical Ideal" (n. 25 above).
110. S.H.A.T. 4f3 Gribeauval to Ségur (Min. War), June 5, 1785.
111. Ibid.
112. S.H.A.T. MR1739 "Dépenses annuelles de l'artillerie" [1788]. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Note by Gribeauval, in Danzel, "Aperçu des travaux," May 16, 1783. For the accounts, see S.H.A.T. MR1739 Rolland de Bellebrune, "Mémoire concernant la comptabilité," September 28, 1790. For the economics of interchangeability, see Russell I. Fries, "British Response to the American System: The Case of the Small-Arms Industry after 1850," Technology and Culture 16 (1975): 377-403.
113. S.H.A.T. MR1739 "Dépenses annuelles de l'artillerie" [1788]. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Note by Gribeauval, in Danzel, "Aperçu des travaux," May 16, 1783. For the accounts, see S.H.A.T. MR1739 Rolland de Bellebrune, "Mémoire concernant la comptabilité," September 28, 1790. For the economics of interchangeability, see Russell I. Fries, "British Response to the American System: The Case of the Small-Arms Industry after 1850," Technology and Culture 16 (1975): 377-403.
114. S.H.A.T. MR1739 "Dépenses annuelles de l'artillerie" [1788]. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Note by Gribeauval, in Danzel, "Aperçu des travaux," May 16, 1783. For the accounts, see S.H.A.T. MR1739 Rolland de Bellebrune, "Mémoire concernant la comptabilité," September 28, 1790. For the economics of interchangeability, see Russell I. Fries, "British Response to the American System: The Case of the Small-Arms Industry after 1850," Technology and Culture 16 (1975): 377-403.
115. S.H.A.T. MR1739 "Dépenses annuelles de l'artillerie" [1788]. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Note by Gribeauval, in Danzel, "Aperçu des travaux," May 16, 1783. For the accounts, see S.H.A.T. MR1739 Rolland de Bellebrune, "Mémoire concernant la comptabilité," September 28, 1790. For the economics of interchangeability, see Russell I. Fries, "British Response to the American System: The Case of the Small-Arms Industry after 1850," Technology and Culture 16 (1975): 377-403.
116. S.H.A.T. MR1739 Rolland de Bellebrune, "Mémoire," September 28, 1790.
117. S.H.A.T. 6c5 F. M. Aboville, père, to Narbonne (Min. War), January 27, 1792. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Régnier et al., "Expérience faite . . . sur cent platines," 15 germinal, year XII [April 5, 1804].
118. S.H.A.T. 6c5 F. M. Aboville, père, to Narbonne (Min. War), January 27, 1792. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Régnier et al., "Expérience faite . . . sur cent platines," 15 germinal, year XII [April 5, 1804].
119. S.H.A.T. 4f7 Danzel, "Décadence de la Manufacture," September 19, 1784. S.H.A.T. MR1743 Dubois d'Escordal, "Mémoire sur la constitution et manufacture d'armes à feu," [1788-90]. Quote from S.H.A.T. 6c5 [Givry et al.], "Précis des motifs qui ont fait autoriser le Sr. Blanc," January 1792.
120. S.H.A.T. 4f7 Danzel, "Décadence de la Manufacture," September 19, 1784. S.H.A.T. MR1743 Dubois d'Escordal, "Mémoire sur la constitution et manufacture d'armes à feu," [1788-90]. Quote from S.H.A.T. 6c5 [Givry et al.], "Précis des motifs qui ont fait autoriser le Sr. Blanc," January 1792.
121. S.H.A.T. 4f7 Danzel, "Décadence de la Manufacture," September 19, 1784. S.H.A.T. MR1743 Dubois d'Escordal, "Mémoire sur la constitution et manufacture d'armes à feu," [1788-90]. Quote from S.H.A.T. 6c5 [Givry et al.], "Précis des motifs qui ont fait autoriser le Sr. Blanc," January 1792.
122. Jean-Baptiste Le Roy, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, and Jean-Charles de Borda, Rapport fait à l'Académie Royale des Sciences, le samedi 19 mars 1791, d'un Mémoire important de M. Blanc (Paris, 1791). S.H.A.T. 6c5 Givry et al., "Résultats," [November 1791].
123. Jean-Baptiste Le Roy, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, and Jean-Charles de Borda, Rapport fait à l'Académie Royale des Sciences, le samedi 19 mars 1791, d'un Mémoire important de M. Blanc (Paris, 1791). S.H.A.T. 6c5 Givry et al., "Résultats," [November 1791].
124. Alder, Engineering the Revolution (n. 10 above), pp. 253-91.
125. Archives Parlementaires, 77 (October 25, 1793): 524-25; 78 (November 1, 1793): 134-35. François-Alphonse Aulard, ed., Recueil des actes du Comité de Salut Public, vol. 11 (Paris, 1897), pp. 590-91.
126. Archives Parlementaires, 77 (October 25, 1793): 524-25; 78 (November 1, 1793): 134-35. François-Alphonse Aulard, ed., Recueil des actes du Comité de Salut Public, vol. 11 (Paris, 1897), pp. 590-91.
127. Archives Parlementaires, 77 (October 25, 1793): 524-25; 78 (November 1, 1793): 134-35. François-Alphonse Aulard, ed., Recueil des actes du Comité de Salut Public, vol. 11 (Paris, 1897), pp. 590-91.
128. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Blanc to Min. War, 3 jour comp., year V [September 19, 1797]. Blanc to Commission Intermédiaire du Comité Central de l'Artillerie, 26 prairial, year VIII [June 15, 1800].
129. The accounts of the Roanne factory under Cablat have survived; see B.M.R. 3R2 "Journal général de la Manufacture Nationale d'Armes de Roanne, Commencé le 7 nivôse, an X" [December 28, 1801]. S.H.A.T. 4f2 Cablat and Min. War, "Traité pour l'entreprise," 30 fructidor, year X [September 17, 1802]. S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 Tugny, "Mémoire sur la Manufacture," messidor, year XI [June-July 1803]. Woodbury, "Eli Whitney" (n. 2 above).
130. The accounts of the Roanne factory under Cablat have survived; see B.M.R. 3R2 "Journal général de la Manufacture Nationale d'Armes de Roanne, Commencé le 7 nivôse, an X" [December 28, 1801]. S.H.A.T. 4f2 Cablat and Min. War, "Traité pour l'entreprise," 30 fructidor, year X [September 17, 1802]. S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 Tugny, "Mémoire sur la Manufacture," messidor, year XI [June-July 1803]. Woodbury, "Eli Whitney" (n. 2 above).
131. The accounts of the Roanne factory under Cablat have survived; see B.M.R. 3R2 "Journal général de la Manufacture Nationale d'Armes de Roanne, Commencé le 7 nivôse, an X" [December 28, 1801]. S.H.A.T. 4f2 Cablat and Min. War, "Traité pour l'entreprise," 30 fructidor, year X [September 17, 1802]. S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 Tugny, "Mémoire sur la Manufacture," messidor, year XI [June-July 1803]. Woodbury, "Eli Whitney" (n. 2 above).
132. The accounts of the Roanne factory under Cablat have survived; see B.M.R. 3R2 "Journal général de la Manufacture Nationale d'Armes de Roanne, Commencé le 7 nivôse, an X" [December 28, 1801]. S.H.A.T. 4f2 Cablat and Min. War, "Traité pour l'entreprise," 30 fructidor, year X [September 17, 1802]. S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 Tugny, "Mémoire sur la Manufacture," messidor, year XI [June-July 1803]. Woodbury, "Eli Whitney" (n. 2 above).
133. S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 Tugny, "Mémoire sur la Manufacture," messidor, year XI [June-July 1803]. S.H.A.T. 4f4 Tugny and Cablat, "Devis des prix," 29 fructidor, year XI [September 16, 1803],
134. S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 Tugny, "Mémoire sur la Manufacture," messidor, year XI [June-July 1803]. S.H.A.T. 4f4 Tugny and Cablat, "Devis des prix," 29 fructidor, year XI [September 16, 1803],
135. S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 Tugny, "Mémoire sur la Manufacture," messidor, year XI [June-July 1803]. S.H.A.T. 6c5 A. G. Aboville, fils to F. M. Aboville, père, 7 ventôse, year X [February 26, 1802]. Régnier et al., "Expérience faite . . . sur cent platines," 15 germinal, year XII [April 5, 1804].
136. S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 Tugny, "Mémoire sur la Manufacture," messidor, year XI [June-July 1803]. S.H.A.T. 6c5 A. G. Aboville, fils to F. M. Aboville, père, 7 ventôse, year X [February 26, 1802]. Régnier et al., "Expérience faite . . . sur cent platines," 15 germinal, year XII [April 5, 1804].
137. S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 Tugny, "Mémoire sur la Manufacture," messidor, year XI [June-July 1803]. S.H.A.T. 6c5 A. G. Aboville, fils to F. M. Aboville, père, 7 ventôse, year X [February 26, 1802]. Régnier et al., "Expérience faite . . . sur cent platines," 15 germinal, year XII [April 5, 1804].
138. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Tugny, "Mémoire présenté au Conseil d'Etat," 16 vendémiaire, year XII [October 9, 1803]. B.M.R. 3R2 "Journal général de . . . Roanne."
139. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Agoult, "Historique des travaux du Sr. Blanc," 13 vendémiaire, year VI [October 4, 1797].
140. Paul Gaffarel, "Le Général de Gassendi," Mémoire de la Société Bourguignonne de Géographie et d'Histoire 19 (1903): 387-459.
141. Louis Bergeron, France Under Napoléon, trans. R. R. Palmer (Princeton, 1981). For state sponsorship of metalworking and armaments, see Denis Woronoff, L'industrie sidérurgique en France pendant la Révolution et l'Empire (Paris, 1984).
142. Louis Bergeron, France Under Napoléon, trans. R. R. Palmer (Princeton, 1981). For state sponsorship of metalworking and armaments, see Denis Woronoff, L'industrie sidérurgique en France pendant la Révolution et l'Empire (Paris, 1984).
143. S.H.A.T. 6c5 F. M. Aboville, père, et al., "Procès-verbal de remontage de 500 platines," 17 vendémiaire, year X [October 9, 1801]. F. M. Aboville, père, to Bonaparte (with note by Bonaparte), 16 pluviôse, year X [February 5, 1802].
144. S.H.A.T. 6c5 F. M. Aboville, père, et al., "Procès-verbal de remontage de 500 platines," 17 vendémiaire, year X [October 9, 1801]. F. M. Aboville, père, to Bonaparte (with note by Bonaparte), 16 pluviôse, year X [February 5, 1802].
145. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Lamogère et al., "Procès-verbaux sur 492 platines," 25 pluviôse, year X [February 14, 1802].
146. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Jacques et al., "Epreuve faite. . . sur cent fusils," February 12, 1804. Cablat to Min. War, 8 nivôse, year XII [December 30, 1803]. Lefebvre, "Examen fait de cinq platines," 10 prairial, year XIII [May 30, 1805]. Delahaye, "Manufacture Impériale de Platines établie à Liège," 10 prairial, year XIII [May 3, 1805]. S.H.A.T. Xd414 Saint-Martin to Gassendi, November 9, 1806.
147. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Jacques et al., "Epreuve faite. . . sur cent fusils," February 12, 1804. Cablat to Min. War, 8 nivôse, year XII [December 30, 1803]. Lefebvre, "Examen fait de cinq platines," 10 prairial, year XIII [May 30, 1805]. Delahaye, "Manufacture Impériale de Platines établie à Liège," 10 prairial, year XIII [May 3, 1805]. S.H.A.T. Xd414 Saint-Martin to Gassendi, November 9, 1806.
148. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Jacques et al., "Epreuve faite. . . sur cent fusils," February 12, 1804. Cablat to Min. War, 8 nivôse, year XII [December 30, 1803]. Lefebvre, "Examen fait de cinq platines," 10 prairial, year XIII [May 30, 1805]. Delahaye, "Manufacture Impériale de Platines établie à Liège," 10 prairial, year XIII [May 3, 1805]. S.H.A.T. Xd414 Saint-Martin to Gassendi, November 9, 1806.
149. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Gassendi to Min. War, November 27, 1806, June 26, 1807. [Gassendi] to Bonaparte, December 9, 1806. Claude Gaier, "Note sur la fabrication des 'platines identiques' et sur la Manufacture Impériale de Platines de Liège," Bulletin trimestriel des Amis du Musée d'Armes de Liège 7 (1979): 9.
150. For Versailles, see Hermann Cotty, Mémoire sur la fabrication des armes portatives de guerre (Paris, 1806), pp. 63-75. On Mutzig, see S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 A. M. Aboville, cadet, "Rapport sur Mutzig," November 20, 1810. On Le Roy's armory, see A.N. F12 1565 Commission sur la Perfectionnement des Armes, "Rapport sur le fusil modèle de M. Julien Le Roy," [1815]; and S.H.A.T. 6c2/1 Cotty, "Rapport sur le fusil," 4 December 1815. On Bodmer and his subsequent career in England, see J. W. Roe, English and American Tool Builders (New Haven, Conn., 1916), pp. 75-76.
151. For Versailles, see Hermann Cotty, Mémoire sur la fabrication des armes portatives de guerre (Paris, 1806), pp. 63-75. On Mutzig, see S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 A. M. Aboville, cadet, "Rapport sur Mutzig," November 20, 1810. On Le Roy's armory, see A.N. F12 1565 Commission sur la Perfectionnement des Armes, "Rapport sur le fusil modèle de M. Julien Le Roy," [1815]; and S.H.A.T. 6c2/1 Cotty, "Rapport sur le fusil," 4 December 1815. On Bodmer and his subsequent career in England, see J. W. Roe, English and American Tool Builders (New Haven, Conn., 1916), pp. 75-76.
152. For Versailles, see Hermann Cotty, Mémoire sur la fabrication des armes portatives de guerre (Paris, 1806), pp. 63-75. On Mutzig, see S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 A. M. Aboville, cadet, "Rapport sur Mutzig," November 20, 1810. On Le Roy's armory, see A.N. F12 1565 Commission sur la Perfectionnement des Armes, "Rapport sur le fusil modèle de M. Julien Le Roy," [1815]; and S.H.A.T. 6c2/1 Cotty, "Rapport sur le fusil," 4 December 1815. On Bodmer and his subsequent career in England, see J. W. Roe, English and American Tool Builders (New Haven, Conn., 1916), pp. 75-76.
153. For Versailles, see Hermann Cotty, Mémoire sur la fabrication des armes portatives de guerre (Paris, 1806), pp. 63-75. On Mutzig, see S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 A. M. Aboville, cadet, "Rapport sur Mutzig," November 20, 1810. On Le Roy's armory, see A.N. F12 1565 Commission sur la Perfectionnement des Armes, "Rapport sur le fusil modèle de M. Julien Le Roy," [1815]; and S.H.A.T. 6c2/1 Cotty, "Rapport sur le fusil," 4 December 1815. On Bodmer and his subsequent career in England, see J. W. Roe, English and American Tool Builders (New Haven, Conn., 1916), pp. 75-76.
154. For Versailles, see Hermann Cotty, Mémoire sur la fabrication des armes portatives de guerre (Paris, 1806), pp. 63-75. On Mutzig, see S.H.A.T. 4f6/4 A. M. Aboville, cadet, "Rapport sur Mutzig," November 20, 1810. On Le Roy's armory, see A.N. F12 1565 Commission sur la Perfectionnement des Armes, "Rapport sur le fusil modèle de M. Julien Le Roy," [1815]; and S.H.A.T. 6c2/1 Cotty, "Rapport sur le fusil," 4 December 1815. On Bodmer and his subsequent career in England, see J. W. Roe, English and American Tool Builders (New Haven, Conn., 1916), pp. 75-76.
155. Gassendi, Aide-mémoire (n. 61 above), 4th ed. (1809), 2: 589-90; 5th ed. (1819), 2: 591-92. Cotty, Fabrications des armes, pp. 69-75; Dictionnaire de l'Artillerie, vol. 23, Encyclopédie méthodique (Paris, 1822), pp. 185, 337-43.
156. Gassendi, Aide-mémoire (n. 61 above), 4th ed. (1809), 2: 589-90; 5th ed. (1819), 2: 591-92. Cotty, Fabrications des armes, pp. 69-75; Dictionnaire de l'Artillerie, vol. 23, Encyclopédie méthodique (Paris, 1822), pp. 185, 337-43.
157. Gassendi, Aide-mémoire (n. 61 above), 4th ed. (1809), 2: 589-90; 5th ed. (1819), 2: 591-92. Cotty, Fabrications des armes, pp. 69-75;
158. Gassendi, Aide-mémoire (n. 61 above), 4th ed. (1809), 2: 589-90; 5th ed. (1819), 2: 591-92. Cotty, Fabrications des armes, pp. 69-75; Dictionnaire de l'Artillerie, vol. 23, Encyclopédie méthodique (Paris, 1822), pp. 185, 337-43.
159. S.H.A.T. 4f6 A. G. Aboville, fils, "Observations sur le mémoire présenté au Premier Consul," germinal, year X [March-April 1802].
160. S.H.A.T. 6c5 F. M. Aboville, père, to A. G. Aboville, fils, 13 ventôse, year X [March 4, 1802].
161. S.H.A.T. 6c5 F. M. Aboville, père, "Conseil Extraordinaire de l'Artillerie, Séance du 24 fructidor, an X" [September 11, 1802].
162. S.H.A.T. 6c5 Gassendi, "Rapport. . . sur la proposition que font citoyens Poterat et Cabanel," 16 fructidor, year VII [September 2, 1799].
163. For output, see A.D.L. L835 [Guilliaud], La fabrication d'armes de guerre à Saint-Etienne (n.p., [1800]). On the armory during the Terror, see A.D.L. L933 Bonnand et al., "Extrait des registres," 25 germinal, year II [April 14, 1794]. For the relationship between the central authorities and local institutions during the Terror, see Colin Lucas, The Structure of the Terror: The Example of Javogues and the Loire (Oxford, 1973).
164. For output, see A.D.L. L835 [Guilliaud], La fabrication d'armes de guerre à Saint- Etienne (n.p., [1800]). On the armory during the Terror, see A.D.L. L933 Bonnand et al., "Extrait des registres," 25 germinal, year II [April 14, 1794]. For the relationship between the central authorities and local institutions during the Terror, see Colin Lucas, The Structure of the Terror: The Example of Javogues and the Loire (Oxford, 1973).
165. For output, see A.D.L. L835 [Guilliaud], La fabrication d'armes de guerre à Saint- Etienne (n.p., [1800]). On the armory during the Terror, see A.D.L. L933 Bonnand et al., "Extrait des registres," 25 germinal, year II [April 14, 1794]. For the relationship between the central authorities and local institutions during the Terror, see Colin Lucas, The Structure of the Terror: The Example of Javogues and the Loire (Oxford, 1973).
166. S.H.A.T. 4f6/1 Truffet Saint-Martin, "Observations sur les différents régimes," year X [1801-1802]. Colomb, "Observations sur le règlement de police," January 27, 1806. Archives Départementale du Rhône 2H2 Règlement pour la police (Saint- Etienne, 1810). Bibliothèque Municipale de Saint-Etienne F609(6) Dubouchet, Mémoire, 28 thermidor, year IX [August 16, 1801] (Saint-Etienne, [1801]).
167. S.H.A.T. 4f6/1 Truffet Saint-Martin, "Observations sur les différents régimes," year X [1801-1802]. Colomb, "Observations sur le règlement de police," January 27, 1806. Archives Départementale du Rhône 2H2 Règlement pour la police (Saint- Etienne, 1810). Bibliothèque Municipale de Saint-Etienne F609(6) Dubouchet, Mémoire, 28 thermidor, year IX [August 16, 1801] (Saint-Etienne, [1801]).
168. S.H.A.T. 4f6/1 Truffet Saint-Martin, "Observations sur les différents régimes," year X [1801-1802]. Colomb, "Observations sur le règlement de police," January 27, 1806. Archives Départementale du Rhône 2H2 Règlement pour la police (Saint-Etienne, 1810). Bibliothèque Municipale de Saint-Etienne F609(6) Dubouchet, Mémoire, 28 thermidor, year IX [August 16, 1801] (Saint-Etienne, [1801]).
169. S.H.A.T. 4f6/1 Truffet Saint-Martin, "Observations sur les différents régimes," year X [1801-1802]. Colomb, "Observations sur le règlement de police," January 27, 1806. Archives Départementale du Rhône 2H2 Règlement pour la police (Saint- Etienne, 1810). Bibliothèque Municipale de Saint-Etienne F609(6) Dubouchet, Mémoire, 28 thermidor, year IX [August 16, 1801] (Saint-Etienne, [1801]).
170. S.H.A.T. Xd234 Charles Lucio, "Liège: Rapport d'inspection de 1808," July 6, 1808.
171. S.H.A.T. Xd235 Drouot, "Rapport sur la Manufacture," 1808.
172. S.H.A.T. 4f7 Sirodon, "Mémoire sur les proportions dans les armes," year XIII [1804-1805].
173. Ibid.
174. Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Stories, Strategies, Structures: Rethinking Alternatives to Mass Production," introduction to Worlds of Possibility: Flexibility and Mass Production in Western Industrialization (New York, 1993). Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures: Industry, Innovation, and Work in Britain, 1700-1820 (Totowa, N.J., 1985).
175. Charles Sabel and Jonathan Zeitlin, "Stories, Strategies, Structures: Rethinking Alternatives to Mass Production," introduction to Worlds of Possibility: Flexibility and Mass Production in Western Industrialization (New York, 1993). Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures: Industry, Innovation, and Work in Britain, 1700-1820 (Totowa, N.J., 1985).
176. Edward W. Constant II, "A Model for Technological Change Applied to the Turbojet Revolution," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 553-72. Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society, trans. John Wilkinson (New York, 1964). Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (New York, 1990).
177. Edward W. Constant II, "A Model for Technological Change Applied to the Turbojet Revolution," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 553-72. Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society, trans. John Wilkinson (New York, 1964). Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (New York, 1990).
178. Edward W. Constant II, "A Model for Technological Change Applied to the Turbojet Revolution," Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 553-72. Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society, trans. John Wilkinson (New York, 1964). Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (New York, 1990).
179. Skúli Sigurdsson, "Electric Memories, and Progressive Forgetting," in Whose History, Whose Science? Problems in the Historiography of Contemporary Technoscience, ed. Thomas Soenderqvist (forthcoming).