Children's experience of the physical environment in poor urban settlements and the implications for policy, planning and practice

Environment and Urbanization

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 63-73

  Bartlett, Sheridan ^a,b,c  

^a INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT   (United Kingdom)

^b CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^c NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHILD DEVELOPMENT; POVERTY; SOCIAL POLICY; URBAN PLANNING;

EID: 0033371322     PISSN: 09562478     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1630/095624799101285093     Document Type: Article

References (64)

1. This calculation was presented in Hardoy, Jorge et al (editors) (1990), The Poor Die Young: Housing and Health in Third World Cities, Earthscan, London; and subsequently endorsed by the World Commission on Health and Environment (1992), Our Planet, Our Health, WHO, Geneva.
2. This calculation was presented in Hardoy, Jorge et al (editors) (1990), The Poor Die Young: Housing and Health in Third World Cities, Earthscan, London; and subsequently endorsed by the World Commission on Health and Environment (1992), Our Planet, Our Health, WHO, Geneva.
3. The Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted in 1989 and ratified by all but two member countries of the United Nations, recognizes children's right to a standard of living adequate for physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development (Article 27). Also relevant here are the right to the highest attainable standard of health (Article 24), the right to play and recreation (Article 31) and the right to be protected from all forms of negligence and abuse (Article 19) (since, as will be discussed below, abuse and negligence can be unfortunate responses to overly challenging living conditions).
4. Satterthwaite, D. (1997), The Scale and Nature of International Donor Assistance to Housing, Basic Services and Other Human Settlements Related Projects, WIDER, Helsinki.
5. Save the Children's international coalition, for instance, has been involved in the provision of basic services in a number of areas; and Plan International focuses a good deal of attention on the physical environment as part of its "habitat" programmes. UNICEF has dedicated a larger percentage of its budget to water and sanitation than is the case, on average, for most donor countries and development agencies although most of this assistance goes to rural areas; see Satterthwaite, D. and N. Crawhill (1997), Development Assistance to Water and Sanitation: A Partial (draft) Overview, prepared for a January 1997 workshop for a collaborative research project on Domestic Water Use and Environmental Health in East Africa, IIED, London.
6. See reference 4, Satterthwaite and Crawhill (1997).
7. Rakesh Rajani, in a presentation at the Urban Childhood conference, Trondheim, Norway, June 1997. I have also found, repeatedly, that even knowledgeable development professionals, on hearing that I am involved in 'children's issues', assume that I do research on street children.
8. Stephens, C. (1996), "Research on urban environmental health" in Atkinson, S., J. Songsore and E. Werna (editors), Urban Health Research in Developing Countries: Implications for Policy, CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
9. WHO (1995), The World Health Report 1995: Bridging the Gaps, World Health Organization, Geneva.
10. Stephens, C. (1996), "Healthy cities or unhealthy islands? The health and social implications of urban inequality", Environment and Urbanization Vol.8, No.2, pages 9-30; also UNICEF (1998), The State of the World's Children 1998, Oxford University Press, New York.
11. Stephens, C. (1996), "Healthy cities or unhealthy islands? The health and social implications of urban inequality", Environment and Urbanization Vol.8, No.2, pages 9-30; also UNICEF (1998), The State of the World's Children 1998, Oxford University Press, New York.
12. Murray, C.J.L. and A.D. Lopez (1996), The Global Burden of Disease, Harvard University Press, Boston.
13. Hawes, H. (1994), "Children and water", Oasis, WaterAid, Intermediate Technology, Autumn/Winter 1994.
14. Orner, M.I.A. (1990), "Child health in the spontaneous settlements around Khartoum", Environment and Urbanization Vol.2, No.2, pages 65-76.
15. Aina, T.A. (1990), "Housing and health in Olaleye-Iponri" in Hardoy, J.E., S. Cairncross and D. Satterthwaite (editors), The Poor Die Young, Earthscan, London.
16. UNICEF (1999), The State of the World's Children 1999.
17. Afsar, R. (1999), "Rural-urban dichotomy and convergence: emerging realities in Bangladesh", Environment and Urbanization Vol.11, No.1, pages 235-247.
18. Cairncross, S. (1990), "Water supply and the urban poor" in Hardoy, Cairncross and Satterthwaite (see reference 13).
19. Lindskog, P. and J. Lundqvist (1998), Why Poor Children Stay Sick: The Human Ecology of Child Health and Welfare in Rural Malawi, Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala.
20. Nicol, A. (1998), Carrying the Can: Children and their Water Environments, Save the Children UK, London.
21. See reference 18.
22. Johnson, V., J. Hill et al. (1995), Listening to Smaller Voices: Children in an Environment of Change, Actionaid, Chard, Somerset UK; also reference 18, Nicol (1998).
23. Feachem, R.G., D.J. Bradley et al. (1993), Sanitation and Disease: Health Aspects of Excreta and Waste Management, John Wiley and Sons, for the World Bank, Chichester, UK.
24. See reference 17; also UBS (1990), Urban Basic Services: A Community Profile, Biratnagar, Nepal, prepared for Biratnagar Municipality, Ministry of Local Development, HMG/Nepal and UNICEF.
25. SPARC, Mahila Milan and National Slum Dwellers Federation (1998), "Bangalore: taking children's toilet needs seriously at Viyamshala Gymkhana", Citywatch: India No.6, page 20.
26. Cairncross, S. and E.A.R. Ouano (1990), Surface Water Drainage in Low-income Communities, World Health Organization, Geneva.
27. See, for instance, Awasthi, S., H.A. Glick, and R.H. Fletcher (1996), "Effect of cooking fuels on respiratory diseases in pre-school children in Lucknow, India", American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Vol.55, No.1, pages 48-51; also Collings, D.A., S.D. Sithole and K.S. Martin (1990), "Indoor woodsmoke pollution causing lower respiratory disease in children", Tropical Doctor Vol.20, No.4, pages 151-155; Clauson-Kaas, J., C. Surjadi et al. (1997), Crowding and Health in Low-income Settlements: Kali Anyar, Jakarta, Avebury, Aldershot UK; and Yang, C.Y., J.F. Chiu, H.F. Chiu and W.Y. Kao (1997), "Damp housing conditions and respiratory symptoms in primary school children", Pediatric Pulmonology Vol.24, No.2, pages 73-77.
28. See, for instance, Awasthi, S., H.A. Glick, and R.H. Fletcher (1996), "Effect of cooking fuels on respiratory diseases in pre-school children in Lucknow, India", American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Vol.55, No.1, pages 48-51; also Collings, D.A., S.D. Sithole and K.S. Martin (1990), "Indoor woodsmoke pollution causing lower respiratory disease in children", Tropical Doctor Vol.20, No.4, pages 151-155; Clauson-Kaas, J., C. Surjadi et al. (1997), Crowding and Health in Low-income Settlements: Kali Anyar, Jakarta, Avebury, Aldershot UK; and Yang, C.Y., J.F. Chiu, H.F. Chiu and W.Y. Kao (1997), "Damp housing conditions and respiratory symptoms in primary school children", Pediatric Pulmonology Vol.24, No.2, pages 73-77.
29. See, for instance, Awasthi, S., H.A. Glick, and R.H. Fletcher (1996), "Effect of cooking fuels on respiratory diseases in pre-school children in Lucknow, India", American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Vol.55, No.1, pages 48-51; also Collings, D.A., S.D. Sithole and K.S. Martin (1990), "Indoor woodsmoke pollution causing lower respiratory disease in children", Tropical Doctor Vol.20, No.4, pages 151-155; Clauson-Kaas, J., C. Surjadi et al. (1997), Crowding and Health in Low-income Settlements: Kali Anyar, Jakarta, Avebury, Aldershot UK; and Yang, C.Y., J.F. Chiu, H.F. Chiu and W.Y. Kao (1997), "Damp housing conditions and respiratory symptoms in primary school children", Pediatric Pulmonology Vol.24, No.2, pages 73-77.
30. See, for instance, Awasthi, S., H.A. Glick, and R.H. Fletcher (1996), "Effect of cooking fuels on respiratory diseases in pre-school children in Lucknow, India", American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene Vol.55, No.1, pages 48-51; also Collings, D.A., S.D. Sithole and K.S. Martin (1990), "Indoor woodsmoke pollution causing lower respiratory disease in children", Tropical Doctor Vol.20, No.4, pages 151-155; Clauson-Kaas, J., C. Surjadi et al. (1997), Crowding and Health in Low-income Settlements: Kali Anyar, Jakarta, Avebury, Aldershot UK; and Yang, C.Y., J.F. Chiu, H.F. Chiu and W.Y. Kao (1997), "Damp housing conditions and respiratory symptoms in primary school children", Pediatric Pulmonology Vol.24, No.2, pages 73-77.
31. Davey, and Lightbody (1987), The Control of Disease in the Tropics: A Handbook for Physicians and Other Workers in Tropical and International Community Health, 5th edition (revised by David Stevenson) H.K. Lewis and Co., London
32. UNICEF (1998), State of the World's Children 1998 is devoted to nutrition and provides an excellent summary of the issues.
33. See reference 27.
34. Satterthwaite, D., R. Hart and others (1996), The Environment for Children, Earthscan, London; also see reference 27.
35. Hughes, B. (1999), "Does play work have a neurological rationale?", Proceedings of the 1999 PlayEducation Conference, PlayEducation, Ely, UK.
36. Wohlwill, J. and H. Heft (1987), "The physical environment and the development of the child" in Stokols, D. and I. Altman (editors), Handbook of Environmental Psychology, Wiley, New York.
37. Bartlett, S., R. Hart, D. Satterthwaite et al. (1999), Cities for Children: Children's Rights, Poverty and Urban Management, Earthscan, London.
38. Manciaux, M. and C. Romer (1991), Accidents in Childhood and Adolescence: The Role of Research, World Health Organization, Geneva.
39. Zimba, R.F. and B. Otaala (1991), "Child care and development in Uukwaludhi, northern Namibia", paper presented at the workshop on Child Rearing Practices and Beliefs, Windhoek, Namibia, October 26-29, 1993.
40. Pfeffer, K. and P. Barnecutt (1996), "Children's auditory perception of movement of traffic sounds", Child Care Health Development Vol.22, No.2, pages 129-137.
41. Kibel, M.A. and L.A. Wagstaff (editors) (1995), Child Health for All: A Manual for Southern Africa, Oxford University Press, Capetown.
42. Berger, L.R. and D. Mohan (1996), Injury Control: A Global View, Oxford University Press, Delhi.
43. Edet, E.E. (1996), "Agent and nature of childhood injury and initial care provided at the community level in Ibadan, Nigeria", Central African Journal of Medicine Vol.42, No.12, pages 347-349; also Janson, S., M. Aleco et al. (1994), "Accident risks for suburban pre-school Jordanian children", Journal of Tropical Pediatrics Vol.40, pages 88-93; and Reichenheim, M.E. and T. Harpham (1989), "Child accidents and associated risk factors in a Brazilian squatter settlement", Health Policy and Planning Vol.4, No.2, pages 162-167.
44. Edet, E.E. (1996), "Agent and nature of childhood injury and initial care provided at the community level in Ibadan, Nigeria", Central African Journal of Medicine Vol.42, No.12, pages 347-349; also Janson, S., M. Aleco et al. (1994), "Accident risks for suburban pre-school Jordanian children", Journal of Tropical Pediatrics Vol.40, pages 88-93; and Reichenheim, M.E. and T. Harpham (1989), "Child accidents and associated risk factors in a Brazilian squatter settlement", Health Policy and Planning Vol.4, No.2, pages 162-167.
45. Edet, E.E. (1996), "Agent and nature of childhood injury and initial care provided at the community level in Ibadan, Nigeria", Central African Journal of Medicine Vol.42, No.12, pages 347-349; also Janson, S., M. Aleco et al. (1994), "Accident risks for suburban pre-school Jordanian children", Journal of Tropical Pediatrics Vol.40, pages 88-93; and Reichenheim, M.E. and T. Harpham (1989), "Child accidents and associated risk factors in a Brazilian squatter settlement", Health Policy and Planning Vol.4, No.2, pages 162-167.
46. Environment and Urbanization Vol.6, No.1 (April 1994) focuses on evictions and discusses many of these concerns; also Lynette Ochola's paper, "The impact of evictions and homelessness on children in sub-Saharan Africa", presented to the UNICEF/UNCHS workshop on Children's Rights, Housing and Neighbourhood, 1996.
47. Environment and Urbanization Vol.6, No.1 (April 1994) focuses on evictions and discusses many of these concerns; also Lynette Ochola's paper, "The impact of evictions and homelessness on children in sub-Saharan Africa", presented to the UNICEF/UNCHS workshop on Children's Rights, Housing and Neighbourhood, 1996.
48. Dizon, A.M. and S. Quijano (1997), Impact of Eviction on Children, Urban Poor Associates/Asian Coalition for Housing Rights (ACHR)/ United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCA).
49. Garbarino, J. and C. Bedard (1996), "Spiritual challenges to children facing violent trauma", Childhood Vol.3, No.4, pages 467-179; also Osofsky, J.D. and
50. Evans, G.W., S.J. Lepore, B.R. Shejwal and M.N. Palsane (1998), "Chronic residential crowding and children's well-being: an ecological perspective", Child Development Vol.69, No.5, pages 1514-1523.
51. Bartlett, S.N. (1998), "Does poor housing perpetuate poverty?", Childhood Vol.5, No.4, pages 403-421; also Peterman, P.J. (1981), "Parenting and environmental considerations", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry Vol.5, No.2, pages 351-355; and Sharp, C. (1984), "Environmental design and child maltreatment" in Duerk, D. and D. Campbell (editors), Environmental Design Research Association No.15.
52. Bartlett, S.N. (1998), "Does poor housing perpetuate poverty?", Childhood Vol.5, No.4, pages 403-421; also Peterman, P.J. (1981), "Parenting and environmental considerations", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry Vol.5, No.2, pages 351-355; and Sharp, C. (1984), "Environmental design and child maltreatment" in Duerk, D. and D. Campbell (editors), Environmental Design Research Association No.15.
53. Bartlett, S.N. (1998), "Does poor housing perpetuate poverty?", Childhood Vol.5, No.4, pages 403-421; also Peterman, P.J. (1981), "Parenting and environmental considerations", American Journal of Orthopsychiatry Vol.5, No.2, pages 351-355; and Sharp, C. (1984), "Environmental design and child maltreatment" in Duerk, D. and D. Campbell (editors), Environmental Design Research Association No.15.
54. Akinware, M.A. and A.A. Ojomo (1993), "Child-rearing practices and their associated beliefs in Nigeria: a paper based on the baseline studies conducted in five local government areas in Nigeria", paper presented at the workshop on Child-rearing Practices and Beliefs, Windhoek, Namibia, October 26-29 1993.
55. For a practical discussion of some of these measures in the South see, for instance, Marcus, M. (1995), Faces of Justice and Poverty in the City, European Forum for Urban Security, Paris.
56. Chawla, L. (editor) (2000) (in press), Growing Up in an Urbanizing World, Earthscan/UNESCO, London; also Hart, R. (1997), Children's Participation: The Theory and Practice of Involving Young Citizens in Community Development and Environmental Care, Earthscan/UNICEF, London.
57. Chawla, L. (editor) (2000) (in press), Growing Up in an Urbanizing World, Earthscan/UNESCO, London; also Hart, R. (1997), Children's Participation: The Theory and Practice of Involving Young Citizens in Community Development and Environmental Care, Earthscan/UNICEF, London.
58. Guerrero, R. (1993), "Cali's innovative approach to urban violence", The Urban Age Vol.1, No.4, page 17.
59. The Trust for Public Land (1994), Healing America's Cities: How Urban Parks Can make Cities Safe and Healthy, The Trust for Public Land, San Francisco, CA.
60. Article 4 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child requires that children's rights be implemented to the maximum extent of available resources; these resources are understood to include not only the financial capacity of government but also the efforts and means of families, communities and the larger society; see Himes, J.R. (1995), Implementing the Convention on the Rights of the Child: Resource Mobilization in Low-income Countries, Martinus Nijhoff/UNICEF, The Hague.
61. Moser, C.O.N. (1993), Gender Planning and Development, Routledge, London and New York.
62. See reference 46.
63. 'Guidelines on pre-primary education from the Federal Ministry of Education in Nigeria' cited in The Coordinator's Notebook: An International Resource for Early Childhood Development No.17.
64. Personal communication, Martin McCann, Plan International.