The first decade of 'European beer' in apartheid South Africa: The state, the brewers and the drinking public, 1962-72

Journal of African History

Volumn 40, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 367-388

  Mager, Anne ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; APARTHEID; RACIAL IDENTITY; SOCIAL HISTORY;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0033399489     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0021853799007495     Document Type: Article

References (192)

1. See E. Akeampong, Drink, Power and Cultural Change: A Social History of Alcohol in Ghana c. 1800 to Recent Times (Portsmouth and Oxford, 1996); M. O. West, 'Liquor and libido: "joint drinking" and the politics of sexual control in colonial Zimbabwe, 1920s to 1950s', Journal of Social History, 30 (1997), 645-67; T. R. Gourvish and R. G. Wilson, The British Brewing Industry, 1830-1980 (Cambridge, 1994); D. Christian, Living Water: Vodka and Russian Society on the Eve of Emancipation (Oxford, 1990). For discussion of the character of persons and markets, see Megan Vaughan, 'The character of the market: social identities in colonial economies', Oxford Development Studies, 24 (1996), 61-77.
2. See E. Akeampong, Drink, Power and Cultural Change: A Social History of Alcohol in Ghana c. 1800 to Recent Times (Portsmouth and Oxford, 1996); M. O. West, 'Liquor and libido: "joint drinking" and the politics of sexual control in colonial Zimbabwe, 1920s to 1950s', Journal of Social History, 30 (1997), 645-67; T. R. Gourvish and R. G. Wilson, The British Brewing Industry, 1830-1980 (Cambridge, 1994); D. Christian, Living Water: Vodka and Russian Society on the Eve of Emancipation (Oxford, 1990). For discussion of the character of persons and markets, see Megan Vaughan, 'The character of the market: social identities in colonial economies', Oxford Development Studies, 24 (1996), 61-77.
3. See E. Akeampong, Drink, Power and Cultural Change: A Social History of Alcohol in Ghana c. 1800 to Recent Times (Portsmouth and Oxford, 1996); M. O. West, 'Liquor and libido: "joint drinking" and the politics of sexual control in colonial Zimbabwe, 1920s to 1950s', Journal of Social History, 30 (1997), 645-67; T. R. Gourvish and R. G. Wilson, The British Brewing Industry, 1830-1980 (Cambridge, 1994); D. Christian, Living Water: Vodka and Russian Society on the Eve of Emancipation (Oxford, 1990). For discussion of the character of persons and markets, see Megan Vaughan, 'The character of the market: social identities in colonial economies', Oxford Development Studies, 24 (1996), 61-77.
4. See E. Akeampong, Drink, Power and Cultural Change: A Social History of Alcohol in Ghana c. 1800 to Recent Times (Portsmouth and Oxford, 1996); M. O. West, 'Liquor and libido: "joint drinking" and the politics of sexual control in colonial Zimbabwe, 1920s to 1950s', Journal of Social History, 30 (1997), 645-67; T. R. Gourvish and R. G. Wilson, The British Brewing Industry, 1830-1980 (Cambridge, 1994); D. Christian, Living Water: Vodka and Russian Society on the Eve of Emancipation (Oxford, 1990). For discussion of the character of persons and markets, see Megan Vaughan, 'The character of the market: social identities in colonial economies', Oxford Development Studies, 24 (1996), 61-77.
5. See E. Akeampong, Drink, Power and Cultural Change: A Social History of Alcohol in Ghana c. 1800 to Recent Times (Portsmouth and Oxford, 1996); M. O. West, 'Liquor and libido: "joint drinking" and the politics of sexual control in colonial Zimbabwe, 1920s to 1950s', Journal of Social History, 30 (1997), 645-67; T. R. Gourvish and R. G. Wilson, The British Brewing Industry, 1830-1980 (Cambridge, 1994); D. Christian, Living Water: Vodka and Russian Society on the Eve of Emancipation (Oxford, 1990). For discussion of the character of persons and markets, see Megan Vaughan, 'The character of the market: social identities in colonial economies', Oxford Development Studies, 24 (1996), 61-77.
6. S. Heap, 'Before "Star": the import substitution of Western-style alcohol in Nigeria, 1870-1970', African Economic History, 24 (1996), 69-89, and E. Akeampong, 'The state and alcohol revenues: promoting economic development in Gold Coast/ Ghana, 1919 to the present', Social History, 27 (1994), 393-411.
7. S. Heap, 'Before "Star": the import substitution of Western-style alcohol in Nigeria, 1870-1970', African Economic History, 24 (1996), 69-89, and E. Akeampong, 'The state and alcohol revenues: promoting economic development in Gold Coast/ Ghana, 1919 to the present', Social History, 27 (1994), 393-411.
8. J. Crush and C. Ambler (eds.), Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa (Athens and Pietermaritzburg, 1992); P. la Hausse, Brewers, Beerhalls and Boycotts: A History of Liquor in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1988). See also C. van Onselen, 'Randlords and rotgut, 1886-1903', History Workshop, 2 (1976), 33-89.
9. J. Crush and C. Ambler (eds.), Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa (Athens and Pietermaritzburg, 1992); P. la Hausse, Brewers, Beerhalls and Boycotts: A History of Liquor in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1988). See also C. van Onselen, 'Randlords and rotgut, 1886-1903', History Workshop, 2 (1976), 33-89.
10. J. Crush and C. Ambler (eds.), Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa (Athens and Pietermaritzburg, 1992); P. la Hausse, Brewers, Beerhalls and Boycotts: A History of Liquor in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1988). See also C. van Onselen, 'Randlords and rotgut, 1886-1903', History Workshop, 2 (1976), 33-89.
11. C. W. A. Lansdown, South African Liquor Law (Cape Town, 1983), 332-44.
12. See 'Bigger market for wines and brandies', Rand Daily Mail, 17 June 1961.
13. Van Onselen, 'Randlords and rotgut', 32-89. President Kruger's Transvaal Republic was sympathetic to liquor producers.
14. 'They quench their hunger with beer', Star, 19 July 1961; Rand Daily Mail, 19 Oct. 1961.
15. 'They quench their hunger with beer', Star, 19 July 1961; Rand Daily Mail, 19 Oct. 1961.
16. M. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Kampala, Cape Town and London, 1996), 89.
17. M. J. van den Berg, House of Assembly, Debates (19 June 1961), 8353.
18. UG 55/1960, Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the General Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor (Pretoria, 1960), 8. Chairman: Avril Malan. See also, Cape Argus, 19 and 26 Nov. 1956; Star, 7 Sept., 29 Sept., 20 Nov. 1956; Rand Daily Mail, 20 Nov. 1956, 1 July 1961; Daily Dispatch, 1 Oct. 1956; Natal Daily News, 5 Nov. 1956; Natal Mercury, 12 and 18 Feb. 1956.
19. UG 55/1960, Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the General Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor (Pretoria, 1960), 8. Chairman: Avril Malan. See also, Cape Argus, 19 and 26 Nov. 1956; Star, 7 Sept., 29 Sept., 20 Nov. 1956; Rand Daily Mail, 20 Nov. 1956, 1 July 1961; Daily Dispatch, 1 Oct. 1956; Natal Daily News, 5 Nov. 1956; Natal Mercury, 12 and 18 Feb. 1956.
20. UG 55/1960, Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the General Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor (Pretoria, 1960), 8. Chairman: Avril Malan. See also, Cape Argus, 19 and 26 Nov. 1956; Star, 7 Sept., 29 Sept., 20 Nov. 1956; Rand Daily Mail, 20 Nov. 1956, 1 July 1961; Daily Dispatch, 1 Oct. 1956; Natal Daily News, 5 Nov. 1956; Natal Mercury, 12 and 18 Feb. 1956.
21. UG 55/1960, Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the General Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor (Pretoria, 1960), 8. Chairman: Avril Malan. See also, Cape Argus, 19 and 26 Nov. 1956; Star, 7 Sept., 29 Sept., 20 Nov. 1956; Rand Daily Mail, 20 Nov. 1956, 1 July 1961; Daily Dispatch, 1 Oct. 1956; Natal Daily News, 5 Nov. 1956; Natal Mercury, 12 and 18 Feb. 1956.
22. UG 55/1960, Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the General Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor (Pretoria, 1960), 8. Chairman: Avril Malan. See also, Cape Argus, 19 and 26 Nov. 1956; Star, 7 Sept., 29 Sept., 20 Nov. 1956; Rand Daily Mail, 20 Nov. 1956, 1 July 1961; Daily Dispatch, 1 Oct. 1956; Natal Daily News, 5 Nov. 1956; Natal Mercury, 12 and 18 Feb. 1956.
23. UG 55/1960, Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the General Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor (Pretoria, 1960), 8. Chairman: Avril Malan. See also, Cape Argus, 19 and 26 Nov. 1956; Star, 7 Sept., 29 Sept., 20 Nov. 1956; Rand Daily Mail, 20 Nov. 1956, 1 July 1961; Daily Dispatch, 1 Oct. 1956; Natal Daily News, 5 Nov. 1956; Natal Mercury, 12 and 18 Feb. 1956.
24. Rand Daily Mail, 1 July 1961.
25. Argus, 11 May 1960; Report of Commission into Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor, 8.
26. Christian, Living Water, 12.
27. Major General C. I. Rademeyer, Argus, 1 Feb. 1955.
28. Rademeyer, Argus, 1 Feb. 1955.
29. Report of Commission into Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor, 8.
30. Interview, A. Mager with John Seton, retired director and brewer of SAB, Constantia, 30 Oct. 1997.
31. At the time of merger, Ohlssons held approx. 26 per cent of the beer trade, SAB 64 per cent, Chandlers Union Breweries a small share and the Danish Stag brewers 'a tiny little bit': S. J. Constance, Memorandum, no date, South African Breweries Archives (hereafter SAB Archives), 5.
32. Constance, Memorandum, 9.
33. Constance, Memorandum, 13.
34. Interview Harold Moulton with Joss van Niekerk, Director of Brewers Institute of South Africa, 13 Apr. 1987.
35. Josh van Niekerk, graduate of Stellenbosch and Oxford universities was the first head. Interview Josh van Niekerk, 13 Apr. 1987.
36. 'High beer tax may hit non-whites', Rand Daily Mail, 30 June 1961; interview John Seton.
37. CA. Intermediate Archive. Cape Town City Council, Native Affairs Committee Minutes, 25 Sept. 1961; D. L. Smit, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8287; Mr Holland, House of Assembly, Debates, 19 June 1961, 8441.
38. CA. Intermediate Archive. Cape Town City Council, Native Affairs Committee Minutes, 25 Sept. 1961; D. L. Smit, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8287; Mr Holland, House of Assembly, Debates, 19 June 1961, 8441.
39. 'Bantoebier 'n groot bedryf in S.A.', Vaderland, 27 July 1966.
40. Report of Commission into Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor, 8.
41. Report of Commission into Distribution and Selling Prices of Intoxicating Liquor, 6 .
42. 'Four natives in Liquor Bill protest', Argus, 20 June 1961.
43. Minister of Justice, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8287.
44. Minister of Justice, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8287; D. L. Smit, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8292.
45. Minister of Justice, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8287; D. L. Smit, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8292.
46. Smit, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8292.
47. Vaughan, 'Character of the market', 68-9.
48. Cape Times, 24 Apr. 1958.
49. See, for example, West, 'Liquor and libido', 645-67.
50. Smit, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8295; 'Effect of liquor on violent Bantu is feared', Cape Times, 20 June 1961.
51. Smit, House of Assembly, Debates, 16 June 1961, 8295; 'Effect of liquor on violent Bantu is feared', Cape Times, 20 June 1961.
52. Vaughan, 'Character of the market', 68.
53. H. R. Cocking, National Secretary of Temperance Alliance to Argus, 19 Sept. 1958; Temperance Alliance to Cape Times, 29 Jan. 1959; National Council of Women to Malan Commission, reported in Cape Times, 19 Oct. 1958.
54. H. R. Cocking, National Secretary of Temperance Alliance to Argus, 19 Sept. 1958; Temperance Alliance to Cape Times, 29 Jan. 1959; National Council of Women to Malan Commission, reported in Cape Times, 19 Oct. 1958.
55. H. R. Cocking, National Secretary of Temperance Alliance to Argus, 19 Sept. 1958; Temperance Alliance to Cape Times, 29 Jan. 1959; National Council of Women to Malan Commission, reported in Cape Times, 19 Oct. 1958.
56. Lansdown, South African Liquor Law, 332-44.
57. M. C. Botha, Nationalist MP speaking in House of Assembly, reported in Argus, 5 May 1962.
58. J. von S. Moltke, Nationalist MP, Karas, speaking in House of Assembly, reported in Argus, 11 May 1962.
59. 'Luthuli attacks liquor bill', Rand Daily Mail, 18 Aug. 1961; Dr R. T. Bokwe and Thomas Nkosinkulu, 'The beer question', South African Outlook, Nov. 1941.
60. 'Luthuli attacks liquor bill', Rand Daily Mail, 18 Aug. 1961; Dr R. T. Bokwe and Thomas Nkosinkulu, 'The beer question', South African Outlook, Nov. 1941.
61. Witwatersrand University, Archives of the Church of the Province of South Africa, SAIRR Collection, AD 1947/38.1: Bishop A. H. Zulu, Umtata, to South African Institute of Race Relations, 21 Feb. 1961; Federal Council of African Teachers Associations to South African Institute of Race Relations, 4 Apr. 1961; Mangosutho Buthelezi to South African Institute of Race Relations, Apr. 1961.
62. 'Why natives welcome Liquor Bill', Star, 24 June 1961; 'Varied reactions to new Liquor Bill' by Makgona-Tsotlhe in Star, 10 July 1961; 'Africans clamour for drink licences', Rand Daily Mail, 6 July 1961.
63. 'Why natives welcome Liquor Bill', Star, 24 June 1961; 'Varied reactions to new Liquor Bill' by Makgona-Tsotlhe in Star, 10 July 1961; 'Africans clamour for drink licences', Rand Daily Mail, 6 July 1961.
64. 'Why natives welcome Liquor Bill', Star, 24 June 1961; 'Varied reactions to new Liquor Bill' by Makgona-Tsotlhe in Star, 10 July 1961; 'Africans clamour for drink licences', Rand Daily Mail, 6 July 1961.
65. Vaderland, 17 June 1961; Star, 25 Sept. 1961.
66. Vaderland, 17 June 1961; Star, 25 Sept. 1961.
67. Interview, John Seton, 30 Oct. 1997.
68. CA. Intermediate Archive. Cape Town City Council Minutes, Memorandum, Road Safety Council, Pretoria, 17 July, 1962.
69. CA. Intermediate Archive. SA Road Safety notice, Cape Town City Council Minutes, 3 July 1962.
70. Argus, 15 Aug. 1962.
71. CA. Intermediate Archive. Cape Town City Council Minutes, Sept. 1961 to Aug. 1962. Memorandum, Road Safety Council, 17 July 1962.
72. Interview, John Seton, 30 Oct. 1997.
73. Argus, 15 Aug. 1962.
74. Argus, 15 Aug. 1962.
75. Argus, 23 Aug. 1962.
76. Dr J. E. Mathewson, Director of Non-European Affairs, Benoni, reported in Argus, 29 Aug. 1962.
77. Argus, 14 Dec. 1962.
78. Argus, 15 Aug. 1962.
79. Argus, 17 Aug. 1962.
80. Institute of Administrators of Non-European Affairs, Records of Proceedings of 12th Annual Conference, 9-12 July 1963, 123-44.
81. Argus, 22 June 1959; Argus, 26 June 1959; Argus, 30 June 1959.
82. Argus, 22 June 1959; Argus, 26 June 1959; Argus, 30 June 1959.
83. Argus, 22 June 1959; Argus, 26 June 1959; Argus, 30 June 1959.
84. Cape Times, 8 June 1959.
85. Cape Times, 11 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 25 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 1 Sept. 1961.
86. Cape Times, 11 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 25 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 1 Sept. 1961.
87. Cape Times, 11 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 25 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 1 Sept. 1961.
88. Argus, 15 Sept. 1961; Argus, 4 Sept. 1961; CA. Intermediate Archive: Cape Town City Council, Native Affairs Minutes, 14 Sept. 1961 and Cape Town City Council, Native Affairs Minutes, 7 Nov. 1961.
89. Argus, 15 Sept. 1961; Argus, 4 Sept. 1961; CA. Intermediate Archive: Cape Town City Council, Native Affairs Minutes, 14 Sept. 1961 and Cape Town City Council, Native Affairs Minutes, 7 Nov. 1961.
90. Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 1 Sept. 1961; Argus, 4 Sept. 1961.
91. Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 1 Sept. 1961; Argus, 4 Sept. 1961.
92. Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 1 Sept. 1961; Argus, 4 Sept. 1961.
93. Interview, A. Mager with Sister Lydia Mosala, Rondebosch, 29 Apr. 1998.
94. Interview, Sister Lydia Mosala, Apr. 1998.
95. Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 1 Sept. 1961.
96. Cape Times, 26 Aug. 1961; Cape Times, 1 Sept. 1961.
97. Mr G. G. Ndzotyana to City Council, 18 Sept. 1961; CA Intermediate Archive, Cape Town City Council Minutes; Cape Times, 21 Aug. 1961;
98. Cape Times, 13 Oct. 1961; Argus, 11 June 1962.
99. Cape Times, 13 Oct. 1961; Argus, 11 June 1962.
100. Argus, 30 Mar. 1961. The City Council received delegations from the National Council of Women of South Africa Cape Town Branch, the SA Temperance Alliance and Women's Christian Temperance Union of the Cape, Methodist Women's Auxiliaries of the Cape District, Methodist Church of South Africa and the National Council of African Women, Langa branch: CA Intermediate Archive, Cape Town City Council Minutes, 11 June 1962; Argus, 21 Aug. 1961; Argus, 4 Sept. 1961.
101. Argus, 30 Mar. 1961. The City Council received delegations from the National Council of Women of South Africa Cape Town Branch, the SA Temperance Alliance and Women's Christian Temperance Union of the Cape, Methodist Women's Auxiliaries of the Cape District, Methodist Church of South Africa and the National Council of African Women, Langa branch: CA Intermediate Archive, Cape Town City Council Minutes, 11 June 1962; Argus, 21 Aug. 1961; Argus, 4 Sept. 1961.
102. Argus, 30 Mar. 1961. The City Council received delegations from the National Council of Women of South Africa Cape Town Branch, the SA Temperance Alliance and Women's Christian Temperance Union of the Cape, Methodist Women's Auxiliaries of the Cape District, Methodist Church of South Africa and the National Council of African Women, Langa branch: CA Intermediate Archive, Cape Town City Council Minutes, 11 June 1962; Argus, 21 Aug. 1961; Argus, 4 Sept. 1961.
103. Argus, 23 Oct. 1961. After the Group Areas Act in 1967, 'Coloureds' were not allowed to serve on the white council.
104. Argus, 25 Apr. 1962.
105. CA. Intermediate Archive. Memorandum from Native Affairs Committee to the Town Clerk, 28 June 1962; Cape Town City Council Minutes, Sept. 1961 to Aug. 1962.
106. Muriel Horrell, The Liquor Laws (Braamfontein, 1960).
107. Argus, 25 Sept. 1963. The protest from African entrepreneurs in Johannesburg was far stronger. See 'Liquor licences for individual Africans' by Makgona-Tsotlhe in Star, 25 Oct. 1961, and Johannesburg African Chamber of Commerce in Rand Daily Mail, 25 Aug. 1961.
108. Argus, 25 Sept. 1963. The protest from African entrepreneurs in Johannesburg was far stronger. See 'Liquor licences for individual Africans' by Makgona-Tsotlhe in Star, 25 Oct. 1961, and Johannesburg African Chamber of Commerce in Rand Daily Mail, 25 Aug. 1961.
109. Argus, 25 Sept. 1963. The protest from African entrepreneurs in Johannesburg was far stronger. See 'Liquor licences for individual Africans' by Makgona-Tsotlhe in Star, 25 Oct. 1961, and Johannesburg African Chamber of Commerce in Rand Daily Mail, 25 Aug. 1961.
110. CA. Intermediate Archive. Confidential letter from C. B. Young, Secretary of Bantu Administration and Development to Town Clerk, Cape Town, 25 May 1962, Cape Town City Council; also Cape Town City Council Minutes, 3 Oct. 1961.
111. CA. Intermediate Archive, Cape Town City Council Minutes, Native Affairs Agenda, 7 Nov. 1961; applications were advertised in the Cape Argus and 18 columns of notices appeared in the Star, Argus, 31 Oct. 1961.
112. CA. Intermediate Archive, Cape Town City Council Minutes, Native Affairs Agenda, 7 Nov. 1961; applications were advertised in the Cape Argus and 18 columns of notices appeared in the Star, Argus, 31 Oct. 1961.
113. Argus, 30 Aug. 1961.
114. Argus, 25 Oct. 1961.
115. Argus, 15 Jan. 1965.
116. Argus, 9 July 1963.
117. Argus, 1 Oct. 1963; Argus, 22 July 1964.
118. Argus, 1 Oct. 1963; Argus, 22 July 1964.
119. Argus, 15 Aug. 1963.
120. Cape Times, 30 June 1962; CA. Intermediate Archive, Cape Town City Council, Native Affairs Minutes, 3 July 1961.
121. Argus, 21 June 1962; Argus, 18 Apr. 1962; Argus, 2 May 1962; Cape Times, 23 Nov. 1965.
122. Argus, 21 June 1962; Argus, 18 Apr. 1962; Argus, 2 May 1962; Cape Times, 23 Nov. 1965.
123. Argus, 21 June 1962; Argus, 18 Apr. 1962; Argus, 2 May 1962; Cape Times, 23 Nov. 1965.
124. Argus, 21 June 1962; Argus, 18 Apr. 1962; Argus, 2 May 1962; Cape Times, 23 Nov. 1965.
125. Cape Town City Councillor Luntz reported in Argus, 15 Aug. 1963.
126. Luntz in Argus, 15 Aug. 1963; see also Argus, 11 Apr. 1967; Argus, 5 June 1963.
127. Luntz in Argus, 15 Aug. 1963; see also Argus, 11 Apr. 1967; Argus, 5 June 1963.
128. Luntz in Argus, 15 Aug. 1963; see also Argus, 11 Apr. 1967; Argus, 5 June 1963.
129. Lennox Mbokoma to the Argus, 22 Aug. 1962.
130. West, 'Liquor and libido', 645-67.
131. Argus, 29 Sept. 1963.
132. J. L. Rusburne and H. Hamman, A Survey of the Liquor Industry in South Africa, 7, Statsinform, Pty Ltd (July 1972), iv.
133. Judge J. H. Steyn, 'The alcoholic offender', in Medical Proceedings, Sept. 1969, 321; 'Crime wave in wake of liquor freedom', Sunday Times, 9 July 1961.
134. Judge J. H. Steyn, 'The alcoholic offender', in Medical Proceedings, Sept. 1969, 321; 'Crime wave in wake of liquor freedom', Sunday Times, 9 July 1961.
135. 'Centre for African alcoholics', Natal Mercury, 3 May 1969; A. L. Becker, 'Alcoholism', Medical Proceedings, 25 Sept. 1966, 487-8; E. Louw, 'The medical profession and the rehabilitation of the alcoholic', Medical Proceedings, 25 Sept. 1966, 490-3; A. B. Franciscus, 'Summary of reports on discussions conducted at seminars on Alcoholism', Alpha, 7, x, Nov. 1969, 26-8.
136. 'Centre for African alcoholics', Natal Mercury, 3 May 1969; A. L. Becker, 'Alcoholism', Medical Proceedings, 25 Sept. 1966, 487-8; E. Louw, 'The medical profession and the rehabilitation of the alcoholic', Medical Proceedings, 25 Sept. 1966, 490-3; A. B. Franciscus, 'Summary of reports on discussions conducted at seminars on Alcoholism', Alpha, 7, x, Nov. 1969, 26-8.
137. 'Centre for African alcoholics', Natal Mercury, 3 May 1969; A. L. Becker, 'Alcoholism', Medical Proceedings, 25 Sept. 1966, 487-8; E. Louw, 'The medical profession and the rehabilitation of the alcoholic', Medical Proceedings, 25 Sept. 1966, 490-3; A. B. Franciscus, 'Summary of reports on discussions conducted at seminars on Alcoholism', Alpha, 7, x, Nov. 1969, 26-8.
138. 'Centre for African alcoholics', Natal Mercury, 3 May 1969; A. L. Becker, 'Alcoholism', Medical Proceedings, 25 Sept. 1966, 487-8; E. Louw, 'The medical profession and the rehabilitation of the alcoholic', Medical Proceedings, 25 Sept. 1966, 490-3; A. B. Franciscus, 'Summary of reports on discussions conducted at seminars on Alcoholism', Alpha, 7, x, Nov. 1969, 26-8.
139. 'Drink has biggest impact on better-paid', Rand Daily Mail, 26 June 1967; 'Fight against alcohol', Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1967; 'We can't fire every teacher who drinks', Natal Mercury, 2 Aug. 1971.
140. 'Drink has biggest impact on better-paid', Rand Daily Mail, 26 June 1967; 'Fight against alcohol', Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1967; 'We can't fire every teacher who drinks', Natal Mercury, 2 Aug. 1971.
141. 'Drink has biggest impact on better-paid', Rand Daily Mail, 26 June 1967; 'Fight against alcohol', Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1967; 'We can't fire every teacher who drinks', Natal Mercury, 2 Aug. 1971.
142. D. H. Reader, 'Sociological aspects of alcoholism', Psychologica Africana, 10 (1964), 197-205.
143. CA. Intermediate Archive. City of Cape Town Bantu Affairs Committee Minutes, Sept. 1964 to Mar. 1965. Confidential Memoranda from the City Treasurer, to the Bantu Affairs Committee, Cape Town City Council, 8 Nov. 1963; 27 Dec. 1963; 15 Jan. 1964; 4 Feb. 1964; 25 May 1964; 26 June 1964; 20 Aug. 1964; 24 Sept. 1964; 30 Nov. 1964; 28 Jan. 1965.
144. Interview, A. Mager with P. Mpayipeli, Langa, July 1998.
145. 'Twee miljoen gelling bantoebier per maand', Transvaler, 2 May 1968; 'Bantu beer is booming', Pretoria News, 29 Dec. 1964; 'Beer pays for Bantu sport', Pretoria News, 9 May 1964; 'Soweto angry at shortage of beer', Rand Daily Mail, 31 Mar. 1964.
146. 'Twee miljoen gelling bantoebier per maand', Transvaler, 2 May 1968; 'Bantu beer is booming', Pretoria News, 29 Dec. 1964; 'Beer pays for Bantu sport', Pretoria News, 9 May 1964; 'Soweto angry at shortage of beer', Rand Daily Mail, 31 Mar. 1964.
147. 'Twee miljoen gelling bantoebier per maand', Transvaler, 2 May 1968; 'Bantu beer is booming', Pretoria News, 29 Dec. 1964; 'Beer pays for Bantu sport', Pretoria News, 9 May 1964; 'Soweto angry at shortage of beer', Rand Daily Mail, 31 Mar. 1964.
148. 'Twee miljoen gelling bantoebier per maand', Transvaler, 2 May 1968; 'Bantu beer is booming', Pretoria News, 29 Dec. 1964; 'Beer pays for Bantu sport', Pretoria News, 9 May 1964; 'Soweto angry at shortage of beer', Rand Daily Mail, 31 Mar. 1964.
149. 'Bantu beer is booming', Pretoria News, 29 Dec. 1964; Rusburne and Hamman, Liquor Industry, 7, Statsinform Pty Ltd (July 1972), 33-8.
150. 'Bantu beer is booming', Pretoria News, 29 Dec. 1964; Rusburne and Hamman, Liquor Industry, 7, Statsinform Pty Ltd (July 1972), 33-8.
151. 'Surplus' was calculated on the basis of income and expenditure on BAAB current accounts. In 1971, the surplus for Soweto was R170,000 against expenditure of R11,222,000, and for Pretoria's townships, the surplus was R298,000 against expenditure of R5,760,000: 'Sales of Bantu beer soar', Star, 11 Jan. 1971; 'Drink up for bantustan', Star editorial, 8 Oct. 1968; 'R1m beer profit for homelands', Friends, 31 Aug. 1968.
152. 'Surplus' was calculated on the basis of income and expenditure on BAAB current accounts. In 1971, the surplus for Soweto was R170,000 against expenditure of R11,222,000, and for Pretoria's townships, the surplus was R298,000 against expenditure of R5,760,000: 'Sales of Bantu beer soar', Star, 11 Jan. 1971; 'Drink up for bantustan', Star editorial, 8 Oct. 1968; 'R1m beer profit for homelands', Friends, 31 Aug. 1968.
153. 'Surplus' was calculated on the basis of income and expenditure on BAAB current accounts. In 1971, the surplus for Soweto was R170,000 against expenditure of R11,222,000, and for Pretoria's townships, the surplus was R298,000 against expenditure of R5,760,000: 'Sales of Bantu beer soar', Star, 11 Jan. 1971; 'Drink up for bantustan', Star editorial, 8 Oct. 1968; 'R1m beer profit for homelands', Friends, 31 Aug. 1968.
154. 'Beer is better than brandy in Soweto', Rand Daily Mail, 20 Oct. 1964; Rand Daily Mail, 14 Aug. 1961.
155. 'Beer is better than brandy in Soweto', Rand Daily Mail, 20 Oct. 1964; Rand Daily Mail, 14 Aug. 1961.
156. CA. Intermediate Archive, City of Cape Town Bantu Affairs Committe Minutes, Sept. 1964 to Mar. 1965. Confidential Memorandum from the City Treasurer to the Bantu Affairs Committee, Cape Town City Council, 28 Jan. 1965.
157. Interview, John Seton, 30 Oct. 1997.
158. Excise on beer was increased in 1958, 1962, 1966, 1967 and 1969: Wine, Spirit and Malt, Mar. 1968, 4-6; 'Over R352m spent on liquor in South Africa', Evening Post, 10 July 1969; Rand Daily Mail, 13 May 1960.
159. Excise on beer was increased in 1958, 1962, 1966, 1967 and 1969: Wine, Spirit and Malt, Mar. 1968, 4-6; 'Over R352m spent on liquor in South Africa', Evening Post, 10 July 1969; Rand Daily Mail, 13 May 1960.
160. Excise on beer was increased in 1958, 1962, 1966, 1967 and 1969: Wine, Spirit and Malt, Mar. 1968, 4-6; 'Over R352m spent on liquor in South Africa', Evening Post, 10 July 1969; Rand Daily Mail, 13 May 1960.
161. SAB, Data, Mar. 1963.
162. S. Emdin, MP for Parktown, Rand Daily Mail, 23 Aug. 1966.
163. Sheldon Wilson, 'SAB Marketing Report, 1958-1960', SAB Archives.
164. Sunday Times, 18 Sept. 1966.
165. Rand Daily Mail, 20 Aug. 1966.
166. Interview H. Moulton with Dr Frans Cronje, ex-Chairman SAB, Johannesburg, n.d., SAB Archives.
167. South African Breweries, 'Keeping pace: the story of the first 75 years of the SAB Group', 1970.
168. Constance, Memorandum.
169. Constance, Memorandum.
170. 'Biggest drink problem in the world: Soweto's thriving shebeens', Star, 18 Sept. 1969; Leslie Xinwa, 'What keeps shebeens alive', Daily Dispatch, 2 Oct. 1971.
171. 'Biggest drink problem in the world: Soweto's thriving shebeens', Star, 18 Sept. 1969; Leslie Xinwa, 'What keeps shebeens alive', Daily Dispatch, 2 Oct. 1971.
172. 'New shebeen is high class', Star, 27 May 1964; 'Police hit shebeens in swoop', Rand Daily Mail, 30 Apr. 1964; Isaac Mathe, 'And now drinking clubs', Star, 3 Mar. 1964; Nat Nakasa, 'And so the shebeen lives on', Rand Daily Mail, 21 May 1964; 'Police crack down on shebeens', Natal Mercury, 5 Aug. 1964.
173. 'New shebeen is high class', Star, 27 May 1964; 'Police hit shebeens in swoop', Rand Daily Mail, 30 Apr. 1964; Isaac Mathe, 'And now drinking clubs', Star, 3 Mar. 1964; Nat Nakasa, 'And so the shebeen lives on', Rand Daily Mail, 21 May 1964; 'Police crack down on shebeens', Natal Mercury, 5 Aug. 1964.
174. 'New shebeen is high class', Star, 27 May 1964; 'Police hit shebeens in swoop', Rand Daily Mail, 30 Apr. 1964; Isaac Mathe, 'And now drinking clubs', Star, 3 Mar. 1964; Nat Nakasa, 'And so the shebeen lives on', Rand Daily Mail, 21 May 1964; 'Police crack down on shebeens', Natal Mercury, 5 Aug. 1964.
175. 'New shebeen is high class', Star, 27 May 1964; 'Police hit shebeens in swoop', Rand Daily Mail, 30 Apr. 1964; Isaac Mathe, 'And now drinking clubs', Star, 3 Mar. 1964; Nat Nakasa, 'And so the shebeen lives on', Rand Daily Mail, 21 May 1964; 'Police crack down on shebeens', Natal Mercury, 5 Aug. 1964.
176. 'New shebeen is high class', Star, 27 May 1964; 'Police hit shebeens in swoop', Rand Daily Mail, 30 Apr. 1964; Isaac Mathe, 'And now drinking clubs', Star, 3 Mar. 1964; Nat Nakasa, 'And so the shebeen lives on', Rand Daily Mail, 21 May 1964; 'Police crack down on shebeens', Natal Mercury, 5 Aug. 1964.
177. Interview, A. Mager with Cooksie Senne, shebeener since the 1960s, Soweto, 8 July 1998; 'R1,000 fine for liquor offence', Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1964; 'Shebeens in Soweto upset city' in The Sunday Times, 22 Jan. 1967; 'Twelve arrested in shebeen raids', Star, 21 June 1967.
178. Interview, A. Mager with Cooksie Senne, shebeener since the 1960s, Soweto, 8 July 1998; 'R1,000 fine for liquor offence', Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1964; 'Shebeens in Soweto upset city' in The Sunday Times, 22 Jan. 1967; 'Twelve arrested in shebeen raids', Star, 21 June 1967.
179. Interview, A. Mager with Cooksie Senne, shebeener since the 1960s, Soweto, 8 July 1998; 'R1,000 fine for liquor offence', Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1964; 'Shebeens in Soweto upset city' in The Sunday Times, 22 Jan. 1967; 'Twelve arrested in shebeen raids', Star, 21 June 1967.
180. The Johannesburg City Council reported that while profits on bantu beer sales were R2.8 million in 1969, sales were declining; 'Africans switch to white liquor', The Sunday Times, 15 Feb. 1970; 'Soweto liquor bill - R16m', Star, 16 Apr. 1970.
181. The Johannesburg City Council reported that while profits on bantu beer sales were R2.8 million in 1969, sales were declining; 'Africans switch to white liquor', The Sunday Times, 15 Feb. 1970; 'Soweto liquor bill - R16m', Star, 16 Apr. 1970.
182. 'Africans switch to white liquor', Sunday Times, 15 Feb. 1970; 'African drinking habits change', Star, 20 May 1971.
183. 'Africans switch to white liquor', Sunday Times, 15 Feb. 1970; 'African drinking habits change', Star, 20 May 1971.
184. Interview, Cooksie Senne, 8 July 1998; interview, A. Mager with 'Big Mike', Soweto, 8 July 1998; 'Just why shebeens stay in business', Rand Daily Mail, 20 July 1967; 'The Soweto shebeen raids are necessary', Star, 22 July 1967; 'Shebeens: where the trouble lies', Star, 18 Aug. 1967.
185. Interview, Cooksie Senne, 8 July 1998; interview, A. Mager with 'Big Mike', Soweto, 8 July 1998; 'Just why shebeens stay in business', Rand Daily Mail, 20 July 1967; 'The Soweto shebeen raids are necessary', Star, 22 July 1967; 'Shebeens: where the trouble lies', Star, 18 Aug. 1967.
186. Interview, Cooksie Senne, 8 July 1998; interview, A. Mager with 'Big Mike', Soweto, 8 July 1998; 'Just why shebeens stay in business', Rand Daily Mail, 20 July 1967; 'The Soweto shebeen raids are necessary', Star, 22 July 1967; 'Shebeens: where the trouble lies', Star, 18 Aug. 1967.
187. 'Gifts of white liquor', Star, 27 Jan. 1971.
188. 'Africans make bid to sell liquor', Daily Dispatch, 31 Oct. 1964.
189. SAB, 'Keeping pace', 1970.
190. SAB, 'Keeping pace', 1970.
191. Vaughan, 'Character of the market', 67.
192. Interview, H. Moulton with Dick Sutton, Group Personnel Manager from 1971, Johannesburg, 19 Apr. 1990.