Betwixt and between: 'Traditional authority' and democratic decentralization in post-war Mozambique

African Affairs

Volumn 98, Issue 393, 1999, Pages 455-484

  West, Harry G ^a   Kloeck Jenson, Scott ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DECENTRALIZATION; DEMOCRACY; POLITICAL CHANGE; POST-WAR;

MOZAMBIQUE;

EID: 0033371219     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a008063     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. Regedorias were also called regulados in many places.
2. Eduardo Mondlane, The Struggle for Mozambique (Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1969), p. 40.
3. See José Oscar Monteiro, Power and Democracy (People's Assembly, Maputo, 1989), p. 14.
4. See Joseph Hanlon, Mozambique: The revolution under fire (Zed Books, London, 1990), pp. 170-4.
5. See 'Chefes tradicionais devem colaborar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 22 June 1995, as well as 'Administração conjun vai vigorar no país', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 21 June 1995.
6. See 'Chefes tradicionais devem colaborar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 22 June 1995, as well as 'Administração conjun vai vigorar no país', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 21 June 1995.
7. See Hanlon, Mozambique: The revolution under fire; and Bertil Egerö, Moçambique: Os Primeiros Dez Anos de Construção da Democracia (Arquivo Historico de Moçambique, Maputo, 1992).
8. See Hanlon, Mozambique: The revolution under fire; and Bertil Egerö, Moçambique: Os Primeiros Dez Anos de Construção da Democracia (Arquivo Historico de Moçambique, Maputo, 1992).
9. See Law 6/79, article 1.1.
10. This is not to suggest that local officials did not in some cases attempt to intervene in matters pertaining to land, nor is it to deny that conflicts arose in many instances as party/state cadres and local elders vied for control over these processes. It is to suggest that, despite official policy, local officials were unable to completely eliminate kin-based institutions and authority figures from playing a role in these matters. See Jocelyn Alexander, 'The local state in post-war Mozambique: political practice and ideas about authority', Africa 67, 1 (1997), pp. 4-8; and JoAnn McGregor, 'Violence and social change in a border economy: war in the Maputo hinterland, 1984-1992', Journal of Southern African Studies 24, 1 (1998), pp. 42-43.
11. This is not to suggest that local officials did not in some cases attempt to intervene in matters pertaining to land, nor is it to deny that conflicts arose in many instances as party/state cadres and local elders vied for control over these processes. It is to suggest that, despite official policy, local officials were unable to completely eliminate kin-based institutions and authority figures from playing a role in these matters. See Jocelyn Alexander, 'The local state in post-war Mozambique: political practice and ideas about authority', Africa 67, 1 (1997), pp. 4-8; and JoAnn McGregor, 'Violence and social change in a border economy: war in the Maputo hinterland, 1984-1992', Journal of Southern African Studies 24, 1 (1998), pp. 42-43.
12. For a particularly interesting example in relation to witchcraft, see Jocelyn Alexander, Land and Political Authority in Post-War Mozambique: A view from Manica Province (Land Tenure Center, Madison, 1994), pp. 37-50.
13. See Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 5-6; McGregor, 'Violence and social change', pp. 42-44.
14. See Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 5-6; McGregor, 'Violence and social change', pp. 42-44.
15. See, for example, Harry G. West, 'Sorcery of Construction and Sorcery of Ruin: Power and Ambivalence on the Mueda Plateau, Mozambique (1882-1994)', (unpub. Ph. D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1997), pp. 154-57.
16. See Margaret Hall, 'The Mozambican National Resistance Movement (RENAMO): a study in the destruction of an African country', Africa 60, 1 (1990), pp. 39-68; Glenda Morgan, 'Violence in Mozambique: towards an understanding of RENAMO', Journal of Modern African Studies 28, 4 (1990), pp. 603-19; Tom Young, 'The MNR/RENAMO: external and internal dynamics', African Affairs 89, 357 (1990), pp. 491-509; and Alex Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique (James Currey, London, 1991).
17. See Margaret Hall, 'The Mozambican National Resistance Movement (RENAMO): a study in the destruction of an African country', Africa 60, 1 (1990), pp. 39-68; Glenda Morgan, 'Violence in Mozambique: towards an understanding of RENAMO', Journal of Modern African Studies 28, 4 (1990), pp. 603-19; Tom Young, 'The MNR/RENAMO: external and internal dynamics', African Affairs 89, 357 (1990), pp. 491-509; and Alex Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique (James Currey, London, 1991).
18. See Margaret Hall, 'The Mozambican National Resistance Movement (RENAMO): a study in the destruction of an African country', Africa 60, 1 (1990), pp. 39-68; Glenda Morgan, 'Violence in Mozambique: towards an understanding of RENAMO', Journal of Modern African Studies 28, 4 (1990), pp. 603-19; Tom Young, 'The MNR/RENAMO: external and internal dynamics', African Affairs 89, 357 (1990), pp. 491-509; and Alex Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique (James Currey, London, 1991).
19. See Margaret Hall, 'The Mozambican National Resistance Movement (RENAMO): a study in the destruction of an African country', Africa 60, 1 (1990), pp. 39-68; Glenda Morgan, 'Violence in Mozambique: towards an understanding of RENAMO', Journal of Modern African Studies 28, 4 (1990), pp. 603-19; Tom Young, 'The MNR/RENAMO: external and internal dynamics', African Affairs 89, 357 (1990), pp. 491-509; and Alex Vines, RENAMO: Terrorism in Mozambique (James Currey, London, 1991).
20. On the pragmatism of RENAMO's strategy vis-à-vis chiefs, see Alexander, 'The local state', p. 8. McGregor, 'Violence and social change', p. 49-52, describes a variety of cases in Maputo province, some in which this strategy was implemented and others in which it was not.
21. On the pragmatism of RENAMO's strategy vis-à-vis chiefs, see Alexander, 'The local state', p. 8. McGregor, 'Violence and social change', p. 49-52, describes a variety of cases in Maputo province, some in which this strategy was implemented and others in which it was not.
22. 'Mambo' is a term used for chief in the Shona languages spoken in the central Mozambican regions where RENAMO was strongest during the war and from which many key RENAMO leaders originated. In some regions of Mozambique, RENAMO used other local terms instead of 'mambo' but, as we will later show, the term was applied well beyond the boundaries of the area in which it had historical significance.
23. For an interesting example, see Jocelyn Alexander, Political Change in Manica Province, Mozambique: Implications for the decentralization of power (Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Maputo, 1995) pp. 26-31.
24. In Matatuine district (in Maputo province), as well as in several districts in Zambezia province, we met with figures who described their collaboration with RENAMO during the war as a result of being 'encircled' by a threatening military force that gave them little choice but to comply. This testimony was provided by many whom, indeed, condemned FRELIMO post-independence policy and whom offered vocal support to the RENAMO party in the present-day context. On the threatening environment in which RENAMO forged alliances with 'traditional authorities', see also Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 9-10; McGregor, 'Violence and social change', p. 60.
25. In Matatuine district (in Maputo province), as well as in several districts in Zambezia province, we met with figures who described their collaboration with RENAMO during the war as a result of being 'encircled' by a threatening military force that gave them little choice but to comply. This testimony was provided by many whom, indeed, condemned FRELIMO post-independence policy and whom offered vocal support to the RENAMO party in the present-day context. On the threatening environment in which RENAMO forged alliances with 'traditional authorities', see also Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 9-10; McGregor, 'Violence and social change', p. 60.
26. See Christian Geffray, La Cause des Armes au Mozambique: Anthropologie d'une Guerre Civile (Karthala, Paris, 1990).
27. To their dismay, donors found a 'civil society' that could democratically and effectively represent community interests - sometimes in opposition to the state - difficult to locate in Mozambique. Populations subjected in succession to an authoritarian colonial regime, a highly centralized socialist state and, in some instances, an insurgent military hierarchy, had experienced strong disincentives to forming spontaneous social institutions (trade unions, religious associations, agricultural cooperatives, and groups organized around expressive and communicative media). See Alexander, 'The local state'. On this issue more generally, see Thomas M. Callaghy, 'Civil society, democracy, and economic change in Africa: A dissenting opinion about resurgent societies', in J. W. Harbeson, D. Rothchild and N. Chazan (eds), Civil Society and the State in Africa (Lynne Rienner, Boulder, CO (1994), pp. 231-254. In these communities, kinship remains a strong organizing principle, and donors have sometimes taken to celebrating kin-based institutions as a potential foundation for democratic political expression.
28. To their dismay, donors found a 'civil society' that could democratically and effectively represent community interests - sometimes in opposition to the state - difficult to locate in Mozambique. Populations subjected in succession to an authoritarian colonial regime, a highly centralized socialist state and, in some instances, an insurgent military hierarchy, had experienced strong disincentives to forming spontaneous social institutions (trade unions, religious associations, agricultural cooperatives, and groups organized around expressive and communicative media). See Alexander, 'The local state'. On this issue more generally, see Thomas M. Callaghy, 'Civil society, democracy, and economic change in Africa: A dissenting opinion about resurgent societies', in J. W. Harbeson, D. Rothchild and N. Chazan (eds), Civil Society and the State in Africa (Lynne Rienner, Boulder, CO (1994), pp. 231-254. In these communities, kinship remains a strong organizing principle, and donors have sometimes taken to celebrating kin-based institutions as a potential foundation for democratic political expression.
29. See 'What place for RENAMO?', Mozambique Peace Process Bulletin 14 (AWEPA, Maputo, February 1995), pp. 2-3.
30. Donor support for 'democratic decentralization' in Mozambique, it should be noted, parallels donor enthusiasm for such reforms in countries throughout the 'Third World'. See Björn Beckman, 'The liberation of civil society: neo-liberal ideology and political theory', Review of African Political Economy 58 (1993), pp. 20-33; Donald Rothchild (ed.), Strengthening African Local Initiative: Local self-governance, decentralisation and accountability (Institute of African Affairs, Hamburg, 1994); and Joel Samoff, 'Decentralization: the politics of interventionism', Development and Change 21 (1990), pp. 513-30.
31. Donor support for 'democratic decentralization' in Mozambique, it should be noted, parallels donor enthusiasm for such reforms in countries throughout the 'Third World'. See Björn Beckman, 'The liberation of civil society: neo-liberal ideology and political theory', Review of African Political Economy 58 (1993), pp. 20-33; Donald Rothchild (ed.), Strengthening African Local Initiative: Local self-governance, decentralisation and accountability (Institute of African Affairs, Hamburg, 1994); and Joel Samoff, 'Decentralization: the politics of interventionism', Development and Change 21 (1990), pp. 513-30.
32. Donor support for 'democratic decentralization' in Mozambique, it should be noted, parallels donor enthusiasm for such reforms in countries throughout the 'Third World'. See Björn Beckman, 'The liberation of civil society: neo-liberal ideology and political theory', Review of African Political Economy 58 (1993), pp. 20-33; Donald Rothchild (ed.), Strengthening African Local Initiative: Local self-governance, decentralisation and accountability (Institute of African Affairs, Hamburg, 1994); and Joel Samoff, 'Decentralization: the politics of interventionism', Development and Change 21 (1990), pp. 513-30.
33. See 'Envolver autoridades tradicionais na resolução dos problemas locais', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 22 March 1995.
34. See Bridget O'Laughlin, 'A Base Social de Guerra em Moçambique: Análise de A Causa das Armas em Moçambique: Antropologia de uma Guerra Civil de C. Geffray', Estudos Moçambicanos 10 (1992), pp. 107-42, for the argument that Geffray's work also prompted some FRELIMO leaders to question the adequacy of the 'South African destabilization paradigm' in explaining the dynamics by which civil war was reproduced in Mozambique.
35. See Law 3/94.
36. See article 8.2 of the law. Minister of State Administration Alfredo Gamito went so far as to state, in 1995, that 'in fact, the municipal phenomenon and that of traditional authority have the same law, so, the one, just as the other, are expressions of the community will to organize itself and govern itself' ('Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995). See, also, 'Autoridade tradicional deve participar na gestão de municípios', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 24 April 1995; 'Autoridade tradicional quer cooperar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 December 1995; and Alexander, 'The local state'.
37. See article 8.2 of the law. Minister of State Administration Alfredo Gamito went so far as to state, in 1995, that 'in fact, the municipal phenomenon and that of traditional authority have the same law, so, the one, just as the other, are expressions of the community will to organize itself and govern itself' ('Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995). See, also, 'Autoridade tradicional deve participar na gestão de municípios', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 24 April 1995; 'Autoridade tradicional quer cooperar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 December 1995; and Alexander, 'The local state'.
38. See article 8.2 of the law. Minister of State Administration Alfredo Gamito went so far as to state, in 1995, that 'in fact, the municipal phenomenon and that of traditional authority have the same law, so, the one, just as the other, are expressions of the community will to organize itself and govern itself' ('Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995). See, also, 'Autoridade tradicional deve participar na gestão de municípios', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 24 April 1995; 'Autoridade tradicional quer cooperar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 December 1995; and Alexander, 'The local state'.
39. See article 8.2 of the law. Minister of State Administration Alfredo Gamito went so far as to state, in 1995, that 'in fact, the municipal phenomenon and that of traditional authority have the same law, so, the one, just as the other, are expressions of the community will to organize itself and govern itself' ('Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995). See, also, 'Autoridade tradicional deve participar na gestão de municípios', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 24 April 1995; 'Autoridade tradicional quer cooperar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 December 1995; and Alexander, 'The local state'.
40. This and one other component of the USAID project were managed by the African American Institute.
41. African American Institute, Relatório sobre Círculos de Trabalho e Discussão, (Maputo, 1997); Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Projecto 'Descentralização e Autoridade Tradicional - DAT': CTD Nacional: Documento Somatório das Conclusões dos CTDs, (Maputo, 1997).
42. African American Institute, Relatório sobre Círculos de Trabalho e Discussão, (Maputo, 1997); Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Projecto 'Descentralização e Autoridade Tradicional - DAT': CTD Nacional: Documento Somatório das Conclusões dos CTDs, (Maputo, 1997).
43. The mandate for these brochures is articulated in the first one: see Ambrósio Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996), p. 7. See also Domingos Fernando, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 2: A Organização Social na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Rufino Alfane, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 3: Educação Civica na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Hamido Mucussete, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 4: Terra e Meio Ambiente (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); and Orlando Nhancale, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 5: Normas, Regras e Justiça Tradicional: Como Evitar e Resolver Conflitos? (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996).
44. The mandate for these brochures is articulated in the first one: see Ambrósio Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996), p. 7. See also Domingos Fernando, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 2: A Organização Social na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Rufino Alfane, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 3: Educação Civica na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Hamido Mucussete, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 4: Terra e Meio Ambiente (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); and Orlando Nhancale, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 5: Normas, Regras e Justiça Tradicional: Como Evitar e Resolver Conflitos? (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996).
45. The mandate for these brochures is articulated in the first one: see Ambrósio Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996), p. 7. See also Domingos Fernando, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 2: A Organização Social na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Rufino Alfane, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 3: Educação Civica na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Hamido Mucussete, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 4: Terra e Meio Ambiente (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); and Orlando Nhancale, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 5: Normas, Regras e Justiça Tradicional: Como Evitar e Resolver Conflitos? (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996).
46. The mandate for these brochures is articulated in the first one: see Ambrósio Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996), p. 7. See also Domingos Fernando, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 2: A Organização Social na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Rufino Alfane, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 3: Educação Civica na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Hamido Mucussete, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 4: Terra e Meio Ambiente (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); and Orlando Nhancale, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 5: Normas, Regras e Justiça Tradicional: Como Evitar e Resolver Conflitos? (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996).
47. The mandate for these brochures is articulated in the first one: see Ambrósio Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996), p. 7. See also Domingos Fernando, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 2: A Organização Social na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Rufino Alfane, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 3: Educação Civica na Sociedade Tradicional (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); Hamido Mucussete, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 4: Terra e Meio Ambiente (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996); and Orlando Nhancale, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 5: Normas, Regras e Justiça Tradicional: Como Evitar e Resolver Conflitos? (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1996).
48. See 'Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995; 'Governo estuda formas de reinserção dos regulados - segundo o ministro Gamito', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 25 March 1996; 'Régulos poderão ser subsidiados pelo seu trabalho', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 16 May 1996; 'Regulado vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; 'Interacção Estado/Autoridade Tradicional: Dispositivo Legal Está numa Fase Avançada', Diário de Moçambique, Maputo, 4 July 1996; and 'Régulos não querem ser eleitos para cargos públicos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 13 June 1996.
49. See 'Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995; 'Governo estuda formas de reinserção dos regulados - segundo o ministro Gamito', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 25 March 1996; 'Régulos poderão ser subsidiados pelo seu trabalho', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 16 May 1996; 'Regulado vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; 'Interacção Estado/Autoridade Tradicional: Dispositivo Legal Está numa Fase Avançada', Diário de Moçambique, Maputo, 4 July 1996; and 'Régulos não querem ser eleitos para cargos públicos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 13 June 1996.
50. See 'Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995; 'Governo estuda formas de reinserção dos regulados - segundo o ministro Gamito', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 25 March 1996; 'Régulos poderão ser subsidiados pelo seu trabalho', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 16 May 1996; 'Regulado vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; 'Interacção Estado/Autoridade Tradicional: Dispositivo Legal Está numa Fase Avançada', Diário de Moçambique, Maputo, 4 July 1996; and 'Régulos não querem ser eleitos para cargos públicos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 13 June 1996.
51. See 'Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995; 'Governo estuda formas de reinserção dos regulados - segundo o ministro Gamito', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 25 March 1996; 'Régulos poderão ser subsidiados pelo seu trabalho', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 16 May 1996; 'Regulado vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; 'Interacção Estado/Autoridade Tradicional: Dispositivo Legal Está numa Fase Avançada', Diário de Moçambique, Maputo, 4 July 1996; and 'Régulos não querem ser eleitos para cargos públicos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 13 June 1996.
52. See 'Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995; 'Governo estuda formas de reinserção dos regulados - segundo o ministro Gamito', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 25 March 1996; 'Régulos poderão ser subsidiados pelo seu trabalho', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 16 May 1996; 'Regulado vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; 'Interacção Estado/Autoridade Tradicional: Dispositivo Legal Está numa Fase Avançada', Diário de Moçambique, Maputo, 4 July 1996; and 'Régulos não querem ser eleitos para cargos públicos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 13 June 1996.
53. See 'Para breve pronunciamento do Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1995; 'Governo estuda formas de reinserção dos regulados - segundo o ministro Gamito', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 25 March 1996; 'Régulos poderão ser subsidiados pelo seu trabalho', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 16 May 1996; 'Regulado vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; 'Interacção Estado/Autoridade Tradicional: Dispositivo Legal Está numa Fase Avançada', Diário de Moçambique, Maputo, 4 July 1996; and 'Régulos não querem ser eleitos para cargos públicos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 13 June 1996.
54. For detailed critique of the DTA, see Peter Fry, Final Evaluation of the Decentralizationl Traditional Authority Component of the African American Institute's Project 'Democratic Development in Mozambique' (Cooperative Agreement #656-A-00-4029-00) (USAID, Maputo, 1997); see also Lisa VeneKlasen and Harry G. West, Mid-term Evaluation Report of the African-American Institute's Project for Democratic Development in Mozambique (USAID, Maputo, 1996).
55. For detailed critique of the DTA, see Peter Fry, Final Evaluation of the Decentralizationl Traditional Authority Component of the African American Institute's Project 'Democratic Development in Mozambique' (Cooperative Agreement #656-A-00-4029-00) (USAID, Maputo, 1997); see also Lisa VeneKlasen and Harry G. West, Mid-term Evaluation Report of the African-American Institute's Project for Democratic Development in Mozambique (USAID, Maputo, 1996).
56. See 'Autoridade tradicional quer cooperar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 December 1995.
57. At the beginning of each workshop, participants were addressed by a prominent state official, by the DTA research director, and by Machava. In their remarks, these figures not only presented their views on the potential future role of 'traditional authority' in local governance, but also encouraged those they had invited - and, hence, informally 'recognized' - to voice grievances and make demands. This methodological approach gave to the workshops a texture of information dissemination rather than one of information gathering. As project evaluator Peter Fry has pointed out, when 'traditional authorities' finally spoke, they often simply reaffirmed what they had heard officials tell them earlier ( Fry, Final Evaluation, p. 9).
58. See 'Regulamento vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996.
59. See Fry, Final Evaluation, p. 15.
60. See 'Régulos poderão ser subsidiados pelo seu trabalho', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 16 May 1996.
61. See, also, 'Regulamento vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996.
62. Sofala governor Felisberto Tomás actually distributed bicycles to 'régulos' in Chibabava district, scoring political points nationwide for his FRELIMO party by appearing in news photos with one of the recipients, RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama's father, the 'régulo' Mangunde ('Pai de Dhlakama dispõe-se a colaborar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 2 December 1996). Manica governor Artur Canana followed suit, offering mopeds to 'régulos' in Dombe district where, only months before, ex-régulos had been involved in resisting the post-electoral re-establishment of state structures ('Régulos colaboram com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 17 July 1997). See, also, 'Regulamento vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; and 'Régulos de Gorongosa manifestam desejo de cooperar com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 27 June 1996.
63. Sofala governor Felisberto Tomás actually distributed bicycles to 'régulos' in Chibabava district, scoring political points nationwide for his FRELIMO party by appearing in news photos with one of the recipients, RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama's father, the 'régulo' Mangunde ('Pai de Dhlakama dispõe-se a colaborar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 2 December 1996). Manica governor Artur Canana followed suit, offering mopeds to 'régulos' in Dombe district where, only months before, ex-régulos had been involved in resisting the post-electoral re-establishment of state structures ('Régulos colaboram com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 17 July 1997). See, also, 'Regulamento vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; and 'Régulos de Gorongosa manifestam desejo de cooperar com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 27 June 1996.
64. Sofala governor Felisberto Tomás actually distributed bicycles to 'régulos' in Chibabava district, scoring political points nationwide for his FRELIMO party by appearing in news photos with one of the recipients, RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama's father, the 'régulo' Mangunde ('Pai de Dhlakama dispõe-se a colaborar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 2 December 1996). Manica governor Artur Canana followed suit, offering mopeds to 'régulos' in Dombe district where, only months before, ex-régulos had been involved in resisting the post-electoral re-establishment of state structures ('Régulos colaboram com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 17 July 1997). See, also, 'Regulamento vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; and 'Régulos de Gorongosa manifestam desejo de cooperar com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 27 June 1996.
65. Sofala governor Felisberto Tomás actually distributed bicycles to 'régulos' in Chibabava district, scoring political points nationwide for his FRELIMO party by appearing in news photos with one of the recipients, RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama's father, the 'régulo' Mangunde ('Pai de Dhlakama dispõe-se a colaborar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 2 December 1996). Manica governor Artur Canana followed suit, offering mopeds to 'régulos' in Dombe district where, only months before, ex-régulos had been involved in resisting the post-electoral re-establishment of state structures ('Régulos colaboram com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 17 July 1997). See, also, 'Regulamento vai ser aprovado brevemente', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 June 1996; and 'Régulos de Gorongosa manifestam desejo de cooperar com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 27 June 1996.
66. See, for example, 'Régulos reclamam fardamento, bandeira e outros símbolos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 21 May 1997.
67. See 'Poder tradicional constitui matéria bastante delicada', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 8 November 1995; and 'Autoridade tradicional quer cooperar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 December 1995.
68. See 'Poder tradicional constitui matéria bastante delicada', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 8 November 1995; and 'Autoridade tradicional quer cooperar com o Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 December 1995.
69. 'Governo deve repor a autoridade tradicional', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 24 April 1996. See also 'Sofala vai debater functionamento dos régulos e GD's', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 1 April 1996; 'Chefes tradicionais querem reconhecimento e espaço de acção', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 10 April 1996; and 'População pede restitução da autoridade tradicional', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 10 June 1996.
70. 'Governo deve repor a autoridade tradicional', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 24 April 1996. See also 'Sofala vai debater functionamento dos régulos e GD's', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 1 April 1996; 'Chefes tradicionais querem reconhecimento e espaço de acção', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 10 April 1996; and 'População pede restitução da autoridade tradicional', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 10 June 1996.
71. 'Governo deve repor a autoridade tradicional', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 24 April 1996. See also 'Sofala vai debater functionamento dos régulos e GD's', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 1 April 1996; 'Chefes tradicionais querem reconhecimento e espaço de acção', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 10 April 1996; and 'População pede restitução da autoridade tradicional', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 10 June 1996.
72. 'Governo deve repor a autoridade tradicional', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 24 April 1996. See also 'Sofala vai debater functionamento dos régulos e GD's', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 1 April 1996; 'Chefes tradicionais querem reconhecimento e espaço de acção', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 10 April 1996; and 'População pede restitução da autoridade tradicional', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 10 June 1996.
73. Some of the spontaneous initiatives taken by 'traditional authorities' (in areas not controlled by RENAMO during the war) may have been, more broadly, the result of national debate on the issue of 'traditional authority' including discussions within the political parties reaching down to the local level as well as increasing print media and radio coverage of the issue. While conducting the mid-term evaluation of the DTA, however, West was struck by the pattern whereby 'traditional authorities' who had been in attendance at a DTA workshop asserted their mandate, and those who had not been in attendance (generally because the workshop was distant from their areas or because they were not invited to participate) did not. A parallel phenomenon occurred when the Mozambican government held workshops in the early 1990s to discuss the possibility of divestiture of state farms. In the absence of explicit government policy or enabling legislation, workshop participants soon after began to spontaneously move forward with actions discussed in the workshops; see Harry G. West and Gregory W. Myers, 'A piece of land in a land of peace?: state farm divestiture in Mozambique', Journal of Modern African Studies 34, 1 (1996), pp. 37-8.
74. 'Não se pode raciocinar como ontem, num Estado de hoje', Domingo weekly newspaper, Maputo, 6 October 1996.
75. 'Poder tradicional assume justiça no Niassa', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 22 January 1997.
76. See 'Administradores e autoridade tradicional em Inhambane têm bom relacionamento', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 5 September 1996.
77. In doing so, it bears mention, these individuals often comported themselves as the party/state officials in their area had before them.
78. 'Régulos em Homoíne acusados de desobedecerem autoridades', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 18 July 1997.
79. For accounts of similar incidents in Nampula province, see 'Alguns cidadãos contestam métodos do régulo local', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 October 1996; and 'Régulos acusados de molestar populações', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 16 July 1997.
80. For accounts of similar incidents in Nampula province, see 'Alguns cidadãos contestam métodos do régulo local', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 October 1996; and 'Régulos acusados de molestar populações', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 16 July 1997.
81. The questions Sitoe raises, it should be noted, might just as easily be asked in regard to state officials at the local level, who are not considerably better prepared to deal with complex contemporary issues and problems. Also see, again, 'Régulos em Homoíne acusados de desobedecerem autoridades', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 18 July 1997.
82. See Carrie Manning, 'Constructing opposition in Mozambique: RENAMO as political party', Journal of Southern African Studies 24, 1 (1998), pp. 182-89, in reference to an interesting case betraying RENAMO's desperation in attracting adherents with paltry resources to share with them. In this case, RENAMO promised scholarships the party proved unable to provide to attract students, provoking an embarrassing scandal that received national attention.
83. Since the war's conclusion, RENAMO has focused particular energy on constructing a retrospective explanation of its popular support during the war on the basis of its embracing of 'chiefs'; see McGregor, 'Violence and social change'. For descriptions of how RENAMO has built political networks of party-appointed régulos, see 'Régulos de Montepuez exigem o poder de volta', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 19 October 1995; 'Renamo nomeia régulos em Gaza á revelia da Constituição, Notícias daily newspaper, 7 March 1996; and 'Autoridades tradicionais lutam pelo poder na província de Nampula', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 2 June 1997.
84. Since the war's conclusion, RENAMO has focused particular energy on constructing a retrospective explanation of its popular support during the war on the basis of its embracing of 'chiefs'; see McGregor, 'Violence and social change'. For descriptions of how RENAMO has built political networks of party-appointed régulos, see 'Régulos de Montepuez exigem o poder de volta', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 19 October 1995; 'Renamo nomeia régulos em Gaza á revelia da Constituição, Notícias daily newspaper, 7 March 1996; and 'Autoridades tradicionais lutam pelo poder na província de Nampula', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 2 June 1997.
85. Since the war's conclusion, RENAMO has focused particular energy on constructing a retrospective explanation of its popular support during the war on the basis of its embracing of 'chiefs'; see McGregor, 'Violence and social change'. For descriptions of how RENAMO has built political networks of party-appointed régulos, see 'Régulos de Montepuez exigem o poder de volta', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 19 October 1995; 'Renamo nomeia régulos em Gaza á revelia da Constituição, Notícias daily newspaper, 7 March 1996; and 'Autoridades tradicionais lutam pelo poder na província de Nampula', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 2 June 1997.
86. Since the war's conclusion, RENAMO has focused particular energy on constructing a retrospective explanation of its popular support during the war on the basis of its embracing of 'chiefs'; see McGregor, 'Violence and social change'. For descriptions of how RENAMO has built political networks of party-appointed régulos, see 'Régulos de Montepuez exigem o poder de volta', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 19 October 1995; 'Renamo nomeia régulos em Gaza á revelia da Constituição, Notícias daily newspaper, 7 March 1996; and 'Autoridades tradicionais lutam pelo poder na província de Nampula', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 2 June 1997.
87. Occasionally, FRELIMO has established effective links with claimants to 'traditional authority'. Such was the case in one district we visited in Inhambane province in July of 1997. There, Gonçalo Chilundo and his council of elders constitute vocal FRELIMO supporters. Upon close examination, one may discover that before independence Chilundo was not, in fact, an autoridade gentilica under the Portuguese. Another elder, by the name of Agapito Sumbulane, held this position. Chilundo and his group suggest that Sumbulane was not the legitimate successor to the position, but that he was placed there with the intervention of the colonial regime and the local Catholic mission because he promised to be more pliant with Portuguese interests than members in the true line of succession, including Gonçalo Chilundo; see also 'Poder tradicional: a certidão de óbito não mata', Savana weekly newspaper, Maputo, 28 June 1996. If Chilundo's version of the colonial history of his area is true, it is similar to cases found throughout Mozambique. In the very act of recognizing and utilizing autoridades gentilicas, the Portuguese entered into the process whereby their legitimacy was determined, and provoked crises of legitimacy that have resurfaced in the present day. It is in these cases, where two or more figures contest the position today, that FRELIMO has sometimes ventured into, or been dragged into, alliances with one side or the other.
88. 'Sobre autoridade tradicional (I)', Domingo weekly newspaper, Maputo, 27 October 1996.
89. 'Governo não vai legislar sobre autoridade tradicional', Domingo weekly newspaper, Maputo, 12 December 1996.
90. Richard Handler and Jocelyn Linnekin, 'Tradition, genuine or spurious', Journal of American Folklore 97, 385 (1984), pp. 273-89.
91. See Harry G. West, '"This neighbor is not my uncle!": changing relations of power and authority on the Mueda Plateau', Journal of Southern African Studies 24, 1 (1998), pp. 143-62.
92. Elsewhere in Mozambique, the titles given autoridades gentilicas at the lower two levels differed, but the highest ranking were generally called régulos.
93. See West, '"This neighbor is not my uncle!"'.
94. Because populations lived in even greater dispersion in this region, the local correlate to the nang'olo mwene kaya, a matrilineal family head called a mukula, had no standing in the Portuguese system.
95. Frequently, the names given authority figures at lower levels in newly mounted colonial hierarchies were African-language terms borrowed from neighbouring peoples who, not coincidentally, had supported the Portuguese in their campaign to subdue the region, serving as guides and interpreters. When applied in a new context, these titles were sometimes made to fit local hierarchies in unfamiliar ways. This may be a contributing factor in the confusion some informants maintained about whether or not 'samasoa' was a term for authorities at the same level as the régulo, or for those immediately subordinate to the régulo.
96. For more examples of the three-tiered hierarchies set up by the Portuguese, see Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional, pp. 15-19.
97. See Armando Melo Nobre Teixeira Alves, 'Análise da Política Colonial em Relação à Autoridade Tradicional', in I. B. Lundin and F. J. Machava (eds), Autoridade e Poder Tradicional (v. 1) (Ministério da Administração Estatal/ Núcleo de Desenvolvimento Administrativo, Maputo, 1995) pp. 71-87.
98. Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1995).
99. See Edward Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1975); also Newitt, A History of Mozambique.
100. See Edward Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1975); also Newitt, A History of Mozambique.
101. See West, 'Sorcery of Construction and Sorcery of Ruin', p. 312.
102. Lundin and the DTA project have adopted the curious policy of always capitalizing these terms.
103. Iraê Baptista Lundin, 'A Pesquisa Piloto Sobre a Autoridade/Poder Tradicional em Moçambique - Um Somatório Comentado e Analisado', in Lundin and Machava (eds), Autoridade e Poder Tradicional (v. I), p. 10.
104. In the first of the five brochures, there is a short section summarizing Portuguese interventions in relation to 'traditional authority'; see Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional, pp. 29-33, but this historical treatment stands apart from other commentary and its implications for contemporary issues are nowhere discussed. In his evaluation, Fry suggested that the brochures read like 1940s structural functionalist anthropology, (Fry, Final Evaluation, p. 13); in today's context, they read more like tourist brochures advertising happy natives who, if only left alone, manage their own affairs in a wholly sensible local manner.
105. In the first of the five brochures, there is a short section summarizing Portuguese interventions in relation to 'traditional authority'; see Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional, pp. 29-33, but this historical treatment stands apart from other commentary and its implications for contemporary issues are nowhere discussed. In his evaluation, Fry suggested that the brochures read like 1940s structural functionalist anthropology, (Fry, Final Evaluation, p. 13); in today's context, they read more like tourist brochures advertising happy natives who, if only left alone, manage their own affairs in a wholly sensible local manner.
106. African American Institute, Relatório sobre Círculos de Trabalho e Discussão, p. 16; see also Cuehela, Autoridade Traditional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Traditional, p. 24.
107. African American Institute, Relatório sobre Círculos de Trabalho e Discussão, p. 16; see also Cuehela, Autoridade Traditional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Traditional, p. 24.
108. Lundin, 'A Pesquisa Piloto', p. 27; see also Iraê Baptista Lundin, 'Traditional Authorities in Mozambique', paper presented at the conference on 'The Role of Traditional Leaders in the New South Africa', 4-5 July 1996 , Umtata; and Nhancale, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambiqe: Normas, Regras e Justiça Tradicional: Brochura 5: Como Evitar e Resolver Conflitos?.
109. Lundin, 'A Pesquisa Piloto', p. 27; see also Iraê Baptista Lundin, 'Traditional Authorities in Mozambique', paper presented at the conference on 'The Role of Traditional Leaders in the New South Africa', 4-5 July 1996 , Umtata; and Nhancale, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambiqe: Normas, Regras e Justiça Tradicional: Brochura 5: Como Evitar e Resolver Conflitos?.
110. Lundin, 'A Pesquisa Piloto', p. 27; see also Iraê Baptista Lundin, 'Traditional Authorities in Mozambique', paper presented at the conference on 'The Role of Traditional Leaders in the New South Africa', 4-5 July 1996 , Umtata; and Nhancale, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambiqe: Normas, Regras e Justiça Tradicional: Brochura 5: Como Evitar e Resolver Conflitos?.
111. African American Institute, Relatório sobre Círculos de Trabalho e Discussão, p. 14.
112. Cuehela admits this in Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional, p. 24.
113. See Mucussete, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 4: Terra e Meio Ambiente, p. 10.
114. The DTA project briefly discusses this dilemma in Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional, p. 31-2.
115. We use pseudonyms here to protect the identity of our informants.
116. Several informants asserted that the nyakawa Kariwa (after whom Cariua locality is named), the 'traditional authority' at the next highest level, played a role in the selection of Pangela.
117. As a son, Henrique had no claim, locally, to Girasol's title, but this relationship, nonetheless, troubled FRELIMO authorities according to those with whom we spoke.
118. Fernando's father and António's mother were each siblings of Pangela.
119. Girasol died in captivity.
120. On the Naparama movement, see Ken Wilson, 'Cults of violence and counter-violence in Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies 18, 3 (1992), pp. 527-82.
121. In the years following the 1994 elections, the rival political parties have often maintained parallel local structures, giving rise to a phenomenon sometimes referred to in Mozambique as 'dupla-administração' ('double administration'). Occasionally, government figures have tried to resolve this issue by appointing RENAMO members or sympathizers themselves to local government posts. Regarding such occurrences in Zambezia province, see 'Não há dupla administração', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 26 February 1996.
122. A particularly interesting example of this can be found where cotton companies, in the north of Mozambique, have used 'traditional authorities' as 'mobilizers' among local populations. In so doing, they have (re)produced the 'traditions' they have 'recognized'. See M. Anne Pitcher, 'Recreating colonialism or reconstructing the state? privatisation and politics in Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies 22, 1 (1996), pp. 49-74; and M. Anne Pitcher, 'Disruption without transformation: agrarian relations and livelihoods in Nampula Province, Mozambique 1975-1995' , Journal of Southern African Studies 24, 1 (1998), pp. 115-40.
123. A particularly interesting example of this can be found where cotton companies, in the north of Mozambique, have used 'traditional authorities' as 'mobilizers' among local populations. In so doing, they have (re)produced the 'traditions' they have 'recognized'. See M. Anne Pitcher, 'Recreating
124. Most ex-régulos, of course, agree with Lundin, arguing that their legitimacy derives from succession and that it would be undermined should their subordinates be able to oust them with a vote. See 'Régulos não querem ser eleitos para cargos públicos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 13 July 1996.
125. See Law 2/97.
126. See, for example, Cuehela, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 1: Autoridade Tradicional, p. 37.
127. In an interesting case in Montepuez district, Cabo Delgado province, the use of régulos by RENAMO has reportedly led to the 'proliferation' of régulo claimants, giving rise to disputes; see 'Régulos de Montepuez exigem o poder de volta', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 19 October 1995.
128. Several officials with whom we spoke suggested that 'traditional authority' should be looked at through the same lens as religious sects. Where freedom of religion depends not only upon government tolerance but also upon the state not endorsing any particular sect, so too would tolerance of 'traditional authority' go hand in hand with the absence of explicit state recognition of any specific individual. According to this logic, people would 'adhere' to the 'authority' of those they deemed 'legitimate' and abandon those they viewed as 'illegitimate'.
129. On this point, see Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 14-15.
130. After the 1994 elections, FRELIMO governor of Inhambane, Francisco João Pateguana, counselled his party to take note of the fact that FRELIMO did poorly in those areas where they did not have good relations with ex-régulos ('Envolver autoridades tradicionais na resolução dos problemas locais', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 22 March 1995).
131. Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 13, 18.
132. 'Governo deve repor a autoridade tradicional', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 24 April 1996.
133. See 'Envolver autoridades tradicionais na resolução dos problemas locais', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 22 March 1995. At a meeting in the town of Maxixe, Pateguana later stated the need to 'define how they should work'; see 'Governo quer uma estrutura única para servir a todas', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 8 May 1996.
134. See 'Envolver autoridades tradicionais na resolução dos problemas locais', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 22 March 1995. At a meeting in the town of Maxixe, Pateguana later stated the need to 'define how they should work'; see 'Governo quer uma estrutura única para servir a todas', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 8 May 1996.
135. For an example of such general cooperation, see 'GD's e líderes tradicionais coordenam actividades em Meconta', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 27 March 1996.
136. See 'Chefes traditionais querem reconhecimento e espaço de acção', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 10 April 1996.
137. See 'Régulos colaboram com autoridades de Manica', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 July 1996.
138. See 'Autoridades colaboram com régulos na cobrança de impostos aos cidadãos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 3 July 1996; 'Régulos colaboram com autoridades de Manica', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 July 1996; 'Régulos de mãos dadas com grupos dinamizadores', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 June 1997; and 'Régulos colaboram com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 17 July 1997.
139. See 'Autoridades colaboram com régulos na cobrança de impostos aos cidadãos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 3 July 1996; 'Régulos colaboram com autoridades de Manica', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 July 1996; 'Régulos de mãos dadas com grupos dinamizadores', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 June 1997; and 'Régulos colaboram com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 17 July 1997.
140. See 'Autoridades colaboram com régulos na cobrança de impostos aos cidadãos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 3 July 1996; 'Régulos colaboram com autoridades de Manica', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 July 1996; 'Régulos de mãos dadas com grupos dinamizadores', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 June 1997; and 'Régulos colaboram com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 17 July 1997.
141. See 'Autoridades colaboram com régulos na cobrança de impostos aos cidadãos', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 3 July 1996; 'Régulos colaboram com autoridades de Manica', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 23 July 1996; 'Régulos de mãos dadas com grupos dinamizadores', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 12 June 1997; and 'Régulos colaboram com Governo', Notícias daily newspaper, Maputo, 17 July 1997.
142. See Law 19/97.
143. See Scott Kloeck-Jenson, Analysis of the Parliamentary Debate and New National Land Law for Mozambique (Land Tenure Center, Maputo, 1997).
144. In the course of the debates on the new Land Law, Parliamentarians mandated the drafting of another law giving legal definition to the term 'local community'. See Scott Kloeck-Jenson, 'Locating the community: local communities and the administration of land and other natural resources in Mozambique', Proceedings of the International Conference on Land Tenure in the Developing World with a Focus on Southern Africa (Cape Town, 27-29 January, 1998).
145. In areas where FRELIMO party/state structures predominate, NGOs frequently work with local party secretaries who themselves attempt to use NGO material resources and prestige to construct and/or consolidate a 'legitimacy' that is often tenuous.
146. The DTA project has often suggested that 'traditional authority' consists of a vast array of figures, ranging from chiefs, to healers, to masters of initiation rites; see, for example, Domingos Fernando, Autoridade Tradicional em Moçambique: Brochura 2: A Organizção Social na Sociedade Tradicional, p. 11. We, however, suggest that inclusion of these figures sometimes clouds the issue. We suggest that other elements of diversity may often be more meaningful.
147. See Klas E. Borges and Andrew L. Doto, Social Survey: Uso e Gestão de Terra do Sector Familiar, Distrito de Monapo, Provincia de Nampula: Relatório Final (Ministério da Agricultura e Pescas, Direcção Nacional de Geografia e Cadastro, Maputo, 1995); Heidi Gengenbach, 'I'll bury you in the border!: women's land struggles in post-war Facazisse (Magude District), Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies 24, 1 (1998), pp. 7-36; Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 1-26; and McGregor, 'Violence and social change', pp. 42-43.
148. See Klas E. Borges and Andrew L. Doto, Social Survey: Uso e Gestão de Terra do Sector Familiar, Distrito de Monapo, Provincia de Nampula: Relatório Final (Ministério da Agricultura e Pescas, Direcção Nacional de Geografia e Cadastro, Maputo, 1995); Heidi Gengenbach, 'I'll bury you in the border!: women's land struggles in post-war Facazisse (Magude District), Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies 24, 1 (1998), pp. 7-36; Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 1-26; and McGregor, 'Violence and social change', pp. 42-43.
149. See Klas E. Borges and Andrew L. Doto, Social Survey: Uso e Gestão de Terra do Sector Familiar, Distrito de Monapo, Provincia de Nampula: Relatório Final (Ministério da Agricultura e Pescas, Direcção Nacional de Geografia e Cadastro, Maputo, 1995); Heidi Gengenbach, 'I'll bury you in the border!: women's land struggles in post-war Facazisse (Magude District), Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies 24, 1 (1998), pp. 7-36; Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 1-26; and McGregor, 'Violence and social change', pp. 42-43.
150. See Klas E. Borges and Andrew L. Doto, Social Survey: Uso e Gestão de Terra do Sector Familiar, Distrito de Monapo, Provincia de Nampula: Relatório Final (Ministério da Agricultura e Pescas, Direcção Nacional de Geografia e Cadastro, Maputo, 1995); Heidi Gengenbach, 'I'll bury you in the border!: women's land struggles in post-war Facazisse (Magude District), Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies 24, 1 (1998), pp. 7-36; Alexander, 'The local state', pp. 1-26; and McGregor, 'Violence and social change', pp. 42-43.
151. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities (Verso, London, 1983), p. 6.