Nation-building and curriculum reform in Hong Kong and Taiwan

China Quarterly

Volumn , Issue 160, 1999, Pages 977-991

  Hughes, Christopher ^a   Stone, Robert ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CURRICULUM; NATION STATE; REFORM PROCESS; STATE BUILDING;

CHINA; HONG KONG; TAIWAN;

EID: 0033397814     PISSN: 00094439     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0305741000001405     Document Type: Article

References (67)

1. Taking Taiwan's democratization as starting with the illegal but unopposed establishment of the Democratic Progressive Party on .28 September 1986.
2. Bernard Hung-kay Luk, "Chinese culture in the Hong Kong curriculum: heritage and colonialism," Comparative Education Review, Vol. 35, (November 1991), pp. 650-668.
3. Antony Sweeting. "Hong Kong education in historical processes," in Gérard A. Postiglione (ed.). Education and Society in Hong Kong (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1996), p. 43.
4. Jeffrey E. Meyer, 'Teaching morality in Taiwan schools: the message of textbooks," The China Quarterly, No. 114 (June 1988), pp. 267-284. Richard W. Wilson, The Political Socialization of Children in Taiwan (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1970), and The Moral State: A Study of the Political Socialisation of Chinese and American Children. (New York & London: The Free Press, 1974).
5. On the relationship between democratization and national identity in Taiwan see Christopher Hughes. Taiwan and Chinese Nationalism: National Identity and Status in International Society (New York & London: Routledge, 1997). Alan Wachman. Taiwan: National Identity and Democratization (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994). -
6. For a detailed account of this bureaucracy, see Paul Morris, "Preparing pupils as citizens of the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong: an analysis of curriculum change and control during the transition period," in Postiglione, Education and Society, pp. 120-21.
7. Taiwan introduced the compulsory nine-year system in 1968, consisting of six years of elementary school and three years of junior high, or "middle" school. Hong Kong introduced a nine-year system in 1978, consisting of six years of primary school followed by three years of junior secondary. In both societies there is a high continuation rate into senior high school/senior secondary school. This article focuses on the curricula for the compulsory period only.
8. Curriculum Development Council (CDC), Guidelines on Civic Education in Schools (Hong Kong: Education Department, 1985).
9. CDC, Guidelines on Civic Education in Schools (Hong Kong: Education Department, 1996).
10. The importance of maintaining Hong Kong's global outlook if the territory is to maintain its competitive edge is mentioned in some detail with relationship to English language teaching, in Education Commission Report No. 6 (Main Report). (Hong Kong: Education Department, 1995), p. 1. On Hong Kong's transient society see Sweeting, "Hong Kong education within historical processes," pp. 65-69.
11. Li Yixian, "On the characteristics, strong points, and shortcomings of education in Hong Kong: a mainland educator's view of education in Hong Kong," in Postiglione, Education and Society in Hong Kong, p. 254.
12. The concept of "two Chinas" refers to the ROC and the PRC, and has become especially sensitive since the ROC on Taiwan changed its policy to advocating a policy of dual recognition in the UN in 1993.
13. Ming bao, 28 December 1996.
14. South China Morning Post (SCMP), 23 March 1997, p. Al.
15. Jiaoyu bu (Ministry of Education), Guomin xiaoxue kecheng biaozhun (National Elementary School Curriculum) (Taipei: Jiaoyu bu, 1993).
16. Ministry of Education, Guomin zliongxue kecheng biaozJnin (National Middle School Curriculum) (Taipei: Jiaoyu bu, 1994).
17. Yun-han Chu and Tse-min Lin, "The process of democratic consolidation in Taiwan: social cleavage, electoral competition and the emerging party system," in Hung-mao Tien (ed.), Taiwan's Electoral Politics and Democratic Transition: Riding the Third Wave (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1996), p. 82.
18. For a history and analysis of the education reform movement see Pi Hsiao-hua (Bi Xiaohua), Taiwan minjian jiaoyu gaige yundong: guojia yu shehui defenxi (Taiwan 's Civil Education Reform Movement: Analysis of State and Society) (Taipei: Qianwei, 1996).
19. Ibid. pp. 268-69.
20. By the mid-1980s more than 70% of the KMT's members were "native" Taiwanese, as in being born in Taiwan before the armed forces of the ROC took the Japanese surrender in 1945 or being the descendants of such people. Lucian Pye, 'Taiwan's political development and its implications for Beijing," Asian Survey, June 1986, pp. 618-19.
21. CDC, Guidelines (1996), pp. 22-23.
22. Ibid. p. 5.
23. Ministry of Education, Cuomin xiaoxue kecheng biaodiun, p. 159.
24. For a concise survey of theories of identity as they relate to social formations see William Bloom, Personal Identity, National Identity and International Relations. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 25-53.
25. Lynn White and Li Cheng, "China coast identities: regional, national, and global," in Lowell Dittmcrand Samuel S. Kim (eds.). China 's Quest for National Identity (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 154.
26. CDC, Guidelines (1996), pp. 35-37.
27. Ibid. p. 24.
28. National Middle School Curriculum (1972), pp. 100-102, (1983). p. 97.
29. National Middle School Curriculum (1983), p. 36.
30. National Middle School Curriculum (1972), p. 30.
31. National Middle School Curriculum (1983), p. 36
32. National Elementary School Curriculum (1993).
33. CDC, Guidelines (1996), pp. 22-23.
34. Ibid. p. 35.
35. Ibid. pp. 35-36.
36. Ibid. pp. 12-15.
37. Ibid. p. 15.
38. Ibid. p. 15.
39. Ibid. p. 23.
40. Ibid. p. 24.
41. See for example his speech on youth affairs of 20 December 1997, Wenhui bao, 21 December 1997, p. A12.
42. SCMP, 7 March 1998.
43. There is, for example, widespread resistance to the Education Department policy of promoting Chinese as the medium of general instruction at the expense of English. Parents and students reacted angrily to directives in September and December 1997 which decided that the majority of schools should work towards using Chinese as the medium of instruction. The outrage this provoked among parents worried about the detrimental effect this could have on career opportunities meant that by March 1998 the Education Department had significantly to loosen the criteria determining which schools would have to use Chinese.
44. Hong Kong Economic Journal, editorial, 24 December 1997.
45. In August 1997 the NICT produced three standard textbooks for "Know Taiwan": Renshi Taiwan lishipian (Know Taiwan History Volume), Renshl Taiwan shehuipian (Know Taiwan Society Volume) and Renshi Taiwan dili pian (Know Taiwan Geography Volume).
46. Know Taiwan Society Volume, pp. 11-14. The Society volume does refer to some of the residents of Taiwan as being Zhonghua ren which means "people of Chinese culture," and huazu which means "ethnic Chinese," as distinct from the more political Zhongguoren and Zlionghua minzu which are closer to meaning "people of the Chinese state" and "the Chinese nation" respectively.
47. Wang Hsiao-po et al., " 'Renshi Taiwanlishi pian xiuding" ("Corrections to the history volume of 'Know Taiwan', " in Taiwan shi yanjiuhui (ed.), Renshi Taiwan jiaoke shu (The Know Taiwan Textbook) (Taipei: Taiwan shi yanjiuhui, 1997), p. 53.
48. Know Taiwan Society Volume, p. 63.
49. Chen Yingzhen (Chen Ying-chen), "Yi ge.'xin shi guande pozhan" ("The hole in a 'new view of history' "), in Taiwan shi yanjiuhui, The Know Taiwan Textbook, pp. 77-84. It may be of interest to point out here that because Taiwan was ceded by the Qing dynasty to Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895), in terms of international law the Japanese occupation was legal. Of course, whether one accepts this, which neither the ROC nor the PRC government has done, depends on the status one gives to international law in the period of empire building.
50. Executive Yuan, Guidelines for National Unification (Taipei: Executive Yuan, 14 March 1991).
51. Wang Hsiao-po et al., "Corrections to the history volume," p. 54.
52. Know Taiwan Society Volume, p. 90.
53. Wang Hsiao-po et al., "Corrections to the history volume," p. 9.
54. National Middle School Curriculum (1994), pp. 854-55.
55. In a speech on 8 August 1991. Lee Teng-hui credited this idea to the German concept of Gemeinschaft as found in Goethe and Kant ("From uncertainty to pragmatism - the shape of the age to come," speech to university professors. 8 August 1991, reprinted in Lee Teng-hui, Creating the Future (Taipei 1992), p. 117). Peng Ming-min, though, takes the credit himself (see Peng Ming-min Educational Foundation (ed.), Peng Mingmin kan Taiwan (Peng Ming-min Views Taiwan) (Taipei 1994). p. 29). Chinese nationalist stalwarts in Taiwan such as Hsu Li-nong (Xu Linong) of the "New Tong Meng Hui," also credit it to Peng Ming-min (see Hsu's comments in Lianhe bao, 20 June 1993). So do mainland-Chinese Taiwan watchers, such as He Biao in "Luntan Taiwan 'mingyun gongtongti' " ("Discussion of a Taiwan 'community of shared destiny"), Taisheng, Beijing No. 107 (1993), pp. 6-7.
56. This point is made by Wang Chung-fu of the Department of History at National Taiwan Normal University, among others, in "Dui yu 'renshi Taiwanjiaoke shu zhi ying you de renshi" ("Concerning what should be known about 'Know Taiwan"). in Taiwan shi yanjiuhui (ed.). The Know Taiwan Textbook, pp. 6-7.
57. CDC, Guidelines (1996), p. 75.
58. Tu Cheng-sheng "Bentu-Zhongguo-shijie" ("Native land-China-the world"), Zliongguo sliibao (China Times), 25 May 1994, p. 11; "Lishi jiaoyu yao ruhe songbang" ("How should the fetters be released from history teaching") Lianhe bao (United Daily News), 23 January 1995, p. 11; "Yi ge xin shi guan de dansheng" ("The birth of a new view of history"), Dangdai, No. 120 (1 August 1997), pp. 20-30; "Cong 'renshi Taiwanzuotan lishi jiaoyu" ("A seminar on historical education from 'Know Taiwan' "), Dangdai, No. 120, 1 August 1997, pp. 55-67.
59. National Middle School Curriculum (1994), p. 1.
60. This point is made by Lin Fu-shih of the Academia Sinica's institute of history and philology, who co-authored the draft of the Society volume, in defence of the use of the terminology 'Taiwan's 400 years of Tragic History." Know Taiwan Society Volume, p. 66. See Lianhe bao, 7 June 1997, p. 11.
61. The concept of "political literacy" was argued for by Britain's Hansard Society in 1974 in the context of developing political education in Britain. See John Annette. "Citizenship and higher education: an historical overview," paper delivered at the Political Studies Annual Conference, Britain, 1997, p.5.
62. CDC. Guidelines (1996), p. 6.
63. Ibid. p. 14. 64. Ibid. p. 73.
64. Julian Y.M. Leung, "Education in Hong Kong and China: toward convergence?" in Postiglione, Education and Society in Hong Kong, p. 266.
65. On "conservative moralism" and other approaches to civic education see Jacques S. Benninga, "Moral and character education in the elementary school: an introduction," in Benninga (ed.), Moral Character and Civic Education in the Elementary School (New York: Teachers College Press, 1991), pp. 3-20.
66. John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: Macmillan, 1963, originally 1916), p. 87.
67. Thomas Kwan-cho Tse, The Poverty of Political Education in Hong Kong Secondary Schools (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, Chinese University, 1997), p. 17.