Civil courage (Zivilcourage): The case of Knut Wicksell

Theory and Society

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 501-528

  Swedberg, Richard ^a  

^a STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

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EID: 0033414961     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1007086223180     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. The first version of this article was written for a conference on virtues, which was held in the early summer of 1998 at Friibergh's mansion in Sweden. I then continued to work on the article during the fall of 1998, when I was a fellow at the Swedish Collegium for Advanced Study in the Social Sciences (SCASSS) in Uppsala. For comments, I would like to thank especially Patrik Aspers, Carl-Gunnar Janson, Jim Kemeny, Stephen Turner, Hans Zetterberg, Cecilia Swedberg, Emil Uddhammar, two anonymous reviewers, and the Editors of Theory and Society.
2. Till Bastian, Zivilcourage (Berlin: Rotbuch, 1996); Kurt Singer, Zivilcourage wagen (Munich: Piper, 1997); Harry Järv, "Civilkurage," 356-367 in Prometheus' eld (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1998); and Örjan Nilsson, Törs du? Civilkurage i vår tid och historisk (Malmö: Liber Ekonomi, 1997). For a social science analysis, see Wolfgang Heuer, "Ich kann nichts anders, Ich muss reden." Entstehung und Habitus von Zivilcourage (forthcoming in 1999).
3. Till Bastian, Zivilcourage (Berlin: Rotbuch, 1996); Kurt Singer, Zivilcourage wagen (Munich: Piper, 1997); Harry Järv, "Civilkurage," 356-367 in Prometheus' eld (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1998); and Örjan Nilsson, Törs du? Civilkurage i vår tid och historisk (Malmö: Liber Ekonomi, 1997). For a social science analysis, see Wolfgang Heuer, "Ich kann nichts anders, Ich muss reden." Entstehung und Habitus von Zivilcourage (forthcoming in 1999).
4. Till Bastian, Zivilcourage (Berlin: Rotbuch, 1996); Kurt Singer, Zivilcourage wagen (Munich: Piper, 1997); Harry Järv, "Civilkurage," 356-367 in Prometheus' eld (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1998); and Örjan Nilsson, Törs du? Civilkurage i vår tid och historisk (Malmö: Liber Ekonomi, 1997). For a social science analysis, see Wolfgang Heuer, "Ich kann nichts anders, Ich muss reden." Entstehung und Habitus von Zivilcourage (forthcoming in 1999).
5. Till Bastian, Zivilcourage (Berlin: Rotbuch, 1996); Kurt Singer, Zivilcourage wagen (Munich: Piper, 1997); Harry Järv, "Civilkurage," 356-367 in Prometheus' eld (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1998); and Örjan Nilsson, Törs du? Civilkurage i vår tid och historisk (Malmö: Liber Ekonomi, 1997). For a social science analysis, see Wolfgang Heuer, "Ich kann nichts anders, Ich muss reden." Entstehung und Habitus von Zivilcourage (forthcoming in 1999).
6. Till Bastian, Zivilcourage (Berlin: Rotbuch, 1996); Kurt Singer, Zivilcourage wagen (Munich: Piper, 1997); Harry Järv, "Civilkurage," 356-367 in Prometheus' eld (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1998); and Örjan Nilsson, Törs du? Civilkurage i vår tid och historisk (Malmö: Liber Ekonomi, 1997). For a social science analysis, see Wolfgang Heuer, "Ich kann nichts anders, Ich muss reden." Entstehung und Habitus von Zivilcourage (forthcoming in 1999).
7. There exists no direct equivalent of Zivilcourage in English, but, just as there is the expression "civil society" I think there should be an expression called "civil courage." A related, but by no means identical concept, is that of "civil disobedience." As opposed to Zivilcourage, civil disobedience is centered around opposition to the state; it is also less individualistic in the sense that while it is easy to imagine a social movement centered around civil disobedience, this is less the case with Zivilcourage.
8. "Mut auf dem Schlachtfelde ist bei uns Gemeingut, aber Sie werden nicht selten finden, dass es ganz achtbaren Leuten an Zivilcourage fehlt" - cited in Bastian, Zivilcourage, 38. Most dictionaries also state that it was Bismarck who coined this term.
9. Nilsson, Törs du?, 20, emphasis added.
10. Max Weber, From Max Weber, H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, editors, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 249. Weber also states that the prophets typically did not want to propound the messages that God wanted them to spread; that they were never paid; and that they often had "the charisma of speech." For Weber's most complete analysis of the prophets, see his sociology of religion discussion in Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 439-468.
11. Max Weber, From Max Weber, H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, editors, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 249. Weber also states that the prophets typically did not want to propound the messages that God wanted them to spread; that they were never paid; and that they often had "the charisma of speech." For Weber's most complete analysis of the prophets, see his sociology of religion discussion in Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 439-468.
12. See, e.g., Samuel P. Oliner and Pearl M. Oliner, The Altruistic Personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe (New York: The Free Press, 1992).
13. The information on Wicksell in this article mainly draws on the standard work on his life by Torsten Gårdlund, a biography of his wife (Anna Bugge Wicksell) by Liv Wicksell Nordqvist, and on the author's own independent research. See Torsten Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell. Rebell i Det Nya Riket (Stockholm: Bonniers, 1956), Liv Wicksell Nordqvist, Anna Bugge Wicksell. En Kvinna före sin tid (Stockholm: Liber Förlag, 1985), and Richard Swedberg, "Knut Wicksell - en samhällsvetenskaplig klassiker," 7-48 in Knut Wicksell, Stridsskrifter och samhällsekonomiska skrifter (Stockholm: City University Press, 1998). The standard work on Wicksell's economics is Carl G. Uhr, Economic Doctrines of Knut Wicksell (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960).
14. The information on Wicksell in this article mainly draws on the standard work on his life by Torsten Gårdlund, a biography of his wife (Anna Bugge Wicksell) by Liv Wicksell Nordqvist, and on the author's own independent research. See Torsten Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell. Rebell i Det Nya Riket (Stockholm: Bonniers, 1956), Liv Wicksell Nordqvist, Anna Bugge Wicksell. En Kvinna före sin tid (Stockholm: Liber Förlag, 1985), and Richard Swedberg, "Knut Wicksell - en samhällsvetenskaplig klassiker," 7-48 in Knut Wicksell, Stridsskrifter och samhällsekonomiska skrifter (Stockholm: City University Press, 1998). The standard work on Wicksell's economics is Carl G. Uhr, Economic Doctrines of Knut Wicksell (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960).
15. The information on Wicksell in this article mainly draws on the standard work on his life by Torsten Gårdlund, a biography of his wife (Anna Bugge Wicksell) by Liv Wicksell Nordqvist, and on the author's own independent research. See Torsten Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell. Rebell i Det Nya Riket (Stockholm: Bonniers, 1956), Liv Wicksell Nordqvist, Anna Bugge Wicksell. En Kvinna före sin tid (Stockholm: Liber Förlag, 1985), and Richard Swedberg, "Knut Wicksell - en samhällsvetenskaplig klassiker," 7-48 in Knut Wicksell, Stridsskrifter och samhällsekonomiska skrifter (Stockholm: City University Press, 1998). The standard work on Wicksell's economics is Carl G. Uhr, Economic Doctrines of Knut Wicksell (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960).
16. The information on Wicksell in this article mainly draws on the standard work on his life by Torsten Gårdlund, a biography of his wife (Anna Bugge Wicksell) by Liv Wicksell Nordqvist, and on the author's own independent research. See Torsten Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell. Rebell i Det Nya Riket (Stockholm: Bonniers, 1956), Liv Wicksell Nordqvist, Anna Bugge Wicksell. En Kvinna före sin tid (Stockholm: Liber Förlag, 1985), and Richard Swedberg, "Knut Wicksell - en samhällsvetenskaplig klassiker," 7-48 in Knut Wicksell, Stridsskrifter och samhällsekonomiska skrifter (Stockholm: City University Press, 1998). The standard work on Wicksell's economics is Carl G. Uhr, Economic Doctrines of Knut Wicksell (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960).
17. For Wicksell on euthanasia, see the article "Om Evtanasi," Socialdemokraten, March 23, 1887, which contains an account of a much debated speech that Wicksell gave in Stockholm. He similarly advocated "the killing of idiots" in a speech in Uppsala the same year, according to Uppsala, March 7, 1887. Toward the end of his life Wicksell got worried that if the Swedish race became too streamlined, odd talents - like himself? - would be eliminated as well. See Wicksell's letter from about 1910 as cited in Håkan Westling, Ivan Bratt. Legendarisk läkare. Systemets grundare (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1997), 257. For a comment on Wicksell and euthanasia, see Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell, 117-118.
18. For Wicksell on euthanasia, see the article "Om Evtanasi," Socialdemokraten, March 23, 1887, which contains an account of a much debated speech that Wicksell gave in Stockholm. He similarly advocated "the killing of idiots" in a speech in Uppsala the same year, according to Uppsala, March 7, 1887. Toward the end of his life Wicksell got worried that if the Swedish race became too streamlined, odd talents - like himself? - would be eliminated as well. See Wicksell's letter from about 1910 as cited in Håkan Westling, Ivan Bratt. Legendarisk läkare. Systemets grundare (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1997), 257. For a comment on Wicksell and euthanasia, see Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell, 117-118.
19. For Wicksell on euthanasia, see the article "Om Evtanasi," Socialdemokraten, March 23, 1887, which contains an account of a much debated speech that Wicksell gave in Stockholm. He similarly advocated "the killing of idiots" in a speech in Uppsala the same year, according to Uppsala, March 7, 1887. Toward the end of his life Wicksell got worried that if the Swedish race became too streamlined, odd talents - like himself? - would be eliminated as well. See Wicksell's letter from about 1910 as cited in Håkan Westling, Ivan Bratt. Legendarisk läkare. Systemets grundare (Stockholm: Atlantis, 1997), 257. For a comment on Wicksell and euthanasia, see Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell, 117-118.
20. Wicksell as cited in Wicksell Nordqvist, Anna Bugge Wicksell, 52.
21. Eli Heckscher, "Knut Wicksell 70 år," Dagens Nyheter, December 20, 1921, 9.
22. Ernst Wigforss, Skrifter i urval. VII. Minnen före 1914 (Stockholm: Tidens Förlag, 1980), 189.
23. Wigforss, ibid., 189-190.
24. Wigforss, ibid., 184.
25. Cited in Emil Sommarin, "Minnesord över professor Knut Wicksell," 21 in Kungl. Humanistiska Vetenskapssamfundet i Lund, Årsber̈ttelse (Lund: Gleerup, 1926-1927).
26. Civil courage can also cause irritation. As an example of this one can cite Gunnar Myrdal's opinion of Wicksell: "Wicksell had the integrity of a saint. Few people have gone through life as untouched by moral compromise as he did . . . . Personally Wicksell was without pretensions and deeply human in all his contacts. At the same time he was deeply inhuman in his blind desire to follow his own moral convictions in absurdum and as these were crystallized in his oddly puritanical and mathematical mind" - Gunnar Myrdal, Vetenskap och politik i nationalekonomien (Stockholm: Rabén & Sjögren, 1972), 271. See in this context also the later citation in this article by Robert Merton, to the same effect.
27. Knut Wicksell, "Recension av John Stuart Mill, Om friheten," Forum 4 (1917): 359.
28. Karin Kock, "Nymalthusianismens genombrott i Sverige," 75 in Studier i ekonomi och historia (Stockholm: Bonniers, 1944).
29. Knut Wicksell, Några ord om samhälsolyckornas viktigaste orsak och botemedel med särskilt afseende på dryckenskapen (Uppsala: Författarens förlag, 1880), 3. This pamphlet (minus its appendix) has recently been reprinted in Knut Wicksell, Stridsskrifter och samhällsekonomiska analyser, Richard Swedberg, editor (Stockholm: Cityuniversitetet, 1998).
30. Knut Wicksell, Några ord om samhälsolyckornas viktigaste orsak och botemedel med särskilt afseende på dryckenskapen (Uppsala: Författarens förlag, 1880), 3. This pamphlet (minus its appendix) has recently been reprinted in Knut Wicksell, Stridsskrifter och samhällsekonomiska analyser, Richard Swedberg, editor (Stockholm: Cityuniversitetet, 1998).
31. Wicksell, ibid., 7.
32. Wicksell, ibid., 63.
33. Wicksell, ibid., 66.
34. Wicksell, ibid., 69.
35. Cited in Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell, 60.
36. Gårdlund, ibid., 60.
37. Gårdlund, ibid., 72.
38. Cited in Gårdlund, ibid., 274.
39. Gårdlund, ibid., 274.
40. Eyewitness cited in Wicksell Nordqvist, Anna Bugge Wicksell, 147.
41. Cited in Wicksell Nordqvist, ibid., 148.
42. Cited in Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell, 276.
43. Wicksell, "Ett tal som icke fick hållas" Arbetet, October 6, 1905.
44. Wicksell, ibid.
45. Wicksell, ibid.
46. Cited in Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell, 278.
47. Wicksell, Tronen, altaret. svärdet och pänningpåsen (Stockholm: Östermalmstryckeriet, 1909), 33.
48. Wicksell, ibid.
49. On this point Wicksell is wrong. In the police protocol, on which the decision to prosecute was based, one can read: "at this point the little round Wicksell is supposed to have curtseyed," cited in Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell, 278.
50. Cited in Nordqvist Wicksell, Anna Bugge Wicksell, 154.
51. Cited in Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell, 283.
52. Cited in Wicksell Nordqvist, Anna Bugge Wicksell, 156.
53. Cited in Gårdlund, Knut Wicksell, 292.
54. Cited in Gårdlund, ibid.
55. Cited in Gårdlund, ibid.
56. Cited in Gårdlund, ibid., 293.
57. See Samuel Ash, "Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments," 177-190 in Harold Guetzkow, editor, Group, Leadership and Men: Research in Human Relations (Pittsburgh: Carnegie Institute of Technology, 1951); Stanley Milgram, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (New York: Harper & Row, 1975); and Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion - Our Public Skin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). See also in this context, Robert B. Zajonc, "Conformity," 253-260 in vol. 3 of David L. Sills, editor. International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (New York: MacMillan and The Free Press,1968). It should be added that this literature, when read from the perspective of civil courage, has quite a bit to teach. As an example of this, one can cite Ash's finding that a person's capacity to withstand group pressure increases significantly if he or she is joined by just one other person.
58. See Samuel Ash, "Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments," 177-190 in Harold Guetzkow, editor, Group, Leadership and Men: Research in Human Relations (Pittsburgh: Carnegie Institute of Technology, 1951); Stanley Milgram, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (New York: Harper & Row, 1975); and Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion - Our Public Skin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). See also in this context, Robert B. Zajonc, "Conformity," 253-260 in vol. 3 of David L. Sills, editor. International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (New York: MacMillan and The Free Press,1968). It should be added that this literature, when read from the perspective of civil courage, has quite a bit to teach. As an example of this, one can cite Ash's finding that a person's capacity to withstand group pressure increases significantly if he or she is joined by just one other person.
59. See Samuel Ash, "Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments," 177-190 in Harold Guetzkow, editor, Group, Leadership and Men: Research in Human Relations (Pittsburgh: Carnegie Institute of Technology, 1951); Stanley Milgram, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (New York: Harper & Row, 1975); and Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion - Our Public Skin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). See also in this context, Robert B. Zajonc, "Conformity," 253-260 in vol. 3 of David L. Sills, editor. International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (New York: MacMillan and The Free Press,1968). It should be added that this literature, when read from the perspective of civil courage, has quite a bit to teach. As an example of this, one can cite Ash's finding that a person's capacity to withstand group pressure increases significantly if he or she is joined by just one other person.
60. See Samuel Ash, "Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgments," 177-190 in Harold Guetzkow, editor, Group, Leadership and Men: Research in Human Relations (Pittsburgh: Carnegie Institute of Technology, 1951); Stanley Milgram, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (New York: Harper & Row, 1975); and Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion - Our Public Skin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993). See also in this context, Robert B. Zajonc, "Conformity," 253-260 in vol. 3 of David L. Sills, editor. International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences (New York: MacMillan and The Free Press,1968). It should be added that this literature, when read from the perspective of civil courage, has quite a bit to teach. As an example of this, one can cite Ash's finding that a person's capacity to withstand group pressure increases significantly if he or she is joined by just one other person.
61. Emile Durkheim, Elementary Forms of Religious Life (New York: The Free Press, 1965), 464.
62. Emile Durkheim, "L'individualisme et les intellectuels," in La science sociale et l'action (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1970), 275. See in this context also, Marcel Mauss, "A Category of the Human Mind: The Notion of Person; The Notion of Self," in Michael Carrithers et al., editors, The Category of the Person (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 1-25.
63. Emile Durkheim, "L'individualisme et les intellectuels," in La science sociale et l'action (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1970), 275. See in this context also, Marcel Mauss, "A Category of the Human Mind: The Notion of Person; The Notion of Self," in Michael Carrithers et al., editors, The Category of the Person (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 1-25.
64. Emile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method (New York: The Free Press, 1964), 71, emphasis added. Durkheim continues, and develops what can perhaps be called the functionalist theory of civil courage: "It would never have been possible to establish the freedom of thought we now enjoy if the regulations prohibiting it had not been violated before being solemnly abrogated. At that time, however, the violation was a crime, since it was an offense against sentiments still very keen in the average conscience. And yet this crime was useful as a prelude to reforms that daily became more necessary. Liberal philosophy had as its precursors the heretics of all kinds who were justly punished by secular authorities during the entire course of the Middle Ages and until the eve of modern times" ibid., 71-72).
65. Emile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method (New York: The Free Press, 1964), 71, emphasis added. Durkheim continues, and develops what can perhaps be called the functionalist theory of civil courage: "It would never have been possible to establish the freedom of thought we now enjoy if the regulations prohibiting it had not been violated before being solemnly abrogated. At that time, however, the violation was a crime, since it was an offense against sentiments still very keen in the average conscience. And yet this crime was useful as a prelude to reforms that daily became more necessary. Liberal philosophy had as its precursors the heretics of all kinds who were justly punished by secular authorities during the entire course of the Middle Ages and until the eve of modern times" ibid., 71-72).
66. Webr, Economy and Society, 4.
67. Weber, ibid., 38.
68. Weber, ibid., 34.
69. Weber, ibid., 25, emphasis added.
70. Max Weber, "Politics as a Vocation," 127 in Weber, From Max Weber, H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, editors.
71. Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure (New York: The Free Press, 1968), 411-422.
72. Merton, ibid., 418-419.
73. Merton, ibid., 419-420.
74. Kennedy's suggestions to the publisher for alternative titles included Patterns of Political Courage, Eight were Courageous, and Courage in the Senate. Rumors that Kennedy was not the author were investigated in the winter of 1957-1958 and found groundless. See Theodore Sorensen, Kennedy (London: Hoddar and Stoughton, 1965), 69-70.
75. Merton, Social Theory, 417.
76. Merton, Social Theory, 418, 420-421. Albert B. Fall, President Harding's Secretary of the Interior, was involved in a famous financial scandal. A question that may be asked (and which was asked by one of he reviewers) is whether civil courage can be seen as a form of public nonconformity? The general thrust of Merton's argument is applicable also in this case, it seems to me. Not everybody who engages in public nonconformity does so because of disinterested motives, out of desire to change society's values, and so on.
77. See, e.g., Nick Perry, "Indecent Exposures: Theorizing Whistleblowing," Organization Studies 19 (1988): 235-257. "'Whistleblowers' are defined as insiders who 'go public' in their criticism of the policy and/or concuct of powerful organizations" (235).
78. For the idea of thresholds - that is, the fact that people have different levels at which their behavior is triggered (typically measured by the precise number of other actors doing something) - see Mark Granovetter, "Threshold Models of Collective Behavior," American Journal of Sociology 83 (1978): 1420-1443. For the idea of preference falsification - that is, the tendency of an actor to hide his or her true preferences in public - see Timur Kuran, Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
79. For the idea of thresholds - that is, the fact that people have different levels at which their behavior is triggered (typically measured by the precise number of other actors doing something) - see Mark Granovetter, "Threshold Models of Collective Behavior," American Journal of Sociology 83 (1978): 1420-1443. For the idea of preference falsification - that is, the tendency of an actor to hide his or her true preferences in public - see Timur Kuran, Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
80. See especially Mustafa Emirbayer and Mimi Sheller, "Publics in History," Theory and Society 28 (February 1999): 145-197.
81. Wicksell, "Mitt recept," Dagens Nyheter April 19, 1919. In this article Wicksell argues that the extraordinary profits that some people had made in Sweden during World War I were unfair and should be repaid after the war. No one supported Wicksell's demand. For a study of the situation in which an individual is treated as dead by his or her community, see Marcel Mauss, "The Physical Effect on the Individual of the Idea of Death Suggested by the Collectivity (Australia, New Zealand)," 35-56, in Sociology and Psychology: Essays (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979).
82. Wicksell, "Mitt recept," Dagens Nyheter April 19, 1919. In this article Wicksell argues that the extraordinary profits that some people had made in Sweden during World War I were unfair and should be repaid after the war. No one supported Wicksell's demand. For a study of the situation in which an individual is treated as dead by his or her community, see Marcel Mauss, "The Physical Effect on the Individual of the Idea of Death Suggested by the Collectivity (Australia, New Zealand)," 35-56, in Sociology and Psychology: Essays (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979).
83. Ellen Key, "Knut Wicksell 60 år," Aftontidnngen, December 19, 1912.
84. Weber, "Politics as a Vocation," 217.
85. See, e.g., the account in Harry Järv, Prometheus' eld, 356-367. Doubts about the existence of this episode were recently expressed in a German television program entitled "Soldaten für Hitler."
86. Michael Walzer, for example, describes civil society as "the space of noncoerced association and also the set of relational networks." He adds that in civil society "coercion is used only to keep the peace." See Michael Walzer, "The Civil Society Argument," 89, 101, in Chantai Mouffe, editor, Dimensions of Radical Democracy (London: Verso, 1992). That civil society should be conceptualized as separate from the state is a standard argument in modern theories of civil society. See, e.g., Adam B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
87. Michael Walzer, for example, describes civil society as "the space of noncoerced association and also the set of relational networks." He adds that in civil society "coercion is used only to keep the peace." See Michael Walzer, "The Civil Society Argument," 89, 101, in Chantai Mouffe, editor, Dimensions of Radical Democracy (London: Verso, 1992). That civil society should be conceptualized as separate from the state is a standard argument in modern theories of civil society. See, e.g., Adam B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
88. According to Cohen and Arato, "the norms of civil society" are the following: "individual rights, privacy, voluntary association, formal legality, plurality, publicity, free enterprise." See Jean L. Cohen and Andrew Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory (Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1992), xiii.
89. Cohen and Arato's standard work, Civil Society and Political Theory, includes a long chapter on "Civil Disobedience and Civil Society." Civil disobedience is clearly related to civil courage, but by no means identical (see note 3).
90. In Democracy in America, Tocqueville states that: "Under the absolute sway of one man [that is, in a tyranny] the body was attacked in order to subdue the soul; but . . . such is not the course adopted by tyranny in democratic republics; there the body is left free, and the soul is enslaved." In the rest of the argument Tocqueville states that, in a democracy, the citizen will retain his or her "civil rights," but these will be useless since he or she will be totally isolated and shunned ("an existence worse than death"). See Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Vintage Books, 1945), vol. 2, 274-275. Jellinek writes, with this very passage of Tocqueville in mind, that "much greater courage is required to oppose the vox populi than the order of a ruler." See George Jellinek, The Rights of Minorities (London: P. S. King & Son, 1912), 33. Of use in this context is perhaps also Weber's distinction between political organizations, where order is maintained through "physical coercion," and hierocratic organizations, where it is maintained through "psychic coercion." See Weber, Economy and Society, pp. 54-55.
91. In Democracy in America, Tocqueville states that: "Under the absolute sway of one man [that is, in a tyranny] the body was attacked in order to subdue the soul; but . . . such is not the course adopted by tyranny in democratic republics; there the body is left free, and the soul is enslaved." In the rest of the argument Tocqueville states that, in a democracy, the citizen will retain his or her "civil rights," but these will be useless since he or she will be totally isolated and shunned ("an existence worse than death"). See Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Vintage Books, 1945), vol. 2, 274-275. Jellinek writes, with this very passage of Tocqueville in mind, that "much greater courage is required to oppose the vox populi than the order of a ruler." See George Jellinek, The Rights of Minorities (London: P. S. King & Son, 1912), 33. Of use in this context is perhaps also Weber's distinction between political organizations, where order is maintained through "physical coercion," and hierocratic organizations, where it is maintained through "psychic coercion." See Weber, Economy and Society, pp. 54-55.
92. In Democracy in America, Tocqueville states that: "Under the absolute sway of one man [that is, in a tyranny] the body was attacked in order to subdue the soul; but . . . such is not the course adopted by tyranny in democratic republics; there the body is left free, and the soul is enslaved." In the rest of the argument Tocqueville states that, in a democracy, the citizen will retain his or her "civil rights," but these will be useless since he or she will be totally isolated and shunned ("an existence worse than death"). See Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (New York: Vintage Books, 1945), vol. 2, 274-275. Jellinek writes, with this very passage of Tocqueville in mind, that "much greater courage is required to oppose the vox populi than the order of a ruler." See George Jellinek, The Rights of Minorities (London: P. S. King & Son, 1912), 33. Of use in this context is perhaps also Weber's distinction between political organizations, where order is maintained through "physical coercion," and hierocratic organizations, where it is maintained through "psychic coercion." See Weber, Economy and Society, pp. 54-55.