The changing context of corruption control: The Hong Kong special administrative region, 1997-99

Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics

Volumn 37, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 98-116

  Moran, Jonathan ^a  

^a LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CORRUPTION; GOVERNANCE APPROACH; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

CHINA; HONG KONG;

EID: 0033437152     PISSN: 03063631     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14662049908447798     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
2. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
3. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
4. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
5. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
6. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
7. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
8. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
9. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
10. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
11. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
12. A. Block and W. Chambliss, Organising Crime (New York: Elsevier, 1981); A. Block and S.P. Griffin, 'The Teamsters, the White House, the Labor Department: A Commentary on the Politics of Organised Crime', Crime, Law and Social Change, 27, 1 (1997), 1-30; M. Davis, City of Quartz (London: Vintage, 1992); V. Pujas and M. Rhodes, 'Party Finance and Political Scandal in Latin Europe', EUI Working Paper No.98/10 (1998); A. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drugs Trade (USA: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991). On Thailand, see J. Ockey, 'Business Leaders, Gangsters and the Middle Class: Societal Groups and Civilian Rule in Thailand' (Ph.D. Diss., Cornell University, 1992); J. Ockey, 'Political Parties, Factions and Corruption in Thailand', Modern Asian Studies, 28, 2 (1994), 251-77; D. Arghiros, 'Political Structures and Strategies: A Study of Electoral Politics in Contemporary Rural Thailand', Occasional Paper No.31 (University of Hull, Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, 1995); A. Laothamatas, 'Business and Politics in Thailand: New Patterns of Influence', Asian Survey, 28, 4 (1988), 451-70; on the Philippines, see J.T. Sidel, 'Philippine Politics in Town, District and Province: Bossism in Cavite and Cebu', Journal of Asian Studies, 56, 4 (1997), 947-66; J.T. Sidel, 'On the Waterfront: Labor Racketeering in the Port of Cebu', Southeast Asia Research, 3, 1 (1995), 3-17; P. Hutchcroft, 'Oligarchs and Cronies in the Philippine State. The Politics of Patrimonial Plunder', World Politics, 43, 3 (1991), 414-50.
13. For example, J. Quah's analysis neglects the political and economic context within which anti-corruption policies may be developed. This is particularly the case as regards Singapore, where PAP political hegemony, authoritarian governance and extensive legal controls on social behaviour are important structural variables influencing the specific regime of anticorruption policies. See J.S.T. Quah, 'Controlling Corruption in City States: A Comparative Study of Hong Kong and Singapore', Crime, Law and Social Change, 22, 4 (1995), 391-414.
14. T. Wing Lo, Corruption and Politics in Hong Kong and China (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1993).
15. J. Moran, 'Zero Tolerance in Comparative Perspective', Police Research and Management, 2, 2 (1998), 43-53.
16. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, Chapter 6; Wing Lo, Corruption and Politics in Hong Kong and China, chapter 4; M. Skidmore, 'Promise and Peril in Combating Corruption: Hong Kong's ICAC', Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 547 (1996), 118-30; ICAC, Annual Report by the Commissioner of the ICAC, HKSAR (Hong Kong: ICAC, 1998).
17. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, Chapter 6; Wing Lo, Corruption and Politics in Hong Kong and China, chapter 4; M. Skidmore, 'Promise and Peril in Combating Corruption: Hong Kong's ICAC', Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 547 (1996), 118-30; ICAC, Annual Report by the Commissioner of the ICAC, HKSAR (Hong Kong: ICAC, 1998).
18. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, Chapter 6; Wing Lo, Corruption and Politics in Hong Kong and China, chapter 4; M. Skidmore, 'Promise and Peril in Combating Corruption: Hong Kong's ICAC', Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 547 (1996), 118-30; ICAC, Annual Report by the Commissioner of the ICAC, HKSAR (Hong Kong: ICAC, 1998).
19. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, Chapter 6; Wing Lo, Corruption and Politics in Hong Kong and China, chapter 4; M. Skidmore, 'Promise and Peril in Combating Corruption: Hong Kong's ICAC', Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 547 (1996), 118-30; ICAC, Annual Report by the Commissioner of the ICAC, HKSAR (Hong Kong: ICAC, 1998).
20. G. White, 'Corruption and Market Reform in China', IDS Bulletin, 27, 2 (1996), 40-48.
21. M. Manion, 'Issues of Corruption Control in Post-Mao China', Issues and Studies, 34, 9 (1998), 7-12 at 7. When officials have been targeted it is usually at the lower level: 'Investigations into corruption have recovered more than £1 billion since 1993 and more than 124,000 of the 50 million members of the Communist Party were punished last year for wrongdoing. But despite the huge sums involved there has been only one significant politician prosecuted for corruption.' D. McElroy, 'China Targets the "Big Tigers" in Corruption Purge', Daily Telegraph, 17 Jan. 1999.
22. M. Manion, 'Issues of Corruption Control in Post-Mao China', Issues and Studies, 34, 9 (1998), 7-12 at 7. When officials have been targeted it is usually at the lower level: 'Investigations into corruption have recovered more than £1 billion since 1993 and more than 124,000 of the 50 million members of the Communist Party were punished last year for wrongdoing. But despite the huge sums involved there has been only one significant politician prosecuted for corruption.' D. McElroy, 'China Targets the "Big Tigers" in Corruption Purge', Daily Telegraph, 17 Jan. 1999.
23. L. Dittmer, 'Hong Kong Returns to China: the Problem of Political Corruption', Asian Journal of Business and Information Systems, 2, 1 (1997), 70-71.
24. The oversight has often been weak, but nevertheless enough to be effective and provoke open debate. M. Skidmore, 'Promise and Peril in Combating Corruption: Hong Kong's ICAC', Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 547 (1996), 123-8.
25. B. Wain, 'A Reputation Damaged', Asian Wall Street Journal, 5-6 March 1999, 10.
26. J. Gittings, 'Hong Kong Leader asks China to Block Influx of Migrants', The Guardian, 19 May 1999.
27. S. Vines, 'Anger as Hong Kong Press Chief Beats Law', The Independent, 20 March 1998, 16.
28. B. Gilley, 'Moot Point', Far Eastern Economic Review, 2 April 1998, 24.
29. F. Ching, 'Another Place, Another Crime', Far Eastern Economic Review, 5 Nov. 1998, 26; S. Vines, 'Luck Runs Out for Big Spender Gangster', Independent on Sunday, 15 Nov. 1998; D. McElroy, 'Hong Kong Gang Leader Executed by China', Sunday Telegraph, 6 Dec. 1998.
30. F. Ching, 'Another Place, Another Crime', Far Eastern Economic Review, 5 Nov. 1998, 26; S. Vines, 'Luck Runs Out for Big Spender Gangster', Independent on Sunday, 15 Nov. 1998; D. McElroy, 'Hong Kong Gang Leader Executed by China', Sunday Telegraph, 6 Dec. 1998.
31. F. Ching, 'Another Place, Another Crime', Far Eastern Economic Review, 5 Nov. 1998, 26; S. Vines, 'Luck Runs Out for Big Spender Gangster', Independent on Sunday, 15 Nov. 1998; D. McElroy, 'Hong Kong Gang Leader Executed by China', Sunday Telegraph, 6 Dec. 1998.
32. T. Wing Lo, Corruption and Politics in Hong Kong and China (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1993), Chapters 4 and 5.
33. Both quotes are from M.K. Chan, 'Hong Kong: Colonial Legacy, Transformation and Challenge', Annals of the American Academy of Political Science, 547 (1996), 14.
34. Lai Si Tsui-Auch, 'Has the Hong Kong Model Worked? Industrial Policy in Retrospect and Prospect', Development and Change, 29 (1998), 66-7; Lo, Corruption and Politics in Hong Kong and China.
35. Lai Si Tsui-Auch, 'Has the Hong Kong Model Worked? Industrial Policy in Retrospect and Prospect', Development and Change, 29 (1998), 66-7; Lo, Corruption and Politics in Hong Kong and China.
36. B.K.P. Leung, Perspectives on Hong Kong Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 42.
37. Ibid., 42-3; J. Dimbleby, The Last Governor (London: Warner, 1998), Chapters 19 and 20.
38. Ibid., 42-3; J. Dimbleby, The Last Governor (London: Warner, 1998), Chapters 19 and 20.
39. B. Gilley, 'Personal Touch', Far Eastern Economic Review, 28 Jan. 1999, 14.
40. Lai Si Tsui-Auch, 'Has the Hong Kong Model Worked? Industrial Policy in Retrospect and Prospect', Development and Change, 29 (1998), 74.
41. A. Granitsas, 'Perils of Power', Far Eastern Economic Review, 18 Feb. 1999, 22-3.
42. M. Pao, 'Rethinking Self-Reliance', Far Eastern Economic Review, 8 Oct. 1998, 14.
43. A. Granitsas, 'Catch 22', Far Eastern Economic Review, 11 March 1999, 47.
44. Quoted in D. McElroy, 'Hong Kong's New Chief Falls out of Favour', Daily Telegraph, 28 March 1999, 34.
45. Ibid.
46. A. Higgins, 'He Stooped to Conquer', The Guardian, 17 Jan. 1998, 28.
47. Tai-Lok Lui, 'Hong Kong Society: Anxiety in the Post-1997 Days', Journal of Contemporary China, 8 (1999), 100-101.
48. E. Chan and R. Kwok, 'Democratization in Turmoil? Elections in Hong Kong', Journal of Contemporary China, 8 (1999), 65.
49. The ICAC's Operations Department has four branches, two concerned with government and two concerned with the private sector. The 1971 Prevention of Bribery Ordinance contains offences of private sector corruption.
50. Despite the laissez faire image of Hong Kong, the government takes a substantial role in infrastructure provision, house building and contracting out various public services to the private sector.
51. ICAC Annual Report by the Commissioner of the ICAC, HKSAR (Hong Kong: ICAC, 1998), Appendix 9, 73.
52. ICAC Corruption Reports 1974-1998. http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/icac/stat.htm. Accessed 30 March 1999.
53. 'Private sector organisations have been involved in more than 50% of the corruption reports processed by the ICAC in recent years, while procurement issues form about one quarter of the requests for advice. Procurement... has the potential for serious loss through corruption.' ICAC, Guidelines for Corruption Prevention: Procurement Practices (ICAC Corruption Prevention Department, May 1998), 1.
54. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, 400-407.
55. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Profile: Hong Kong and Macao 1998-99, 28-9.
56. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Hong Kong and Macao 3rd Quarter 1998, 26.
57. Leung, Perspectives on Hong Kong Society, 106.
58. M. Gaylord, 'City of Secrets: Drugs, Money and the Law in Hong Kong', Crime, Law and Social Change, 28 (1997), 93-1.
59. Ibid., 95.
60. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Hong Kong and Macao 3rd Quarter 1998, 17-18; A. Granitsas, 'Taking Charge', Far Eastern Economic Review, 8 Oct. 1998, 100.
61. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Hong Kong and Macao 3rd Quarter 1998, 17-18; A. Granitsas, 'Taking Charge', Far Eastern Economic Review, 8 Oct. 1998, 100.
62. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Hong Kong and Macao 4th Quarter 1998, 2, 17-18; Granitsas, 'Taking Charge'.
63. Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Hong Kong and Macao 4th Quarter 1998, 2, 17-18; Granitsas, 'Taking Charge'.
64. 'Hong Kong', in International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 1998: Money Laundering and Financial Crimes (Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, US Dept. of State, Washington DC, February 1999).
65. A point made by Mike Bishop, ICAC Assistant Director of Operations, Investigation Branch 4. in conversation with the author, 24 March 1999.
66. T. Travers, 'Laws Controlling Corruption - Hong Kong SAR, China', in Nabarro Nathanson (ed.), Controlling Bribery and Corruption in International Business (London: Nabarro Nathanson, 1999), 57.
67. S. Vines, 'Chinese Rule Boosts Hong Kong Triads', Independent on Sunday, 22 March 1998.
68. R. Godson, 'Criminal Threats to US Interests in Hong Kong and China', Trends in Organised Crime, 3, 1 (1997), 44.
69. The Heung family which dominates the Sun Yee On gang were awarded the first contract for a national cinema chain in mainland China. Vines, 'Chinese Rule Boosts Hong Kong Triads'; S. Vines, 'Hong Kong's Gurkhas Guard the Rich', The Independent, 5 Nov. 1998, 18.
70. The Heung family which dominates the Sun Yee On gang were awarded the first contract for a national cinema chain in mainland China. Vines, 'Chinese Rule Boosts Hong Kong Triads'; S. Vines, 'Hong Kong's Gurkhas Guard the Rich', The Independent, 5 Nov. 1998, 18.
71. R. Godson, 'Criminal Threats to US Interests in Hong Kong and China', Trends in Organised Crime, 3, 1 (1997), 44.
72. For discussion on the conceptual and empirical relationship of organised crime, economic crime and corporate crime, see V. Ruggerio, 'Criminals and Service Providers: Cross National Dirty Economies', paper presented to the 5th Liverpool Conference on Fraud, Corruption and Business Crime, Liverpool, April 1997; V. Ruggerio, 'War Markets: Corporate and Organised Criminals in Europe', Social and Legal Studies, 5 (1996), 5-10.
73. For discussion on the conceptual and empirical relationship of organised crime, economic crime and corporate crime, see V. Ruggerio, 'Criminals and Service Providers: Cross National Dirty Economies', paper presented to the 5th Liverpool Conference on Fraud, Corruption and Business Crime, Liverpool, April 1997; V. Ruggerio, 'War Markets: Corporate and Organised Criminals in Europe', Social and Legal Studies, 5 (1996), 5-10.
74. Australian Parliamentary Joint Committee on the National Crime Authority, 'Asian Organised Crime in Australia', Australian Parliamentary Joint Committee on the National Crime Authority Discussion Paper 1995, note 11.
75. 'Hong Kong', in International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 1996: Southeast Asia and the Pacific (Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, US Dept. of State, Washington DC, March 1997).
76. M. Sheridan, 'Chinese Vice Wave Laps at Hong Kong', Sunday Times, 25 May 1997, 21.
77. M. Sheridan, 'Triads Move on Hong Kong', Sunday Times, 13 July 1997, 19.
78. Australian Parliamentary Joint Committee on the National Crime Authority, 'Asian Organised Crime in Australia', Australian Parliamentary Joint Committee on the National Crime Authority Discussion Paper 1995, note 66, quoting Sydney Morning Herald, 15 Sept. 1994, 15.
79. See, for example, L. Dittmer, 'Hong Kong Returns to China: the Problem of Political Corruption', Asian Journal of Business and Information Systems, 2, 1 (1997), 67-8.
80. T. Kwok, 'The Development of ICAC Investigative Capability', paper presented to the ICAC Silver Jubilee Conference, Hong Kong, 22 March 1999. For a general discussion, see ICAC, Operations Department Review 1997-98 (Hong Kong, ICAC).
81. T. Kwok, 'The Development of ICAC Investigative Capability', paper presented to the ICAC Silver Jubilee Conference, Hong Kong, 22 March 1999. For a general discussion, see ICAC, Operations Department Review 1997-98 (Hong Kong, ICAC).
82. Tai-Lok Lui, 'Hong Kong Society: Anxiety in the Post-1997 Days'; R. Wong, 'How do Perceptions of Corrupt Behaviour Change? The Hong Kong Experience', paper presented to the ICAC Silver Jubilee Conference, Hong Kong, 22 March 1999. Large scale mainland immigration would also produce a culture shift which might not be positive but the recent decision by the Chinese National People's Congress will make this unlikely.
83. Tai-Lok Lui, 'Hong Kong Society: Anxiety in the Post-1997 Days'; R. Wong, 'How do Perceptions of Corrupt Behaviour Change? The Hong Kong Experience', paper presented to the ICAC Silver Jubilee Conference, Hong Kong, 22 March 1999. Large scale mainland immigration would also produce a culture shift which might not be positive but the recent decision by the Chinese National People's Congress will make this unlikely.