Publics in history

Theory and Society

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 143-197

  Emirbayer, Mustafa ^a   Sheller, Mimi ^a  

^a LANCASTER UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0001121190     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/a:1006921411329     Document Type: Review

References (338)

1. C. Tilly, "Civil Society and Revolutions," paper delivered at "Conference on Civil Society," New School for Social Research, April 1992.
2. A parallel may be seen here to the persistent misinterpretation of Theda Skocpol's programmatic statement, "Bringing the State Back In" (in P. B. Evans, D. Rueschemeyer, and T. Skocpol, editors, Bringing the State Back In [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985], 3-43), as itself an attempt to introduce "state determinism" to historical analysis. Skocpol's point is, rather, to insist on the potential autonomy and causal significance of the state in particular historical junctures.
3. T. Parsons and E. A. Shils, editors, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951); T. Parsons, in collaboration with R. F. Bales and E. A. Shils, Working Papers in the Theory of Action (New York: Free Press, 1953); J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vols. I and 2, translated by T. McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984, 1987); B. Barber, "Neofunctionalism and the Theory of the Social System," in P. Colomy, editor, The Dynamics of Social Systems (London: Sage, 1992), 36-55; and especially, J. C. Alexander, Action and Its Environments (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); see also M. Emirbayer and J. Goodwin, "Symbols, Positions, Objects," History and Theory 35 (1996): 358-374; M. Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 281-317; M. Emirbayer, Relational Pragmatics, unpublished manuscript.
4. T. Parsons and E. A. Shils, editors, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951); T. Parsons, in collaboration with R. F. Bales and E. A. Shils, Working Papers in the Theory of Action (New York: Free Press, 1953); J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vols. I and 2, translated by T. McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984, 1987); B. Barber, "Neofunctionalism and the Theory of the Social System," in P. Colomy, editor, The Dynamics of Social Systems (London: Sage, 1992), 36-55; and especially, J. C. Alexander, Action and Its Environments (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); see also M. Emirbayer and J. Goodwin, "Symbols, Positions, Objects," History and Theory 35 (1996): 358-374; M. Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 281-317; M. Emirbayer, Relational Pragmatics, unpublished manuscript.
5. T. Parsons and E. A. Shils, editors, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951); T. Parsons, in collaboration with R. F. Bales and E. A. Shils, Working Papers in the Theory of Action (New York: Free Press, 1953); J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vols. I and 2, translated by T. McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984, 1987); B. Barber, "Neofunctionalism and the Theory of the Social System," in P. Colomy, editor, The Dynamics of Social Systems (London: Sage, 1992), 36-55; and especially, J. C. Alexander, Action and Its Environments (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); see also M. Emirbayer and J. Goodwin, "Symbols, Positions, Objects," History and Theory 35 (1996): 358-374; M. Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 281-317; M. Emirbayer, Relational Pragmatics, unpublished manuscript.
6. T. Parsons and E. A. Shils, editors, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951); T. Parsons, in collaboration with R. F. Bales and E. A. Shils, Working Papers in the Theory of Action (New York: Free Press, 1953); J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vols. I and 2, translated by T. McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984, 1987); B. Barber, "Neofunctionalism and the Theory of the Social System," in P. Colomy, editor, The Dynamics of Social Systems (London: Sage, 1992), 36-55; and especially, J. C. Alexander, Action and Its Environments (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); see also M. Emirbayer and J. Goodwin, "Symbols, Positions, Objects," History and Theory 35 (1996): 358-374; M. Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 281-317; M. Emirbayer, Relational Pragmatics, unpublished manuscript.
7. T. Parsons and E. A. Shils, editors, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951); T. Parsons, in collaboration with R. F. Bales and E. A. Shils, Working Papers in the Theory of Action (New York: Free Press, 1953); J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vols. I and 2, translated by T. McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984, 1987); B. Barber, "Neofunctionalism and the Theory of the Social System," in P. Colomy, editor, The Dynamics of Social Systems (London: Sage, 1992), 36-55; and especially, J. C. Alexander, Action and Its Environments (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); see also M. Emirbayer and J. Goodwin, "Symbols, Positions, Objects," History and Theory 35 (1996): 358-374; M. Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 281-317; M. Emirbayer, Relational Pragmatics, unpublished manuscript.
8. T. Parsons and E. A. Shils, editors, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951); T. Parsons, in collaboration with R. F. Bales and E. A. Shils, Working Papers in the Theory of Action (New York: Free Press, 1953); J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vols. I and 2, translated by T. McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984, 1987); B. Barber, "Neofunctionalism and the Theory of the Social System," in P. Colomy, editor, The Dynamics of Social Systems (London: Sage, 1992), 36-55; and especially, J. C. Alexander, Action and Its Environments (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); see also M. Emirbayer and J. Goodwin, "Symbols, Positions, Objects," History and Theory 35 (1996): 358-374; M. Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 281-317; M. Emirbayer, Relational Pragmatics, unpublished manuscript.
9. T. Parsons and E. A. Shils, editors, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951); T. Parsons, in collaboration with R. F. Bales and E. A. Shils, Working Papers in the Theory of Action (New York: Free Press, 1953); J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vols. I and 2, translated by T. McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984, 1987); B. Barber, "Neofunctionalism and the Theory of the Social System," in P. Colomy, editor, The Dynamics of Social Systems (London: Sage, 1992), 36-55; and especially, J. C. Alexander, Action and Its Environments (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); see also M. Emirbayer and J. Goodwin, "Symbols, Positions, Objects," History and Theory 35 (1996): 358-374; M. Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 281-317; M. Emirbayer, Relational Pragmatics, unpublished manuscript.
10. T. Parsons and E. A. Shils, editors, Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951); T. Parsons, in collaboration with R. F. Bales and E. A. Shils, Working Papers in the Theory of Action (New York: Free Press, 1953); J. Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vols. I and 2, translated by T. McCarthy (Boston: Beacon, 1984, 1987); B. Barber, "Neofunctionalism and the Theory of the Social System," in P. Colomy, editor, The Dynamics of Social Systems (London: Sage, 1992), 36-55; and especially, J. C. Alexander, Action and Its Environments (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988); see also M. Emirbayer and J. Goodwin, "Symbols, Positions, Objects," History and Theory 35 (1996): 358-374; M. Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 281-317; M. Emirbayer, Relational Pragmatics, unpublished manuscript.
11. Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology."
12. Of less concern to us in the present context is the opposite aim: that of redressing overly empiricist usages of these concepts in social-scientific research. These usages include two major "colonizations" of the term "public": the commodification of "publicity" when its meaning is reduced to advertising; and the bureaucratization of "public opinion" when its meaning is reduced to static measurements produced by random polling.
13. B. Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon, 1966); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: New Left, 1974); I. Wallerstein, The Modern World-system, vol. 1 (San Diego: Academic, 1974).
14. B. Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon, 1966); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: New Left, 1974); I. Wallerstein, The Modern World-system, vol. 1 (San Diego: Academic, 1974).
15. B. Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Boston: Beacon, 1966); P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London: New Left, 1974); I. Wallerstein, The Modern World-system, vol. 1 (San Diego: Academic, 1974).
16. T. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, editors, Bringing the State Back In.
17. T. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, editors, Bringing the State Back In.
18. C. Tilly, Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons (New York: Russell Sage, 1984), 14-15.
19. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage, 1966), 194.
20. I. Katznelson, "Working-Class Formation," in I. Katznelson and A. R. Zolberg, editors, Working-Class Formation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 21.
21. As Margaret Somers argues, "each theory defines a priori the same independent variable - proletarianization and capitalist society. This leaves for empirical research only the historical variations of this process" (M. R. Somers, "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action," Social Science History 16 [1992]: 597). For an extension of these arguments, see M. R. Somers, "Class Formation and Capitalism," European Journal of Sociology 37 (1996): 180-202; for a critique specifically of Thompson's work on this score, see W. H. Sewell, Jr., "How Classes Are Made," in H. J. Kaye and K. McClelland, editors, E. P. Thompson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 50-77; for broader critiques of Thompson in regard to gender and race dynamics, see J. W. Scott, "Women in The Making of the English Working Class," in Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 68-90; R. D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels (New York: Free Press, 1996).
22. As Margaret Somers argues, "each theory defines a priori the same independent variable - proletarianization and capitalist society. This leaves for empirical research only the historical variations of this process" (M. R. Somers, "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action," Social Science History 16 [1992]: 597). For an extension of these arguments, see M. R. Somers, "Class Formation and Capitalism," European Journal of Sociology 37 (1996): 180-202; for a critique specifically of Thompson's work on this score, see W. H. Sewell, Jr., "How Classes Are Made," in H. J. Kaye and K. McClelland, editors, E. P. Thompson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 50-77; for broader critiques of Thompson in regard to gender and race dynamics, see J. W. Scott, "Women in The Making of the English Working Class," in Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 68-90; R. D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels (New York: Free Press, 1996).
23. As Margaret Somers argues, "each theory defines a priori the same independent variable - proletarianization and capitalist society. This leaves for empirical research only the historical variations of this process" (M. R. Somers, "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action," Social Science History 16 [1992]: 597). For an extension of these arguments, see M. R. Somers, "Class Formation and Capitalism," European Journal of Sociology 37 (1996): 180-202; for a critique specifically of Thompson's work on this score, see W. H. Sewell, Jr., "How Classes Are Made," in H. J. Kaye and K. McClelland, editors, E. P. Thompson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 50-77; for broader critiques of Thompson in regard to gender and race dynamics, see J. W. Scott, "Women in The Making of the English Working Class," in Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 68-90; R. D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels (New York: Free Press, 1996).
24. As Margaret Somers argues, "each theory defines a priori the same independent variable - proletarianization and capitalist society. This leaves for empirical research only the historical variations of this process" (M. R. Somers, "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action," Social Science History 16 [1992]: 597). For an extension of these arguments, see M. R. Somers, "Class Formation and Capitalism," European Journal of Sociology 37 (1996): 180-202; for a critique specifically of Thompson's work on this score, see W. H. Sewell, Jr., "How Classes Are Made," in H. J. Kaye and K. McClelland, editors, E. P. Thompson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 50-77; for broader critiques of Thompson in regard to gender and race dynamics, see J. W. Scott, "Women in The Making of the English Working Class," in Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 68-90; R. D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels (New York: Free Press, 1996).
25. As Margaret Somers argues, "each theory defines a priori the same independent variable - proletarianization and capitalist society. This leaves for empirical research only the historical variations of this process" (M. R. Somers, "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action," Social Science History 16 [1992]: 597). For an extension of these arguments, see M. R. Somers, "Class Formation and Capitalism," European Journal of Sociology 37 (1996): 180-202; for a critique specifically of Thompson's work on this score, see W. H. Sewell, Jr., "How Classes Are Made," in H. J. Kaye and K. McClelland, editors, E. P. Thompson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 50-77; for broader critiques of Thompson in regard to gender and race dynamics, see J. W. Scott, "Women in The Making of the English Working Class," in Gender and the Politics of History (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 68-90; R. D. G. Kelley, Race Rebels (New York: Free Press, 1996).
26. J. L. Cohen, Class and Civil Society (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1982), 51. This is also true even of those who explicitly employ the category of civil society, while still subsuming it within a Marxist analytical framework (e.g., D. Rueschemeyer, E. H. Stephens, and J. D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992]).
27. J. L. Cohen, Class and Civil Society (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1982), 51. This is also true even of those who explicitly employ the category of civil society, while still subsuming it within a Marxist analytical framework (e.g., D. Rueschemeyer, E. H. Stephens, and J. D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992]).
28. Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In," 6.
29. Skocpol, "Bringing the State Back In," 9.
30. Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, Bringing the State Back In; T. Skocpol, Protecting Solders and Mothers (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1992); J. Goodwin, "State-Centered Approaches to Social Revolutions," in J. Foran, editor, Theorising Revolutions (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 11-37.
31. Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, Bringing the State Back In; T. Skocpol, Protecting Solders and Mothers (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1992); J. Goodwin, "State-Centered Approaches to Social Revolutions," in J. Foran, editor, Theorising Revolutions (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 11-37.
32. Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, Bringing the State Back In; T. Skocpol, Protecting Solders and Mothers (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1992); J. Goodwin, "State-Centered Approaches to Social Revolutions," in J. Foran, editor, Theorising Revolutions (London and New York: Routledge, 1997), 11-37.
33. J. L. Cohen and A. Arato, Civil Society and Folitical Theory (Cambridge and London: MIT Press, 1992), 1-2.
34. S. Evans and H. Boyte, Free Spaces (New York: Harper and Row, 1986), 20, 202. The idea of democratic free spaces is also implicit in James Scott's notion of "hidden transcripts" (e.g., in Domination and the Arts of Resistance [New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1990]).
35. S. Evans and H. Boyte, Free Spaces (New York: Harper and Row, 1986), 20, 202. The idea of democratic free spaces is also implicit in James Scott's notion of "hidden transcripts" (e.g., in Domination and the Arts of Resistance [New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1990]).
36. A. D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Free Press, 1984); D. McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Kelley, Race Rebels; T.W. Hunter, To Joy 'My Freedom' (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1997).
37. A. D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Free Press, 1984); D. McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Kelley, Race Rebels; T.W. Hunter, To Joy 'My Freedom' (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1997).
38. A. D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Free Press, 1984); D. McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Kelley, Race Rebels; T.W. Hunter, To Joy 'My Freedom' (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1997).
39. A. D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Free Press, 1984); D. McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Kelley, Race Rebels; T.W. Hunter, To Joy 'My Freedom' (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1997).
40. S. Evans, Personal Politics (New York: Vintage, 1979); C. Mueller, "Collective Identities and the Mobilization of the U.S. Women's Movement, 1960-1970," in E. Larana, H. Johnston, and J. R. Gusfield, editors, New Social Movements (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 234-263; N. Whittier, Feminist Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995); V. Taylor and N. Whittier, "Analytical Approaches to Social Movement Culture," in H. Johnston and B. Klandermans, editors, Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 163-187.
41. S. Evans, Personal Politics (New York: Vintage, 1979); C. Mueller, "Collective Identities and the Mobilization of the U.S. Women's Movement, 1960-1970," in E. Larana, H. Johnston, and J. R. Gusfield, editors, New Social Movements (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 234-263; N. Whittier, Feminist Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995); V. Taylor and N. Whittier, "Analytical Approaches to Social Movement Culture," in H. Johnston and B. Klandermans, editors, Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 163-187.
42. S. Evans, Personal Politics (New York: Vintage, 1979); C. Mueller, "Collective Identities and the Mobilization of the U.S. Women's Movement, 1960-1970," in E. Larana, H. Johnston, and J. R. Gusfield, editors, New Social Movements (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 234-263; N. Whittier, Feminist Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995); V. Taylor and N. Whittier, "Analytical Approaches to Social Movement Culture," in H. Johnston and B. Klandermans, editors, Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 163-187.
43. S. Evans, Personal Politics (New York: Vintage, 1979); C. Mueller, "Collective Identities and the Mobilization of the U.S. Women's Movement, 1960-1970," in E. Larana, H. Johnston, and J. R. Gusfield, editors, New Social Movements (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994), 234-263; N. Whittier, Feminist Generations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995); V. Taylor and N. Whittier, "Analytical Approaches to Social Movement Culture," in H. Johnston and B. Klandermans, editors, Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 163-187.
44. C. Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); R. Fantasia and E. L. Hirsch, "Culture in Rebellion," in H. Johnston and B. Klandermans, editors, Social Movements and Culture, 144-159.
45. C. Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); R. Fantasia and E. L. Hirsch, "Culture in Rebellion," in H. Johnston and B. Klandermans, editors, Social Movements and Culture, 144-159.
46. Evans and Boyte, Free Spaces, 191.
47. For a similar critique and useful overview of the free spaces literature, see F. Polletta, "'Free Spaces in Recent Social Movement Theorizing,' paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Toronto, 1997.
48. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 346. The inclusion of family life, relatively invisible in dichotomous "state vs. economy" approaches, is important here: "[I]f conceived of in egalitarian terms, [the family provides] an experience of horizontal solidarity, collective identity, and equal participation to the autonomous individuals comprising it ... [one that is] fundamental for the other associations of civil society and for the ultimate development of civic virtue and responsibility with respect to the polity" Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 631 n. 48).
49. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 346. The inclusion of family life, relatively invisible in dichotomous "state vs. economy" approaches, is important here: "[I]f conceived of in egalitarian terms, [the family provides] an experience of horizontal solidarity, collective identity, and equal participation to the autonomous individuals comprising it ... [one that is] fundamental for the other associations of civil society and for the ultimate development of civic virtue and responsibility with respect to the polity" Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 631 n. 48).
50. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
51. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
52. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
53. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
54. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
55. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
56. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
57. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
58. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
59. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
60. See, e.g., J. Keane, Democracy and Civil Society (London and New York: Verso, 1988); C. Taylor, "Modes of Civil Society," Public Culture 3 (1990): 95-118; E. H. Shils, "The Virtue of Civil Society," Government and Opposition 26 (1991): 3-20; Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory; A. B. Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society (New York: Free Press, 1992); K. Tester, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1992); K. Kumar, "Civil Society," British Journal of Sociology 42 (1993): 375-395; E. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty (New York: Allen Lane, 1994); J. A. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," in J. A. Hall, editor, Civil Society (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), 1-31; J. Schmidt, "Civil Society and Social Things," Social Research 62 (1996): 899-932; J. C. Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society," International Sociology 12 (1997): 115-133.
61. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, x.
62. J. Weintraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty," Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Berkeley, 1979.
63. For some other similar usages, see D. Bell, "'American Exceptionalism' Revisited," The Public Interest 95 (1989): 38-56; A. Wolfe, Whose Keeper? (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); R. Wuthnow, "The Voluntary Sector," in R. Wuthnow, editor, Between States and Markets (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-29.
64. For some other similar usages, see D. Bell, "'American Exceptionalism' Revisited," The Public Interest 95 (1989): 38-56; A. Wolfe, Whose Keeper? (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); R. Wuthnow, "The Voluntary Sector," in R. Wuthnow, editor, Between States and Markets (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-29.
65. For some other similar usages, see D. Bell, "'American Exceptionalism' Revisited," The Public Interest 95 (1989): 38-56; A. Wolfe, Whose Keeper? (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); R. Wuthnow, "The Voluntary Sector," in R. Wuthnow, editor, Between States and Markets (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-29.
66. This idea is crucial for at least two reasons. First, it affirms the structural differentiation of civil society from the state and economy, thereby pointing away from political ideologies (e.g., Marxism) that call for a program of de-differentiation. And second, it allows distinctions to be drawn among different civil societies themselves (i.e., "more" vs. "less democratic"): "civil society" thus becomes not a normative ideal, but rather, an object of moral and political contestation. (Hence, Michael Walzer's call for a stance of "critical associationalism"; see M. Walzer, "The Civil Society Argument," in C. Mouffe, editor, Dimensions of Radical Democracy [London and New York: Verso, 1992], 105; emphasis added.)
67. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 706 n. 64. See also J. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms, translated by W. Rehg (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).
68. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 706 n. 64. See also J. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms, translated by W. Rehg (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).
69. T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," in Class, Citizenship, and Social Development (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 71-135.
70. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 442, 446, 414.
71. Walzer, "The Civil Society Argument," 104.
72. C. Tilly, "Democracy is a Lake," in G. R. Andrews and H. Chapman, editors, The Social Construction of Democracy, 1870-1990 (Washington Square: New York University Press, 1995), 370.
73. As John Dewey pointed out, democracy demands the internal reconstruction of local communities, voluntary associations, and other forums for citizenly participation within civil society: it also demands the cultivation of individual capacities, virtues, and dispositions, foremost among which is "embodied intelligence," the capacity to render informed, responsible judgments with regard to public affairs (J. Dewey, The Public and its Problems, in J. A. Boydston, editor, John Dewey: The Later Works, 1925-1953, vol. 2 [Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1988], 325, 328). Here Dewey's insights correspond closely to those of republican virtue theorists such as H. Arendt (The Human Condition [Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1958]; On Revolution [Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990]); see also Weiniraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty."
74. As John Dewey pointed out, democracy demands the internal reconstruction of local communities, voluntary associations, and other forums for citizenly participation within civil society: it also demands the cultivation of individual capacities, virtues, and dispositions, foremost among which is "embodied intelligence," the capacity to render informed, responsible judgments with regard to public affairs (J. Dewey, The Public and its Problems, in J. A. Boydston, editor, John Dewey: The Later Works, 1925-1953, vol. 2 [Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1988], 325, 328). Here Dewey's insights correspond closely to those of republican virtue theorists such as H. Arendt (The Human Condition [Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1958]; On Revolution [Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990]); see also Weiniraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty."
75. As John Dewey pointed out, democracy demands the internal reconstruction of local communities, voluntary associations, and other forums for citizenly participation within civil society: it also demands the cultivation of individual capacities, virtues, and dispositions, foremost among which is "embodied intelligence," the capacity to render informed, responsible judgments with regard to public affairs (J. Dewey, The Public and its Problems, in J. A. Boydston, editor, John Dewey: The Later Works, 1925-1953, vol. 2 [Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1988], 325, 328). Here Dewey's insights correspond closely to those of republican virtue theorists such as H. Arendt (The Human Condition [Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1958]; On Revolution [Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990]); see also Weiniraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty."
76. As John Dewey pointed out, democracy demands the internal reconstruction of local communities, voluntary associations, and other forums for citizenly participation within civil society: it also demands the cultivation of individual capacities, virtues, and dispositions, foremost among which is "embodied intelligence," the capacity to render informed, responsible judgments with regard to public affairs (J. Dewey, The Public and its Problems, in J. A. Boydston, editor, John Dewey: The Later Works, 1925-1953, vol. 2 [Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1988], 325, 328). Here Dewey's insights correspond closely to those of republican virtue theorists such as H. Arendt (The Human Condition [Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1958]; On Revolution [Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990]); see also Weiniraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty."
77. R. A. Dahl, Polyarchy (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1971).
78. J. Habermas, "Three Normative Models of Democracy," Constellations 1 (1994): 5-6. An additional point not often satisfactorily understood by any of the above is that binding consultation must be stretched to encompass not only legalistic procedures, but also the more psychical, expressive, and aesthetic dimensions of practical communicative interactions: the form or style of consultation is always culturally negotiated and contested in more or less democratic ways.
79. M. R. Somers, "Citizenship and the Place of the Public Sphere," American Sociological Review 58 (1993): 594-595.
80. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," 4; see also M. Weber, "The City," in G. Roth and C. Wittich, editors, Economy and Society, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978): 1212-1372.
81. Hall, "In Search of Civil Society," 4; see also M. Weber, "The City," in G. Roth and C. Wittich, editors, Economy and Society, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978): 1212-1372.
82. See Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol.2, 357ff; G. Poggi, The Development of the Modern State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1978); R. M. Unger, Law in Modern Society (New York and London: Free Press, 1976). In constructing such histories, of course, it is important to avoid the pitfalls of Ideological or "retrospective" reasoning.
83. See Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol.2, 357ff; G. Poggi, The Development of the Modern State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1978); R. M. Unger, Law in Modern Society (New York and London: Free Press, 1976). In constructing such histories, of course, it is important to avoid the pitfalls of Ideological or "retrospective" reasoning.
84. See Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol.2, 357ff; G. Poggi, The Development of the Modern State (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1978); R. M. Unger, Law in Modern Society (New York and London: Free Press, 1976). In constructing such histories, of course, it is important to avoid the pitfalls of Ideological or "retrospective" reasoning.
85. Wuthnow, editor, Between States and Markets. See also Hall, Civil Society, and C. Hann and E. Dunn, editors, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1996).
86. Wuthnow, editor, Between States and Markets. See also Hall, Civil Society, and C. Hann and E. Dunn, editors, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1996).
87. Wuthnow, editor, Between States and Markets. See also Hall, Civil Society, and C. Hann and E. Dunn, editors, Civil Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1996).
88. Putnam, Making Democracy Work; Wolfe, Whose Keeper?; V. M. Perez-Diaz, The Return of Civil Society (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).
89. Putnam, Making Democracy Work; Wolfe, Whose Keeper?; V. M. Perez-Diaz, The Return of Civil Society (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).
90. Putnam, Making Democracy Work; Wolfe, Whose Keeper?; V. M. Perez-Diaz, The Return of Civil Society (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993).
91. C. Calhoun, "Civil Society and the Public Sphere," Public Culture 5 (1993): 267-280; Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors; F. Wakeman, "The Civil Society and Public Sphere Debate," Modern China 19 (1993): 108-138; T. Brook and B. M. Frolic, editors, Civil Society in China (Armonk, N.Y., and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1997).
92. C. Calhoun, "Civil Society and the Public Sphere," Public Culture 5 (1993): 267-280; Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors; F. Wakeman, "The Civil Society and Public Sphere Debate," Modern China 19 (1993): 108-138; T. Brook and B. M. Frolic, editors, Civil Society in China (Armonk, N.Y., and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1997).
93. C. Calhoun, "Civil Society and the Public Sphere," Public Culture 5 (1993): 267-280; Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors; F. Wakeman, "The Civil Society and Public Sphere Debate," Modern China 19 (1993): 108-138; T. Brook and B. M. Frolic, editors, Civil Society in China (Armonk, N.Y., and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1997).
94. C. Calhoun, "Civil Society and the Public Sphere," Public Culture 5 (1993): 267-280; Calhoun, Neither Gods nor Emperors; F. Wakeman, "The Civil Society and Public Sphere Debate," Modern China 19 (1993): 108-138; T. Brook and B. M. Frolic, editors, Civil Society in China (Armonk, N.Y., and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1997).
95. G. Ekiert, "Democratization Processes in East Central Europe," British Journal of Political Science (1991): 285-313; A. Arato, From Neo-Marxism to Democratic Theory (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993).
96. G. Ekiert, "Democratization Processes in East Central Europe," British Journal of Political Science (1991): 285-313; A. Arato, From Neo-Marxism to Democratic Theory (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1993).
97. A. C. Stepan, "State Power and the Strength of Civil Society in the Southern Cone of Latin America," in Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, editors, Bringing the State Back In, 317-343; A.C. Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988); A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); G. O'Donnell and P. C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule,Vol. 4 (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); F. H. Cardoso, "Associated-Dependent Development and Democratic Theory," in A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil, 299-326.
98. A. C. Stepan, "State Power and the Strength of Civil Society in the Southern Cone of Latin America," in Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, editors, Bringing the State Back In, 317-343; A.C. Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988); A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); G. O'Donnell and P. C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule,Vol. 4 (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); F. H. Cardoso, "Associated-Dependent Development and Democratic Theory," in A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil, 299-326.
99. A. C. Stepan, "State Power and the Strength of Civil Society in the Southern Cone of Latin America," in Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, editors, Bringing the State Back In, 317-343; A.C. Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988); A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); G. O'Donnell and P. C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule,Vol. 4 (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); F. H. Cardoso, "Associated-Dependent Development and Democratic Theory," in A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil, 299-326.
100. A. C. Stepan, "State Power and the Strength of Civil Society in the Southern Cone of Latin America," in Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, editors, Bringing the State Back In, 317-343; A.C. Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988); A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); G. O'Donnell and P. C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule,Vol. 4 (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); F. H. Cardoso, "Associated-Dependent Development and Democratic Theory," in A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil, 299-326.
101. A. C. Stepan, "State Power and the Strength of Civil Society in the Southern Cone of Latin America," in Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, editors, Bringing the State Back In, 317-343; A.C. Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988); A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); G. O'Donnell and P. C. Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule,Vol. 4 (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986); F. H. Cardoso, "Associated-Dependent Development and Democratic Theory," in A. C. Stepan, editor, Democratizing Brazil, 299-326.
102. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty; A. R. Norton, editor, Civil Society in the Middle East, 2 vols. (New York: Brill, 1985); J. Schwedler, editor, Toward Civil Society in the Middle East? (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1995).
103. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty; A. R. Norton, editor, Civil Society in the Middle East, 2 vols. (New York: Brill, 1985); J. Schwedler, editor, Toward Civil Society in the Middle East? (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1995).
104. Gellner, Conditions of Liberty; A. R. Norton, editor, Civil Society in the Middle East, 2 vols. (New York: Brill, 1985); J. Schwedler, editor, Toward Civil Society in the Middle East? (Boulder and London: Lynne Rienner, 1995).
105. Wolfe, Whose Keeper?; R. N. Bellah, R. Madsen, W. M. Sullivan, A. Swidler, and S. M. Tipton, The Good Society (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991). Ironically, not all of these regions actually feature a self-conscious, explicit discourse regarding civil society. However, the civil society notion still does help to make sense of them, for, while adapted from the discourses of actors in Eastern Europe and elsewhere, and while retaining a hermeneutic quality even in more scholarly usages (i.e., an interest in the self-conscious targets of actors'collective efforts), it also has vitally to do with institutional activities and formations, objectively understood. This bestows upon the idea of civil society a distinctly observer-centered quality, one that renders it extremely useful for wide-ranging empirical applications.
106. Wolfe, Whose Keeper?; R. N. Bellah, R. Madsen, W. M. Sullivan, A. Swidler, and S. M. Tipton, The Good Society (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991). Ironically, not all of these regions actually feature a self-conscious, explicit discourse regarding civil society. However, the civil society notion still does help to make sense of them, for, while adapted from the discourses of actors in Eastern Europe and elsewhere, and while retaining a hermeneutic quality even in more scholarly usages (i.e., an interest in the self-conscious targets of actors'collective efforts), it also has vitally to do with institutional activities and formations, objectively understood. This bestows upon the idea of civil society a distinctly observer-centered quality, one that renders it extremely useful for wide-ranging empirical applications.
107. Calhoun, "Civil Society and the Public Sphere," 269.
108. J. Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, translated by Thomas Burger, with the assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1989).
109. J. Habermas, "The Public Sphere," New German Critique 3 (1974): 49.
110. Calhoun, "Civil Society and the Public Sphere," 273.
111. N. Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere," in C. Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge and London: MIT Press, 1992), 109-142.
112. P. Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, translated by G. Raymond and M. Adamson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), 55.
113. Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere"; Keane, Democracy and Civil Society; M. Hansen, "Unstable Mixtures, Dilated Spheres," Public Culture 5 (1993): 179-212; I. M. Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public," in S. Benhabib and D. Cornell, editors, Feminism as Critique (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987): 56-76.
114. Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere"; Keane, Democracy and Civil Society; M. Hansen, "Unstable Mixtures, Dilated Spheres," Public Culture 5 (1993): 179-212; I. M. Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public," in S. Benhabib and D. Cornell, editors, Feminism as Critique (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987): 56-76.
115. Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere"; Keane, Democracy and Civil Society; M. Hansen, "Unstable Mixtures, Dilated Spheres," Public Culture 5 (1993): 179-212; I. M. Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public," in S. Benhabib and D. Cornell, editors, Feminism as Critique (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987): 56-76.
116. Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere"; Keane, Democracy and Civil Society; M. Hansen, "Unstable Mixtures, Dilated Spheres," Public Culture 5 (1993): 179-212; I. M. Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public," in S. Benhabib and D. Cornell, editors, Feminism as Critique (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987): 56-76.
117. P. Gilroy, The Black Atlantic (London and New York: Verso, 1993), 75.
118. B. Honig, "Toward an Agonistic Feminism," in J. Butler and J. W Scott, editors, Feminists Theorize the Political (New York and London: Routledge, 1992): 215-235.
119. See, e.g., Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class; M. P. Ryan, Women in Public (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); M. P. Ryan, "Gender and Public Access," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere, 259-288.
120. See, e.g., Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class; M. P. Ryan, Women in Public (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); M. P. Ryan, "Gender and Public Access," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere, 259-288.
121. See, e.g., Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class; M. P. Ryan, Women in Public (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990); M. P. Ryan, "Gender and Public Access," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere, 259-288.
122. H. C. White, "Where Do Languages Come From?," Pre-Print Series, Paul F. Lazarsfeld Center for the Social Sciences, Columbia University (1995), 4.
123. V. Turner, The Ritual Process (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969).
124. These include rally, "wherein existing networks and co-texts are ... respliced in strategic efforts by actors"; salon, "a sophisticated mode/setting of discourse not tied to ongoing pragmatic concerns or identities"; and subway, a "public of minimal presence, minimal interchange, and maximal decoupling from 'co-text' and network - the street public" (H. C. White, "Network Switchings and Bayesian Forks," Social Research 62 [1996]: 1055).
125. We explain below (in the section on "Publics in the Social-Psychological Context of Action") what we mean by "working alliances."
126. M. Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 16. Mann goes on to observe, "[Such networks are always] outrunning the existing level of institutionalization. This may happen as a direct challenge to existing institutions, or it may happen unintentionally and 'interstitially' - between their interstices and around their edges - creating new relations and institutions that have unanticipated consequences for the old" The Sources of Social Power, 15).
127. M. Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 16. Mann goes on to observe, "[Such networks are always] outrunning the existing level of institutionalization. This may happen as a direct challenge to existing institutions, or it may happen unintentionally and 'interstitially' - between their interstices and around their edges - creating new relations and institutions that have unanticipated consequences for the old" The Sources of Social Power, 15).
128. S. Benhabib, "Models of Public Space," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere, 78.
129. M. Postone, "Political Theory and Historical Analysis," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere, 166.
130. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 479-480. A similar idea is to be found in Habermas's The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 209, 231-232.
131. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 479-480. A similar idea is to be found in Habermas's The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 209, 231-232.
132. N. Fraser, "Rethinking the Public Sphere," 123.
133. Ibid., 124.
134. Ibid., 128.
135. O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience, translated by P. Labanyi, J. O. Daniel, and A. Oksiloff (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1993; see also the useful "Foreword" by M. Hansen); G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung und plebejisches Publikum (Munich, 1979); G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 289-339. Eley stresses that "Habermas's concentration on Offentlichkeit as a specifically bourgeois category subsumes forms of popular democratic mobilization that were always already present as contending and subversive alternatives to the classical liberal organization of civil society in which Habermas's ideal of the public sphere is confined" ("Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures," 330-331).
136. O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience, translated by P. Labanyi, J. O. Daniel, and A. Oksiloff (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1993; see also the useful "Foreword" by M. Hansen); G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung und plebejisches Publikum (Munich, 1979); G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 289-339. Eley stresses that "Habermas's concentration on Offentlichkeit as a specifically bourgeois category subsumes forms of popular democratic mobilization that were always already present as contending and subversive alternatives to the classical liberal organization of civil society in which Habermas's ideal of the public sphere is confined" ("Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures," 330-331).
137. O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience, translated by P. Labanyi, J. O. Daniel, and A. Oksiloff (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1993; see also the useful "Foreword" by M. Hansen); G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung und plebejisches Publikum (Munich, 1979); G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 289-339. Eley stresses that "Habermas's concentration on Offentlichkeit as a specifically bourgeois category subsumes forms of popular democratic mobilization that were always already present as contending and subversive alternatives to the classical liberal organization of civil society in which Habermas's ideal of the public sphere is confined" ("Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures," 330-331).
138. O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience, translated by P. Labanyi, J. O. Daniel, and A. Oksiloff (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1993; see also the useful "Foreword" by M. Hansen); G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung und plebejisches Publikum (Munich, 1979); G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 289-339. Eley stresses that "Habermas's concentration on Offentlichkeit as a specifically bourgeois category subsumes forms of popular democratic mobilization that were always already present as contending and subversive alternatives to the classical liberal organization of civil society in which Habermas's ideal of the public sphere is confined" ("Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures," 330-331).
139. See, e.g., E. B. Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); E. B. Brown, "Negotiating and Transforming the Public Sphere," in The Black Sphere Collective, editors, The Black Public Sphere (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1995): 111-150; Kelley, Race Rebels; M. Sheller, "Democracy After Slavery," Ph.D. dissertation, New School for Social Research, 1997.
140. See, e.g., E. B. Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); E. B. Brown, "Negotiating and Transforming the Public Sphere," in The Black Sphere Collective, editors, The Black Public Sphere (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1995): 111-150; Kelley, Race Rebels; M. Sheller, "Democracy After Slavery," Ph.D. dissertation, New School for Social Research, 1997.
141. See, e.g., E. B. Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); E. B. Brown, "Negotiating and Transforming the Public Sphere," in The Black Sphere Collective, editors, The Black Public Sphere (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1995): 111-150; Kelley, Race Rebels; M. Sheller, "Democracy After Slavery," Ph.D. dissertation, New School for Social Research, 1997.
142. See, e.g., E. B. Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); E. B. Brown, "Negotiating and Transforming the Public Sphere," in The Black Sphere Collective, editors, The Black Public Sphere (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1995): 111-150; Kelley, Race Rebels; M. Sheller, "Democracy After Slavery," Ph.D. dissertation, New School for Social Research, 1997.
143. This phrase is closely associated with Habermasian theory. See, e.g., Habermas, The Theory of Communciative Action, vols. 1 and 2.
144. A. Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990).
145. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities (London and New York: Verso, 1983); R. Koselleck, Critique and Crisis (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988); Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere; M. Warner, The Letters of the Republic (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1990).
146. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities (London and New York: Verso, 1983); R. Koselleck, Critique and Crisis (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988); Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere; M. Warner, The Letters of the Republic (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1990).
147. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities (London and New York: Verso, 1983); R. Koselleck, Critique and Crisis (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988); Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere; M. Warner, The Letters of the Republic (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1990).
148. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities (London and New York: Verso, 1983); R. Koselleck, Critique and Crisis (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1988); Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere; M. Warner, The Letters of the Republic (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1990).
149. See S. Lash and J. Urry, Economies of Signs and Space (London: Sage Publications, 1994).
150. For a useful discussion of "influence," see T. Parsons, "On the Concept of Influence," in Sociological Theory and Modern Society (New York: Free Press, 1967), 355-382.
151. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory. Somers, too, points out that popular public spheres must "mediate between civil society and the towering forces of nation-states and national markets" ("Citizenship and the Place of the Public Sphere," 589).
152. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory. Somers, too, points out that popular public spheres must "mediate between civil society and the towering forces of nation-states and national markets" ("Citizenship and the Place of the Public Sphere," 589).
153. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 435. All three types of publicity feature some combination or other of strategic and communicative action (in Habermas's terminology).
154. Political publics thus include actual spaces of publicity within political institutions, public actions that make claims upon those decision-making entities, and networks of print and informat onal exchange that keep the workings of those institutions in the public eye. On the elite aspects of political publics in particular, see C. W. Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956); G. W. Domhoff, The Higher Circles (New York: Random House, 1970); and D. Knoke, et al., Comparing Policy Networks (Cambridge, U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
155. Political publics thus include actual spaces of publicity within political institutions, public actions that make claims upon those decision-making entities, and networks of print and informat onal exchange that keep the workings of those institutions in the public eye. On the elite aspects of political publics in particular, see C. W. Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956); G. W. Domhoff, The Higher Circles (New York: Random House, 1970); and D. Knoke, et al., Comparing Policy Networks (Cambridge, U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
156. Political publics thus include actual spaces of publicity within political institutions, public actions that make claims upon those decision-making entities, and networks of print and informat onal exchange that keep the workings of those institutions in the public eye. On the elite aspects of political publics in particular, see C. W. Mills, The Power Elite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956); G. W. Domhoff, The Higher Circles (New York: Random House, 1970); and D. Knoke, et al., Comparing Policy Networks (Cambridge, U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
157. In addition to the aforementioned analyses of proletarian publics (e.g., O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience; G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung; G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures"), we draw upon work on public influence and democratization within the workplace, household, and international development arena (e.g., S. Webb and B. Webb, Industrial Democracy [New York: Sentry, 1965]; S. M. Lipset, M. Trow, and J. S. Coleman, Union Democracy [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962]; L. Beneria and M. Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986]. In respect to elite economic publics, relevant work includes M. Useem, The Inner Circle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); C. Kono, D. Palmer, R. Friedland, and M. Zafonte, "Lost in Space," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1988): 863-911.
158. In addition to the aforementioned analyses of proletarian publics (e.g., O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience; G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung; G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures"), we draw upon work on public influence and democratization within the workplace, household, and international development arena (e.g., S. Webb and B. Webb, Industrial Democracy [New York: Sentry, 1965]; S. M. Lipset, M. Trow, and J. S. Coleman, Union Democracy [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962]; L. Beneria and M. Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986]. In respect to elite economic publics, relevant work includes M. Useem, The Inner Circle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); C. Kono, D. Palmer, R. Friedland, and M. Zafonte, "Lost in Space," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1988): 863-911.
159. In addition to the aforementioned analyses of proletarian publics (e.g., O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience; G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung; G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures"), we draw upon work on public influence and democratization within the workplace, household, and international development arena (e.g., S. Webb and B. Webb, Industrial Democracy [New York: Sentry, 1965]; S. M. Lipset, M. Trow, and J. S. Coleman, Union Democracy [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962]; L. Beneria and M. Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986]. In respect to elite economic publics, relevant work includes M. Useem, The Inner Circle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); C. Kono, D. Palmer, R. Friedland, and M. Zafonte, "Lost in Space," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1988): 863-911.
160. In addition to the aforementioned analyses of proletarian publics (e.g., O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience; G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung; G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures"), we draw upon work on public influence and democratization within the workplace, household, and international development arena (e.g., S. Webb and B. Webb, Industrial Democracy [New York: Sentry, 1965]; S. M. Lipset, M. Trow, and J. S. Coleman, Union Democracy [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962]; L. Beneria and M. Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986]. In respect to elite economic publics, relevant work includes M. Useem, The Inner Circle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); C. Kono, D. Palmer, R. Friedland, and M. Zafonte, "Lost in Space," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1988): 863-911.
161. In addition to the aforementioned analyses of proletarian publics (e.g., O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience; G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung; G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures"), we draw upon work on public influence and democratization within the workplace, household, and international development arena (e.g., S. Webb and B. Webb, Industrial Democracy [New York: Sentry, 1965]; S. M. Lipset, M. Trow, and J. S. Coleman, Union Democracy [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962]; L. Beneria and M. Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986]. In respect to elite economic publics, relevant work includes M. Useem, The Inner Circle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); C. Kono, D. Palmer, R. Friedland, and M. Zafonte, "Lost in Space," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1988): 863-911.
162. In addition to the aforementioned analyses of proletarian publics (e.g., O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience; G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung; G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures"), we draw upon work on public influence and democratization within the workplace, household, and international development arena (e.g., S. Webb and B. Webb, Industrial Democracy [New York: Sentry, 1965]; S. M. Lipset, M. Trow, and J. S. Coleman, Union Democracy [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962]; L. Beneria and M. Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986]. In respect to elite economic publics, relevant work includes M. Useem, The Inner Circle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); C. Kono, D. Palmer, R. Friedland, and M. Zafonte, "Lost in Space," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1988): 863-911.
163. In addition to the aforementioned analyses of proletarian publics (e.g., O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience; G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung; G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures"), we draw upon work on public influence and democratization within the workplace, household, and international development arena (e.g., S. Webb and B. Webb, Industrial Democracy [New York: Sentry, 1965]; S. M. Lipset, M. Trow, and J. S. Coleman, Union Democracy [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962]; L. Beneria and M. Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986]. In respect to elite economic publics, relevant work includes M. Useem, The Inner Circle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); C. Kono, D. Palmer, R. Friedland, and M. Zafonte, "Lost in Space," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1988): 863-911.
164. In addition to the aforementioned analyses of proletarian publics (e.g., O. Negt and A. Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience; G. Lottes, Politische Aufklarung; G. Eley, "Nations, Publics, and Political Cultures"), we draw upon work on public influence and democratization within the workplace, household, and international development arena (e.g., S. Webb and B. Webb, Industrial Democracy [New York: Sentry, 1965]; S. M. Lipset, M. Trow, and J. S. Coleman, Union Democracy [Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962]; L. Beneria and M. Roldan, The Crossroads of Class and Gender [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986]. In respect to elite economic publics, relevant work includes M. Useem, The Inner Circle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); C. Kono, D. Palmer, R. Friedland, and M. Zafonte, "Lost in Space," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1988): 863-911.
165. In addition to the work on free spaces discussed above, performance-centered studies of identity and embodiment (e.g., J. Butler, Gender Trouble [New York: Routledge, 1990]) and analyses of symbolic classification struggles (e.g., M. Lamont and M. Fournier, editors, Cultivating Differences [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992]) are also relevant to the study of civil publics. Relevant as well are the literature on popular cultures of resistance (e.g., Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance; S. Mintz, Caribbean Transformations [New York: Columbia University Press, 1989]) and the literature on new social movements (e.g., A. Melucci, Nomads of the Present, edited by J. Keane and P. Mier [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989]; A. Touraine, The Voice and the Eye, translated by A. Duff [Cambridge, U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981]).
166. In addition to the work on free spaces discussed above, performance-centered studies of identity and embodiment (e.g., J. Butler, Gender Trouble [New York: Routledge, 1990]) and analyses of symbolic classification struggles (e.g., M. Lamont and M. Fournier, editors, Cultivating Differences [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992]) are also relevant to the study of civil publics. Relevant as well are the literature on popular cultures of resistance (e.g., Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance; S. Mintz, Caribbean Transformations [New York: Columbia University Press, 1989]) and the literature on new social movements (e.g., A. Melucci, Nomads of the Present, edited by J. Keane and P. Mier [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989]; A. Touraine, The Voice and the Eye, translated by A. Duff [Cambridge, U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981]).
167. In addition to the work on free spaces discussed above, performance-centered studies of identity and embodiment (e.g., J. Butler, Gender Trouble [New York: Routledge, 1990]) and analyses of symbolic classification struggles (e.g., M. Lamont and M. Fournier, editors, Cultivating Differences [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992]) are also relevant to the study of civil publics. Relevant as well are the literature on popular cultures of resistance (e.g., Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance; S. Mintz, Caribbean Transformations [New York: Columbia University Press, 1989]) and the literature on new social movements (e.g., A. Melucci, Nomads of the Present, edited by J. Keane and P. Mier [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989]; A. Touraine, The Voice and the Eye, translated by A. Duff [Cambridge, U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981]).
168. In addition to the work on free spaces discussed above, performance-centered studies of identity and embodiment (e.g., J. Butler, Gender Trouble [New York: Routledge, 1990]) and analyses of symbolic classification struggles (e.g., M. Lamont and M. Fournier, editors, Cultivating Differences [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992]) are also relevant to the study of civil publics. Relevant as well are the literature on popular cultures of resistance (e.g., Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance; S. Mintz, Caribbean Transformations [New York: Columbia University Press, 1989]) and the literature on new social movements (e.g., A. Melucci, Nomads of the Present, edited by J. Keane and P. Mier [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989]; A. Touraine, The Voice and the Eye, translated by A. Duff [Cambridge, U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981]).
169. In addition to the work on free spaces discussed above, performance-centered studies of identity and embodiment (e.g., J. Butler, Gender Trouble [New York: Routledge, 1990]) and analyses of symbolic classification struggles (e.g., M. Lamont and M. Fournier, editors, Cultivating Differences [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992]) are also relevant to the study of civil publics. Relevant as well are the literature on popular cultures of resistance (e.g., Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance; S. Mintz, Caribbean Transformations [New York: Columbia University Press, 1989]) and the literature on new social movements (e.g., A. Melucci, Nomads of the Present, edited by J. Keane and P. Mier [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989]; A. Touraine, The Voice and the Eye, translated by A. Duff [Cambridge, U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981]).
170. In addition to the work on free spaces discussed above, performance-centered studies of identity and embodiment (e.g., J. Butler, Gender Trouble [New York: Routledge, 1990]) and analyses of symbolic classification struggles (e.g., M. Lamont and M. Fournier, editors, Cultivating Differences [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992]) are also relevant to the study of civil publics. Relevant as well are the literature on popular cultures of resistance (e.g., Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance; S. Mintz, Caribbean Transformations [New York: Columbia University Press, 1989]) and the literature on new social movements (e.g., A. Melucci, Nomads of the Present, edited by J. Keane and P. Mier [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989]; A. Touraine, The Voice and the Eye, translated by A. Duff [Cambridge, U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981]).
171. Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, 508.
172. Calhoun, "Civil Society and the Public Sphere," 275; see also C. Calhoun, "'New Social Movements' of the Early Nineteenth Century," Social Science History 17 (1993): 385-427.
173. Calhoun, "Civil Society and the Public Sphere," 275; see also C. Calhoun, "'New Social Movements' of the Early Nineteenth Century," Social Science History 17 (1993): 385-427.
174. Thus, neither institutions nor extra-institutional configurations such as publics are merely "social" phenomena, somehow standing apart from alternative elements such as symbols and affects. Each must be viewed as actions channeled through matrices of cultural and psychical as well as social relationships. The modern state, for example, encompasses practices that are both constrained and enabled by cultural structures (e.g., conceptual schemata used to generate and justify policy recommendations); social-psychological structures (e.g., patterns of psychical investments in hierarchy, accountability, or even bareaucratic rivalries within and across state agencies); and social-structural matrices (e.g., network patterns of ties among various managers and state bureaus).
175. See the references in note no. 3. Alexander speaks best for this Parsonsian tradition in claiming that action is "a 'flow' within symbolic, social, and psychological environments. These environments interpenetrate within the concrete empirical actor." We differ from many in this line (excluding Alexander himself) primarily in not prioritizing the three contexts of action in any sort of hierarchy, "cybernetic" or otherwise; in addition, we differ from all of the aforementioned thinkers in not conceptualizing the third context, the social-psychological, as a matrix of merely individual psychological dynamics, or "personality." More on this second point below.
176. See Emirbayer, "Manifesto for a Relational Sociology." Our own "relational turn" is not so much a sharp break with the former thinkers as it is a selective emphasis upon (and explicit development of) elements already present in at least some of their writings.
177. Hansen, "Unstable Mixtures, Dilated Spheres," 210.
178. Since publics are intrinsically "relational" - i.e., entailing modes of engagement with political, economic, or civil institutions - they must be situated as well within their multi-institutional contexts.
179. M. Emirbayer and J. Goodwin, "Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency," American Journal of Sociology 99 (1994): 1411-1454.
180. H. C. White, "Can Mathematics be Social?," Sociological Forum 12 (1997): 60.
181. R. S. Burt, "Models of Network Structure," Annual Review of Sociology 6 (1980): 81.
182. Stepan, Democratizing Brazil, xii.
183. Putnam, Making Democracy Work, 173.
184. S. Wasserman and K. Faust, Social Network Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 101.
185. "A walk is a sequence of nodes and lines, starting and ending with nodes, in which each node is incident with the lines following and preceding it in the sequence.... A path is a walk in which all nodes and lines are distinct.... The length of a path is the number of lines in it.... [Distance is] the shortest path between two nodes" (Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 105, 107, 110).
186. C. Wright Mills, for example, uses network terminology to describe the American public as bifurcated between myriad "primary publics" consisting of "little circles of face-to-face citizens discussing their public business" and the dominant "flow of influence" controlled locally by "opinion leaders" and nationally by the mass media. Mills enriches this network imagery with allusions to both power asymmetries and time-space distanciation. See Mills, "Mass Media and Public Opinion," in I. L. Horowitz, editor, Power, Politics, and People (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 586, 593-594.
187. Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 107, 109-110.
188. i from the graph.... A bridge is a line such that the graph containing the line has fewer components than the subgraph that is obtained after the line is removed" (Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 112-113, 114). See also M. Granovetter, "The Strength of Weak Ties," American Journal of Sociology 81 (1973): 1287-1303.
189. i from the graph.... A bridge is a line such that the graph containing the line has fewer components than the subgraph that is obtained after the line is removed" (Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 112-113, 114). See also M. Granovetter, "The Strength of Weak Ties," American Journal of Sociology 81 (1973): 1287-1303.
190. Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 173.
191. See Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, ch. 5. Although the preceding discussion concerns nondirectional ties, analogous concepts and measures do also exist for "directed graphs" or networks.
192. Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 249.
193. C. Calhoun, "Introduction: Habermas and the Public Sphere," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere, 37-38.
194. In terms of decreasing strictness, these criteria are as follows: "Subgroups based on mutuality of ties require that all pairs of subgroup members 'choose'each other (or are adjacent); subgroups based on reachability require that all subgroup members be reachable to each other, but not necessarily adjacent; subgroups based on numerous ties require that subgroup members have ties to many others within the subgroup; and subgroups based on the relative density or frequency of ties require that subgroups be relatively cohesive when compared to the remainder of the network" (Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 252).
195. A. Mische, "Projecting Democracy," International Journal of Social History 40 (1996): 140.
196. In many parts of the U.S., "diverse and interlocking networks were capable of being politicized and coordinated through existing movement centers" (clustered around the leadership of Martin Luther King, Jr.), but were less effective in the Deep South where high levels of repression meant "the absence of dense networks of movement centers" (Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement, 284, 199, 205).
197. Specifically, Rosenthal et al. show how social-network analysis can "(1) map the interconnections between organizations, (2) measure the intensity and directionality of those interconnections, (3) illuminate clusters of proximate organizations, and (4) identify groups central to the clusters" (N. Rosenthal, M. Fingrutd, M. Ethier, R. Karant, and D. McDonald, "Social Movements and Network Analysis," American Journal of Sociology 90 [1985]: 1022).
198. Wasserman and Faust, Social Network Analysis, 426.
199. Burt, "Models of Network Structure," 81.
200. F. Lorrain and H. White, "Structural Equivalence of Individuals in Social Networks," Journal of Mathematical Sociology 1 (1971): 49.
201. Lorrain and White, "Structural Equivalence of Individuals in Social Networks," 49.
202. R. S. Burt, Structural Holes (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1992), 18.
203. Burt, Structural Holes, 45.
204. Mische, "Projecting Democracy."
205. These would be networks penetrating the state or economy that maximize non-redundant contacts and that reach through the latter into "separate, and therefore more diverse, social worlds of network benefits" (Burt, Structural Holes, 21).
206. Hansen, "Unstable Mixtures, Dilated Spheres," 212.
207. J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time (New York: Atheneum, 1973); W. H. Sewell, Jr., Work and Revolution in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); W. H. Sewell, Jr., "Ideologies and Social Revolutions," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 57-85; T. Skocpol, "Cultural Idioms and Political Ideologies in the Revolutionary/Reconstruction of State Power," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 86-96; K. M. Baker, Inventing the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); K. M. Baker, "Denning the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century France," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 181-212.
208. J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time (New York: Atheneum, 1973); W. H. Sewell, Jr., Work and Revolution in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); W. H. Sewell, Jr., "Ideologies and Social Revolutions," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 57-85; T. Skocpol, "Cultural Idioms and Political Ideologies in the Revolutionary/Reconstruction of State Power," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 86-96; K. M. Baker, Inventing the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); K. M. Baker, "Denning the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century France," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 181-212.
209. J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time (New York: Atheneum, 1973); W. H. Sewell, Jr., Work and Revolution in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); W. H. Sewell, Jr., "Ideologies and Social Revolutions," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 57-85; T. Skocpol, "Cultural Idioms and Political Ideologies in the Revolutionary/Reconstruction of State Power," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 86-96; K. M. Baker, Inventing the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); K. M. Baker, "Denning the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century France," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 181-212.
210. J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time (New York: Atheneum, 1973); W. H. Sewell, Jr., Work and Revolution in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); W. H. Sewell, Jr., "Ideologies and Social Revolutions," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 57-85; T. Skocpol, "Cultural Idioms and Political Ideologies in the Revolutionary/Reconstruction of State Power," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 86-96; K. M. Baker, Inventing the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); K. M. Baker, "Denning the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century France," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 181-212.
211. J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time (New York: Atheneum, 1973); W. H. Sewell, Jr., Work and Revolution in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); W. H. Sewell, Jr., "Ideologies and Social Revolutions," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 57-85; T. Skocpol, "Cultural Idioms and Political Ideologies in the Revolutionary/Reconstruction of State Power," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 86-96; K. M. Baker, Inventing the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); K. M. Baker, "Denning the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century France," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 181-212.
212. J. G. A. Pocock, Politics, Language and Time (New York: Atheneum, 1973); W. H. Sewell, Jr., Work and Revolution in France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980); W. H. Sewell, Jr., "Ideologies and Social Revolutions," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 57-85; T. Skocpol, "Cultural Idioms and Political Ideologies in the Revolutionary/Reconstruction of State Power," Journal of Modern History 57 (1985): 86-96; K. M. Baker, Inventing the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); K. M. Baker, "Denning the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century France," in Calhoun, editor, Habermas and the Public Sphere: 181-212.
213. Calhoun, "Introduction: Habermas and the Public Sphere," 34; J. C. Alexander, "The Return to Civil Society," Contemporary Sociology 22 (1993): 801-802; see also Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society."
214. Calhoun, "Introduction: Habermas and the Public Sphere," 34; J. C. Alexander, "The Return to Civil Society," Contemporary Sociology 22 (1993): 801-802; see also Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society."
215. Calhoun, "Introduction: Habermas and the Public Sphere," 34; J. C. Alexander, "The Return to Civil Society," Contemporary Sociology 22 (1993): 801-802; see also Alexander, "The Paradoxes of Civil Society."
216. A. Kane, "Cultural Analysis in Historical Sociology," Sociological Theory 9 (1991): 53-69.
217. See M. S. Archer, Culture and Agency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); A. Swidler, "Culture in Action," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 273-286.
218. See M. S. Archer, Culture and Agency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); A. Swidler, "Culture in Action," American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 273-286.
219. K. M. Carley and D. S. Kaufer, "Semantic Connectivity," Communication Theory 3 (1993): 183-213; K. M. Carley, "Extracting Culture through Textual Analysis," Poetics 22 (1994): 291-312.
220. K. M. Carley and D. S. Kaufer, "Semantic Connectivity," Communication Theory 3 (1993): 183-213; K. M. Carley, "Extracting Culture through Textual Analysis," Poetics 22 (1994): 291-312.
221. J. W. Mohr, "Soldiers, Mothers, Tramps and Others," Poetics 22 (1994): 327-357.
222. J. C. Alexander, "Citizen and Enemy as Symbolic Classification," in M. Lamont and M. Fournier, editors, Cultivating Differences (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 290, 291.
223. J. C. Alexander and P. Smith, "The Discourse of American Civil Society," Theory and Society 22 (1991): 151-207.
224. M.W. Steinberg, "The Dialogue of Struggle," Social Science History 18 (1994): 505-542.
225. See M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, edited by M. Holquist, translated by C. Emerson and M. Holquist (Austin: University of Texas, 1981); M. Bakhtin, Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, edited by C. Emerson and M. Holquist, translated by V.W. McGee (Austin: University of Texas, 1986); V. N. Volosinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, translated by L. Matejka and I. R. Titunik (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1986).
226. See M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, edited by M. Holquist, translated by C. Emerson and M. Holquist (Austin: University of Texas, 1981); M. Bakhtin, Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, edited by C. Emerson and M. Holquist, translated by V.W. McGee (Austin: University of Texas, 1986); V. N. Volosinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, translated by L. Matejka and I. R. Titunik (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1986).
227. See M. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, edited by M. Holquist, translated by C. Emerson and M. Holquist (Austin: University of Texas, 1981); M. Bakhtin, Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, edited by C. Emerson and M. Holquist, translated by V.W. McGee (Austin: University of Texas, 1986); V. N. Volosinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, translated by L. Matejka and I. R. Titunik (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1986).
228. M. Emirbayer, "The Shaping of a Virtuous Citizenry," Studies in American Political Development 6 (1992): 391-419; M. Emirbayer, "Beyond Structuralism and Voluntarism," Theory and Society 21 (1992): 621-664.
229. M. Emirbayer, "The Shaping of a Virtuous Citizenry," Studies in American Political Development 6 (1992): 391-419; M. Emirbayer, "Beyond Structuralism and Voluntarism," Theory and Society 21 (1992): 621-664.
230. M. R. Somers, "What's Political or Cultural about Political Culture and the Public Sphere?' Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 113-144; M. R. Somers, "Narrating and Naturalizing Civil Society and Citizenship Theory," Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 229-274; see also Baker, Inventing the French Revolution.
231. M. R. Somers, "What's Political or Cultural about Political Culture and the Public Sphere?' Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 113-144; M. R. Somers, "Narrating and Naturalizing Civil Society and Citizenship Theory," Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 229-274; see also Baker, Inventing the French Revolution.
232. M. R. Somers, "What's Political or Cultural about Political Culture and the Public Sphere?' Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 113-144; M. R. Somers, "Narrating and Naturalizing Civil Society and Citizenship Theory," Sociological Theory 13 (1995): 229-274; see also Baker, Inventing the French Revolution.
233. Somers, "Narrativity, Narrative Identity, and Social Action," 601 (italics deleted). For a similar line of argument, see H. White, Identity and Control (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
234. J. B. Landes, Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1988), 40.
235. Warner, The Letters of the Republic, 12.
236. Negt and Kluge, Public Sphere and Experience, 46.
237. Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public"; C. Cooper, Noises in the Blood (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995); F. Fanon, "The Negro and Language," in Black Skin, White Masks, translated by C. L. Markmann (New York: Grove, 1967): 17-40; P.P. Giglioli, editor, Language and Social Context (New York: Penguin, 1985).
238. Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public"; C. Cooper, Noises in the Blood (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995); F. Fanon, "The Negro and Language," in Black Skin, White Masks, translated by C. L. Markmann (New York: Grove, 1967): 17-40; P.P. Giglioli, editor, Language and Social Context (New York: Penguin, 1985).
239. Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public"; C. Cooper, Noises in the Blood (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995); F. Fanon, "The Negro and Language," in Black Skin, White Masks, translated by C. L. Markmann (New York: Grove, 1967): 17-40; P.P. Giglioli, editor, Language and Social Context (New York: Penguin, 1985).
240. Young, "Impartiality and the Civic Public"; C. Cooper, Noises in the Blood (Durham: Duke University Press, 1995); F. Fanon, "The Negro and Language," in Black Skin, White Masks, translated by C. L. Markmann (New York: Grove, 1967): 17-40; P.P. Giglioli, editor, Language and Social Context (New York: Penguin, 1985).
241. For a powerful discussion of this point, see R. C. Post, "The Constitutional Concept of Public Discourse," Harvard Law Review 103 (1990): 603-686.
242. D. McAdam, J. D. McCarthy, and M. Zald, editors, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 6. See also D. A. Snow, et al., "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review (1986): 464-481; D. A. Snow and R. D. Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in A. D. Morris and C. M. Mueller, editors, Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992): 133-155; M. W. Steinberg, "Toward a Dialogic Analysis of Social Movement Culture," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Social Science History Association, New Orleans, 1996.
243. D. McAdam, J. D. McCarthy, and M. Zald, editors, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 6. See also D. A. Snow, et al., "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review (1986): 464-481; D. A. Snow and R. D. Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in A. D. Morris and C. M. Mueller, editors, Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992): 133-155; M. W. Steinberg, "Toward a Dialogic Analysis of Social Movement Culture," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Social Science History Association, New Orleans, 1996.
244. D. McAdam, J. D. McCarthy, and M. Zald, editors, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 6. See also D. A. Snow, et al., "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review (1986): 464-481; D. A. Snow and R. D. Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in A. D. Morris and C. M. Mueller, editors, Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992): 133-155; M. W. Steinberg, "Toward a Dialogic Analysis of Social Movement Culture," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Social Science History Association, New Orleans, 1996.
245. D. McAdam, J. D. McCarthy, and M. Zald, editors, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 6. See also D. A. Snow, et al., "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation," American Sociological Review (1986): 464-481; D. A. Snow and R. D. Benford, "Master Frames and Cycles of Protest," in A. D. Morris and C. M. Mueller, editors, Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992): 133-155; M. W. Steinberg, "Toward a Dialogic Analysis of Social Movement Culture," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Social Science History Association, New Orleans, 1996.
246. Alexander, "Citizen and Enemy as Symbolic Classification," 291.
247. N. Eliasoph and P. Lichterman, "The Meaningfulness of Style in Civil Life," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, New York City, 1996, 2.
248. Eliasoph and Lichterman, "The Meaningfulness of Style in Civic Life," 10.
249. R. N. Jacobs, "Civil Society and Crisis," American Journal of Sociology 101 (1996): 1238-1272.
250. M. Sheller, "The Haytian Fear," forthcoming in P. B. Vanderlippe and J. R. Feagin, editors, Race and Ethnic Relations from a Global Perspective, vol. 6 of Research in Politics and Society (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1998).
251. M. W. Steinberg, "Toward a Dialogic Analysis of Social Movement Culture," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Social Science History Association, New Orleans, 1996, 17-18.
252. W. H. Sewell, Jr., A Rhetoric of Bourgeois Revolution (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1994), 33. See also D. LaCapra, "Rethinking Intellectual History and Reading Texts," in D. LaCapra and S. L. Kaplan, editors, Modern European Intellectual History (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1982), 47-85.
253. W. H. Sewell, Jr., A Rhetoric of Bourgeois Revolution (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1994), 33. See also D. LaCapra, "Rethinking Intellectual History and Reading Texts," in D. LaCapra and S. L. Kaplan, editors, Modern European Intellectual History (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1982), 47-85.
254. A number of historians focus upon these struggles over meaning without explicitly theorizing their location within networks of publicity. See, e.g., F. E. Mallon, Peasant and Nation (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1995); L. d'Anjou, Social Movements and Culture Change (Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996); B. F. Williams, Stains on My Name, War in My Veins (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1991).
255. A number of historians focus upon these struggles over meaning without explicitly theorizing their location within networks of publicity. See, e.g., F. E. Mallon, Peasant and Nation (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1995); L. d'Anjou, Social Movements and Culture Change (Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996); B. F. Williams, Stains on My Name, War in My Veins (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1991).
256. A number of historians focus upon these struggles over meaning without explicitly theorizing their location within networks of publicity. See, e.g., F. E. Mallon, Peasant and Nation (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1995); L. d'Anjou, Social Movements and Culture Change (Hawthorne, N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996); B. F. Williams, Stains on My Name, War in My Veins (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1991).
257. F. Furet, "The French Revolution is Over," in Interpreting the French Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 48.
258. See Furet, "The French Revolution is Over," 46-61. Of course, in many cases this type of power overlaps with social-structural power (i.e., that deriving from occupying privileged positions within social networks), although in other cases it does not, or does so only imperfectly, which makes for interesting and multi-layered contestations over power.
259. Baker, Interpreting the French Revolution, 6.
260. S. Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, translated by J. Strachey (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1959).
261. The emotions, from this point of view, inhere not in "'entities' that have been located in individuals, such as ... 'attitudes,'" but rather in "situational ways of acting in conversational encounters" (R. Collins, "On the Microfoundations of Macrosociology," American Journal of Sociology 86 [1981]: 1010).
262. T. J. Scheff, "Emotions and Identity," in C. Calhoun, editor, Social Theory and the Politics of Identity (Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell, 1994), 282.
263. See, e.g., J. Moreno, Who Shall Survive? (New York: Beacon Press, 1934).
264. See, e.g., R. L. Breiger and J. G. Ennis, "Personae and Social Roles," Social Psychology Quarterly 42 (1979): 262-270.
265. Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 40.
266. See, e.g., P. Slater, "On Social Regression," American Sociological Review 28 (1963): 339-364; L. A. Coser, Greedy Institutions (New York: Free Press, 1974); J. Goodwin, "The Libidinal Constitution of a High-Risk Social Movement," American Sociological Review 62 (1997): 53-69.
267. See, e.g., P. Slater, "On Social Regression," American Sociological Review 28 (1963): 339-364; L. A. Coser, Greedy Institutions (New York: Free Press, 1974); J. Goodwin, "The Libidinal Constitution of a High-Risk Social Movement," American Sociological Review 62 (1997): 53-69.
268. See, e.g., P. Slater, "On Social Regression," American Sociological Review 28 (1963): 339-364; L. A. Coser, Greedy Institutions (New York: Free Press, 1974); J. Goodwin, "The Libidinal Constitution of a High-Risk Social Movement," American Sociological Review 62 (1997): 53-69.
269. It is striking to what degree Freud's own "sociogram" of the bonds linking leaders and followers - and of the bonds of identification among followers themselves -suggests network-analytic concepts such as "social position" and "equivalence classes." See Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 61.
270. B. Barber, The Logic and Limits of Trust (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983); S. N. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients, and Friends (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); D. Gambetta, editor, Trust (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); N. Luhmann, "Familiarity, Confidence, Trust," in Gambetta, editor, Trust: 94-107; B. A. Misztal, Trust in Modern Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 1996); A. Seligman, The Problem of Trust (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). Closely related to this work on trust is the growing literature on social capital; for an excellent review of the latter, see M. Woolcock, "Social Capital and Economic Development," Theory and Society 27/2 (1998): 151-208.
271. B. Barber, The Logic and Limits of Trust (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983); S. N. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients, and Friends (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); D. Gambetta, editor, Trust (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); N. Luhmann, "Familiarity, Confidence, Trust," in Gambetta, editor, Trust: 94-107; B. A. Misztal, Trust in Modern Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 1996); A. Seligman, The Problem of Trust (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). Closely related to this work on trust is the growing literature on social capital; for an excellent review of the latter, see M. Woolcock, "Social Capital and Economic Development," Theory and Society 27/2 (1998): 151-208.
272. B. Barber, The Logic and Limits of Trust (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983); S. N. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients, and Friends (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); D. Gambetta, editor, Trust (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); N. Luhmann, "Familiarity, Confidence, Trust," in Gambetta, editor, Trust: 94-107; B. A. Misztal, Trust in Modern Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 1996); A. Seligman, The Problem of Trust (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). Closely related to this work on trust is the growing literature on social capital; for an excellent review of the latter, see M. Woolcock, "Social Capital and Economic Development," Theory and Society 27/2 (1998): 151-208.
273. B. Barber, The Logic and Limits of Trust (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983); S. N. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients, and Friends (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); D. Gambetta, editor, Trust (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); N. Luhmann, "Familiarity, Confidence, Trust," in Gambetta, editor, Trust: 94-107; B. A. Misztal,
274. B. Barber, The Logic and Limits of Trust (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983); S. N. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients, and Friends (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); D. Gambetta, editor, Trust (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); N. Luhmann, "Familiarity, Confidence, Trust," in Gambetta, editor, Trust: 94-107; B. A. Misztal, Trust in Modern Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 1996); A. Seligman, The Problem of Trust (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). Closely related to this work on trust is the growing literature on social capital; for an excellent review of the latter, see M. Woolcock, "Social Capital and Economic Development," Theory and Society 27/2 (1998): 151-208.
275. B. Barber, The Logic and Limits of Trust (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983); S. N. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients, and Friends (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); D. Gambetta, editor, Trust (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); N. Luhmann, "Familiarity, Confidence, Trust," in Gambetta, editor, Trust: 94-107; B. A. Misztal, Trust in Modern Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 1996); A. Seligman, The Problem of Trust (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). Closely related to this work on trust is the growing literature on social capital; for an excellent review of the latter, see M. Woolcock, "Social Capital and Economic Development," Theory and Society 27/2 (1998): 151-208.
276. B. Barber, The Logic and Limits of Trust (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1983); S. N. Eisenstadt and L. Roniger, Patrons, Clients, and Friends (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); D. Gambetta, editor, Trust (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988); N. Luhmann, "Familiarity, Confidence, Trust," in Gambetta, editor, Trust: 94-107; B. A. Misztal, Trust in Modern Societies (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 1996); A. Seligman, The Problem of Trust (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997). Closely related to this work on trust is the growing literature on social capital; for an excellent review of the latter, see M. Woolcock, "Social Capital and Economic Development," Theory and Society 27/2 (1998): 151-208.
277. Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 67.
278. W. R. Bion, Experiences in Groups (London and New York: Routledge, 1961).
279. Freud spoke of these processes in terms of the "narcissism of minor differences": Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 41-43; S. Freud, Civilization and its Discontents, translated by J. Strachey (New York and London: W.W. Norton, 1961), ch. V.
280. Freud spoke of these processes in terms of the "narcissism of minor differences": Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 41-43; S. Freud, Civilization and its Discontents, translated by J. Strachey (New York and London: W.W. Norton, 1961), ch. V.
281. Wolfe, Whose Keeper?, 204; Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society, 182.
282. Wolfe, Whose Keeper?, 204; Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society, 182.
283. Supplementary devices also help to hold publics together, which Freudian theory does help to illuminate. Trust, for example, is often reinforced and stabilized by defense mechanisms such as repression and reaction formation, which serve to "mobilize ... positive feelings within the members to counter the rivalrous ones (L. Baiter, "Leaderless Groups," International Review of Psycho-Analysis 5 [1978]: 332). Still other control mechanisms may also come into play when regressive tendencies other than aggression (e.g., toward narcissistic withdrawal or resexualization of group ties) threaten to destabilize publics as effective working alliances.
284. J. S. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), chs. 5, 8; R. S. Burt and M. Knez, "Kinds of Third-Party Effects on Trust," Rationality and Society 7 (1995): 255-292.
285. J. S. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), chs. 5, 8; R. S. Burt and M. Knez, "Kinds of Third-Party Effects on Trust," Rationality and Society 7 (1995): 255-292.
286. See Silver, "'Trust' in Social and Political Theory," in G. D. Suttles and M. N. Zald, editors, The Challenge of Social Control (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1985): 52-67; "Friendship and Trust as Moral Ideals," European Journal of Sociology 30 (1989): 274-297; "Friendship in Commercial Society," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1474-1504. The phrase "interest paradigm" derives from A. O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977).
287. See Silver, "'Trust' in Social and Political Theory," in G. D. Suttles and M. N. Zald, editors, The Challenge of Social Control (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1985): 52-67; "Friendship and Trust as Moral Ideals," European Journal of Sociology 30 (1989): 274-297; "Friendship in Commercial Society," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1474-1504. The phrase "interest paradigm" derives from A. O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977).
288. See Silver, "'Trust' in Social and Political Theory," in G. D. Suttles and M. N. Zald, editors, The Challenge of Social Control (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1985): 52-67; "Friendship and Trust as Moral Ideals," European Journal of Sociology 30 (1989): 274-297; "Friendship in Commercial Society," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1474-1504. The phrase "interest paradigm" derives from A. O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977).
289. See Silver, "'Trust' in Social and Political Theory," in G. D. Suttles and M. N. Zald, editors, The Challenge of Social Control (Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1985): 52-67; "Friendship and Trust as Moral Ideals," European Journal of Sociology 30 (1989): 274-297; "Friendship in Commercial Society," American Journal of Sociology 95 (1990): 1474-1504. The phrase "interest paradigm" derives from A. O. Hirschman, The Passions and the Interests (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977).
290. Wolfe, Whose Keeper?; Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society.
291. Wolfe, Whose Keeper?; Seligman, The Idea of Civil Society.
292. Bion, Experiences in Groups.
293. In some cases, these leaders are psychically "split apart" according to their different attributes, such "that one member may become the fearful leader, another the enraged leader, still another the desiring leader, and so forth" (C. F. Alford, Group Psychology and Political Theory [New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1994], 53).
294. L. Hunt, The Family Romance of the French Revolution (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992).
295. M. Emirbayer, "Halcyon Days," unpublished manuscript (Department of Sociology, New School for Social Research, 1998).
296. Freud, Civilization and its Discontents, 57.
297. Some promising leads in this regard, especially relevant to the study of publics in social movements, are to be found in M. Diani, "Social Movements and Social Capital," Mobilization 2 (1997): 129-147.
298. As Mary Ryan shows of nineteenth century "civic culture" in the United States, it was at times profoundly "driven by contest, struggle, loss, and gain, and it remained riddled with inequities and productive of violent disagreements," often on the verge of "Civic Wars" (M. Ryan, Civic Wars [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997], 228).
299. R. Collins, "Stratification, Emotional Energy, and the Transient Emotions," in T. D. Kemper, editor, Research Agendas in the Sociology of Emotions (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990); 27-28.
300. E. Sagan, The Honey and the Hemlock (New York: Basic, 1991), 18.
301. J. D. Lewis and A. J. Weigert, "Social Atomism, Holism, and Trust," Sociological Quarterly 26 (1985): 459.
302. We concur with Alexander, in fact, that the "identification of actor and agency" renders one "guilty of [the fallacy of] misplaced concreteness.... [A]ctors per se are much more than, and much less than, 'agents' [alone]" (J. Alexander, "Some Remarks on 'Agency' in Recent Sociological Theory," Perspectives [Newsletter of the Theory Section of the American Sociological Association] 15 [1992]: 1).
303. M. Emirbayer and A. Mische, "What is Agency?" American Journal of Sociology 103 (1998): 970.
304. J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971).
305. Emirbayer and Mische, "What is Agency?" 971.
306. It should be noted that iterational modes of public transactions are rarely lacking in contention. When Irish gays and lesbians march in the St. Patrick's Day parade in New York City, for example, they challenge the symbolic constitution of a unitary "Irish" identity, an identity also contested in the parades of Loyalist Orangemen in Northern Ireland.
307. Emirbayer and Mische, "What is Agency?" 971.
308. J. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Sheller, "Democracy after Slavery"; R. D. E. Burton, Afro-Creole (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1997); D.J. Austin-Broos, Jamaica Genesis (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
309. J. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Sheller, "Democracy after Slavery"; R. D. E. Burton, Afro-Creole (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1997); D.J. Austin-Broos, Jamaica Genesis (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
310. J. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Sheller, "Democracy after Slavery"; R. D. E. Burton, Afro-Creole (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1997); D.J. Austin-Broos, Jamaica Genesis (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
311. J. Comaroff and J. Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991); Sheller, "Democracy after Slavery"; R. D. E. Burton, Afro-Creole (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1997); D.J. Austin-Broos, Jamaica Genesis (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1997).
312. McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970.
313. Emirbayer and Mische, "What is Agency?" 971.
314. Classic statements include Arendt, The Human Condition; and Arendt, On Revolution. More recent writings by sociologists include Bellah, et al., The Good Society; A. Etzioni, The New Golden Rule (New York: Basic Books, 1996); Weintraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty."
315. Classic statements include Arendt, The Human Condition; and Arendt, On Revolution. More recent writings by sociologists include Bellah, et al., The Good Society; A. Etzioni, The New Golden Rule (New York: Basic Books, 1996); Weintraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty."
316. Classic statements include Arendt, The Human Condition; and Arendt, On Revolution. More recent writings by sociologists include Bellah, et al., The Good Society; A. Etzioni, The New Golden Rule (New York: Basic Books, 1996); Weintraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty."
317. Classic statements include Arendt, The Human Condition; and Arendt, On Revolution. More recent writings by sociologists include Bellah, et al., The Good Society; A. Etzioni, The New Golden Rule (New York: Basic Books, 1996); Weintraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty."
318. Classic statements include Arendt, The Human Condition; and Arendt, On Revolution. More recent writings by sociologists include Bellah, et al., The Good Society; A. Etzioni, The New Golden Rule (New York: Basic Books, 1996); Weintraub, "Virtue, Community, and the Sociology of Liberty."
319. P. Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, translated by Richard Nice (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1990).
320. M. De Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, translated by S. Rendall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984);
321. J. C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976);
322. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance.
323. E. M. Leifer, "Interaction Preludes to Role Setting," American Sociological Review 53 (1988): 865-878.
324. Emirbayer and Mische, "What is Agency?" 999.
325. Of course, certain individuals and publics are better positioned than others to develop capacities for effective and prudential judgment.
326. One should bear in mind that these three typical terdencies in public action hardly stand in a pure, one-to-one relationship to the three orientations of agency; the latter are, after all, analytical dimensions to be found to varying degrees in all concrete instances of public action. We are speaking here only of the "dominant" tones in what has been called the chordal triad of agency.
327. We shift perhaps confusingly between allusions to changing relational (or structural) contexts of action - and to institutional complexes. This is only an apparent contradiction, however, since institutional complexes are themselves nothing other than bundles of empirical social action, ordered or channeled through social-structural, cultural, and social-psychological patternings. To change one or more of the latter is thus to change the institution itself. One merely adds theoretical precision through the notion of relational or structural contexts, inasmuch as that notion allows for a more careful specification of the analytic level (or levels) at which relevant changes, are occurring.
328. R. Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Baker, Inventing the French Revolution; Sheller, "Democracy after Slavery."
329. R. Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Baker, Inventing the French Revolution; Sheller, "Democracy after Slavery."
330. R. Laba, The Roots of Solidarity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Baker, Inventing the French Revolution; Sheller, "Democracy after Slavery."
331. A Abbott, "On the Concept of Turning Point," Comparative Social Research 16 (1997): 93.
332. WH. Sewell, Jr., "Three Temporalities," in T. J. McDonald, editor, The Historic Turn in the Human Sciences (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996), 31.
333. M. Sahlins, "The Return of the Event, Again," in A. Biersack, editor, Clio in Oceania (Washington: Smithsonian, 1991), 45.
334. Sahlins, "The Return of the Event, Again," 47, 68. See also M. Sahlins, Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981); M. Sahlins, Islands of History (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
335. Sahlins, "The Return of the Event, Again," 47, 68. See also M. Sahlins, Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981); M. Sahlins, Islands of History (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
336. Sahlins, "The Return of the Event, Again," 47, 68. See also M. Sahlins, Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981); M. Sahlins, Islands of History (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
337. This is a paraphrase of Herbert Blumer's phrase "sensitizing concepts," in Symbolic Interactionism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961).
338. T. Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, 320 n. 16.