Recreating colonialism or reconstructing the state? Privatisation and politics in mozambique

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 49-74

  Pitcher, M Anne ^a  

^a Center for Language and Brain

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CAPITAL FORMATION; COTTON PRODUCTION; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; DOMESTIC POLITICS; JOINT VENTURE; PRIVATISATION; STATE-BUSINESS RELATIONS;

MOZAMBIQUE;

EID: 0030445159     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079608708478     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. This paper was first presented at the JSAS 20th Anniversary Conference, York University, York, England, 9-11 September 1994. I would like to thank conference participants for their perceptive questions and helpful comments on this paper. I am also grateful for the critical suggestions made by G. Clarence-Smith, C. Leys, A. Harding, and the editors of this issue, B. Fine and C. Stoneman, which helped greatly to improve this paper. Many thanks to M. Murray for his insightful comments on an earlier version of this text. The work was generously financed by a Picker Fellowship from the Colgate University Research Council and I appreciate their support. Stimulating discussions with members of the MSU/MOA Food Security Project greatly informed some of the ideas in this paper; nevertheless any errors in fact or judgement are my own responsibility.
2. Mozambique, Ministério das Finanças, Unidade Técnica para a Reestruturação de Empresas, 'Reestruturação do sector empresarial do estado', mimeo (May 1994), 15; M. Mabunda, 'Company Privatisation, Restructuring Detailed', Domingo (August 1993), pp. 8-9; Centre de Promoção de Investimento, 'Projectos autorizados envolvendo investimentos directos estrangeiros e nacionais', 31 May 1995, mimeo.
3. Mozambique, Ministério das Finanças, Unidade Técnica para a Reestruturação de Empresas, 'Reestruturação do sector empresarial do estado', mimeo (May 1994), 15; M. Mabunda, 'Company Privatisation, Restructuring Detailed', Domingo (August 1993), pp. 8-9; Centre de Promoção de Investimento, 'Projectos autorizados envolvendo investimentos directos estrangeiros e nacionais', 31 May 1995, mimeo.
4. Mozambique, Ministério das Finanças, Unidade Técnica para a Reestruturação de Empresas, 'Reestruturação do sector empresarial do estado', mimeo (May 1994), 15; M. Mabunda, 'Company Privatisation, Restructuring Detailed', Domingo (August 1993), pp. 8-9; Centre de Promoção de Investimento, 'Projectos autorizados envolvendo investimentos directos estrangeiros e nacionais', 31 May 1995, mimeo.
5. See P. Self, Government by the Market? The Politics of Public Choice (Macmillan, London, 1993) for an explanation of rational or public choice. R. Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1981) has consistently applied the perspective to Africa. For a critical review of the literature see Colin Leys, 'Rational choice or Hobson's Choice: the 'new political economy' as development theory', unpublished paper. Theoretically, rational choice has begun to influence area studies in the USA; practically it enjoys much popularity with the World Bank and USAID.
6. See P. Self, Government by the Market? The Politics of Public Choice (Macmillan, London, 1993) for an explanation of rational or public choice. R. Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1981) has consistently applied the perspective to Africa. For a critical review of the literature see Colin Leys, 'Rational choice or Hobson's Choice: the 'new political economy' as development theory', unpublished paper. Theoretically, rational choice has begun to influence area studies in the USA; practically it enjoys much popularity with the World Bank and USAID.
7. See P. Self, Government by the Market? The Politics of Public Choice (Macmillan, London, 1993) for an explanation of rational or public choice. R. Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa (Berkeley, 1981) has consistently applied the perspective to Africa. For a critical review of the literature see Colin Leys, 'Rational choice or Hobson's Choice: the 'new political economy' as development theory', unpublished paper. Theoretically, rational choice has begun to influence area studies in the USA; practically it enjoys much popularity with the World Bank and USAID.
8. M. Mabunda, 'Finance Minister Discusses Privatisation', Domingo (15 August 1993), pp. 8-10.
9. 'Winners and Losers in the Privatisation Game', IDOC Internazionale (April 1992), pp. 35-36.
10. D. Plank, 'Aid, Debt, and the End of Sovereignty: Mozambique and its Donors', Journal of Modern African Studies, 31, 3 (1993), pp. 407-430.
11. K. Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads: Economics and Politics in the Era of Structural Adjustment (Bergen, 1990); O. Roesch, 'Mozambique Unravels? The Retreat to Tradition', Southern Africa Report (May 1992), pp. 27-30; M. Bowen, 'Beyond Reform; Adjustment and Political Power in Contemporary Mozambique' Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 2 (1992), pp. 255-279; Plank, 'Aid, Debt and the End of Sovereignty', 31, 3 (1993); and J. Saul, Recolonisation and Resistance in Southern Africa in the 1990s (Trenton, 1993), Introduction and ch. 3.
12. K. Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads: Economics and Politics in the Era of Structural Adjustment (Bergen, 1990); O. Roesch, 'Mozambique Unravels? The Retreat to Tradition', Southern Africa Report (May 1992), pp. 27-30; M. Bowen, 'Beyond Reform; Adjustment and Political Power in Contemporary Mozambique' Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 2 (1992), pp. 255-279; Plank, 'Aid, Debt and the End of Sovereignty', 31, 3 (1993); and J. Saul, Recolonisation and Resistance in Southern Africa in the 1990s (Trenton, 1993), Introduction and ch. 3.
13. K. Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads: Economics and Politics in the Era of Structural Adjustment (Bergen, 1990); O. Roesch, 'Mozambique Unravels? The Retreat to Tradition', Southern Africa Report (May 1992), pp. 27-30; M. Bowen, 'Beyond Reform; Adjustment and Political Power in Contemporary Mozambique' Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 2 (1992), pp. 255-279; Plank, 'Aid, Debt and the End of Sovereignty', 31, 3 (1993); and J. Saul, Recolonisation and Resistance in Southern Africa in the 1990s (Trenton, 1993), Introduction and ch. 3.
14. K. Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads: Economics and Politics in the Era of Structural Adjustment (Bergen, 1990); O. Roesch, 'Mozambique Unravels? The Retreat to Tradition', Southern Africa Report (May 1992), pp. 27-30; M. Bowen, 'Beyond Reform; Adjustment and Political Power in Contemporary Mozambique' Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 2 (1992), pp. 255-279; Plank, 'Aid, Debt and the End of Sovereignty', 31, 3 (1993); and J. Saul, Recolonisation and Resistance in Southern Africa in the 1990s (Trenton, 1993), Introduction and ch. 3.
15. K. Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads: Economics and Politics in the Era of Structural Adjustment (Bergen, 1990); O. Roesch, 'Mozambique Unravels? The Retreat to Tradition', Southern Africa Report (May 1992), pp. 27-30; M. Bowen, 'Beyond Reform; Adjustment and Political Power in Contemporary Mozambique' Journal of Modern African Studies, 30, 2 (1992), pp. 255-279; Plank, 'Aid, Debt and the End of Sovereignty', 31, 3 (1993); and J. Saul, Recolonisation and Resistance in Southern Africa in the 1990s (Trenton, 1993), Introduction and ch. 3.
16. See Ralph Young, 'Privatisation in Africa', Review of African Political Economy, 51 (1991), p. 50.
17. H. Feigenbaum and J. Henig, 'The Political Underpinnings of Privatisation: A Typology', World Politics, 46, 2 (January 1994), p. 186.
18. For the earlier period, see M. A. Pitcher, 'Sowing the Seeds of Failure: Portuguese Cotton Growing Attempts in Angola and Mozambique, 1820-1926', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 1 (March 1991), pp. 43-70. For activities in the twentieth century, see Pitcher, Politics in the Portuguese Empire: The State, Industry and Cotton, 1926-1974 (Oxford, 1993) and A. Isaacman's richly detailed work, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996) as well as selections by Pitcher, Isaacman and Chilundo in A. Isaacman and R. Roberts, Cotton. Colonialism, and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa (Portsmouth, 1995).
19. For the earlier period, see M. A. Pitcher, 'Sowing the Seeds of Failure: Portuguese Cotton Growing Attempts in Angola and Mozambique, 1820-1926', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 1 (March 1991), pp. 43-70. For activities in the twentieth century, see Pitcher, Politics in the Portuguese Empire: The State, Industry and Cotton, 1926-1974 (Oxford, 1993) and A. Isaacman's richly detailed work, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996) as well as selections by Pitcher, Isaacman and Chilundo in A. Isaacman and R. Roberts, Cotton. Colonialism, and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa (Portsmouth, 1995).
20. For the earlier period, see M. A. Pitcher, 'Sowing the Seeds of Failure: Portuguese Cotton Growing Attempts in Angola and Mozambique, 1820-1926', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 1 (March 1991), pp. 43-70. For activities in the twentieth century, see Pitcher, Politics in the Portuguese Empire: The State, Industry and Cotton, 1926-1974 (Oxford, 1993) and A. Isaacman's richly detailed work, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996) as well as selections by Pitcher, Isaacman and Chilundo in A. Isaacman and R. Roberts, Cotton. Colonialism, and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa (Portsmouth, 1995).
21. For the earlier period, see M. A. Pitcher, 'Sowing the Seeds of Failure: Portuguese Cotton Growing Attempts in Angola and Mozambique, 1820-1926', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 1 (March 1991), pp. 43-70. For activities in the twentieth century, see Pitcher, Politics in the Portuguese Empire: The State, Industry and Cotton, 1926-1974 (Oxford, 1993) and A. Isaacman's richly detailed work, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1996) as well as selections by Pitcher, Isaacman and Chilundo in A. Isaacman and R. Roberts, Cotton. Colonialism, and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa (Portsmouth, 1995).
22. The term 'family sector' is a hangover from the colonial period used to distinguish land worked by Mozambican families from that of companies or Portuguese settlers. Its usage has continued under Frelimo, though according to a government report, it is rather vague and may eventually disappear. Here, it refers to agricultural production which is primarily engaged in by family members, though additional manual labour may be used during peak periods such as weeding and harvesting. In this paper, it is distinct from the private sector which uses hired manual labour or mechanisation to engage in agricultural production. See Departamento de Estatística Agrária, 'An [sic] Preliminary Analysis fo [sic] the Size of Land Holdings in the Family Sector in Mozambique using Information from the 1993 Ministry of Agriculture Survey of the Family Sector' (May 1994), p. 7.
23. See J. Hanlon, The Revolution Under Fire (London, 1984) and Mozambique: Who Call the Shots? (Bloomington, 1991).
24. See J. Hanlon, The Revolution Under Fire (London, 1984) and Mozambique: Who Call the Shots? (Bloomington, 1991).
25. For a description of structural adjustment and its impact, see J. Marshall, 'Structural Adjustment and Social Policy in Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy, 47 (1990), pp. 28-43; Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads; Steven Kyle, 'Economic Reform and Armed Conflict in Mozambique', World Development, 19, 6 (1991), pp. 637-649; and V. Tickner, 'Structural Adjustment and Agricultural Pricing in Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy, 53 (1992), pp. 25-42.
26. For a description of structural adjustment and its impact, see J. Marshall, 'Structural Adjustment and Social Policy in Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy, 47 (1990), pp. 28-43; Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads; Steven Kyle, 'Economic Reform and Armed Conflict in Mozambique', World Development, 19, 6 (1991), pp. 637-649; and V. Tickner, 'Structural Adjustment and Agricultural Pricing in Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy, 53 (1992), pp. 25-42.
27. For a description of structural adjustment and its impact, see J. Marshall, 'Structural Adjustment and Social Policy in Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy, 47 (1990), pp. 28-43; Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads; Steven Kyle, 'Economic Reform and Armed Conflict in Mozambique', World Development, 19, 6 (1991), pp. 637-649; and V. Tickner, 'Structural Adjustment and Agricultural Pricing in Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy, 53 (1992), pp. 25-42.
28. For a description of structural adjustment and its impact, see J. Marshall, 'Structural Adjustment and Social Policy in Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy, 47 (1990), pp. 28-43; Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads; Steven Kyle, 'Economic Reform and Armed Conflict in Mozambique', World Development, 19, 6 (1991), pp. 637-649; and V. Tickner, 'Structural Adjustment and Agricultural Pricing in Mozambique', Review of African Political Economy, 53 (1992), pp. 25-42.
29. J. Hanlon, Revolution Under Fire, p. 101.
30. Mozambique, Ministério de Agriculture, Direcção de Economia Agrária, Sector de Análise de Unidades Economicas (SAUE), Dossier das Empresas Estatais Agrarias da Província de Nampula, Maputo, January 1988, p. 20. The debt of 5 million contos (1000 meticais is equal to 1 conto) has been converted to dollars at the exchange rate prevailing on 31 January 1987 of 200 meticais to the US dollar. By 31 December 1987, the rate was 400 meticais to the US dollar.
31. Hermele, Mozambican Crossroads, p. 12.
32. Hanlon, Mozambique: Who Calls the Shots?, pp. 40-42.
33. B. Munslow, 'State Intervention in Agriculture: The Mozambican Experience', Journal of Modern African Studies, 22, 2 (1984), p. 213.
34. M. Bowen, 'Socialist Transitions: Policy Reforms and Peasant Producers in Mozambique', in T. Bassett and D. Crumney, Land in African Agrarian Systems (Madison, 1993), p. 332.
35. Mozambique, MOA, SAUE, Dossier.
36. 'Reorganisation of the Agrarian State Sector: Comments and Suggestions by DEA/SAUE on the Prime Minister's Orientations and Observations of 24 May 1989', Appendix 10 in G. Myers, H. West and J. Eliseu, 'Appendices to Land Tenure Security and State Farm Divestiture in Mozambique: Case Studies in Nhamatanda, Manica and Montepuez Districts', Land Tenure Center (January 1993), p. 164.
37. FAO, 'Mozambique Rural Rehabilitation Project - Preparation Mission Report No.: 151/91 CP-Moz, 23, 20 December 1991, p. 10.
38. G. Myers and H. West, 'Land Tenure Security and State Farm Divestiture in Mozambique: Case Studies in Nhamatanda, Manica, and Montepuez Districts', Land Tenure Center, Research Paper 110 (January 1993), p. 14.
39. P. Dorosh and R. Bernier, 'Agricultural and Food Policy Issues in Mozambique: A Multi-Market Analysis', Cornell Food and Nutrition Policy Program, Working Paper 63, (March 1994), p. 29. By comparison, Zimbabwe has a ratio of 13%; Kenya 25.9% and Tanzania, 51.9%.
40. G. Myers, J. Eliseu, and E. Nhachungue, 'Segurança e conflito em Moçambique: Estudos de caso sobre acesso á terra no periódo do pós-guerra', Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison and Ministério de Agricultura, Mozambique, December 1993, p. 32. Myers et al., point out (note 26, p. 29) that the state sector comprises millions of hectares and that official figures only refer to that land that was worked, thus potentially privatisation of the state sector can have huge ramifications.
41. Myers and West, 'Land Tenure Security' and Myers et al., 'Appendices to Land Tenure Security'; G. Myers, 'Competitive Rights, Competitive Claims: Land Access in Post-War Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 20, 4 (December 1994), pp. 603-632.
42. Myers and West, 'Land Tenure Security' and Myers et al., 'Appendices to Land Tenure Security'; G. Myers, 'Competitive Rights, Competitive Claims: Land Access in Post-War Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 20, 4 (December 1994), pp. 603-632.
43. Myers and West, 'Land Tenure Security' and Myers et al., 'Appendices to Land Tenure Security'; G. Myers, 'Competitive Rights, Competitive Claims: Land Access in Post-War Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 20, 4 (December 1994), pp. 603-632.
44. Feigenbaum and Henig, 'The Political Underpinnings', p. 201.
45. The strike occurred from 13-16 May 1994 in Nampula city, Nampula. Conversation with Robert Mugabe, former Director, Direcção Provincial de Agricultura, Nampula, 16 May 1994.
46. B. Bando, 'Operários e desmobilizados paralisaram Manjacaze', Savana, 22 July 1994, pp. 12-13.
47. M. Simpson in 'Foreign and Domestic Factors in the Transformation of Frelimo', Journal of Modern African Studies, 31, 2 (1993), pp. 334-335 argues that the OMM and the OTM unilaterally declared their independence from the state following the constitutional changes but my interviews with several provincial and district leaders of the OMM suggest that they were dropped by the state and left to fend for themselves, hence their bitterness and weakening support.
48. Myers, 'Competitive Rights, 609; see also footnote 23 in Myers.
49. Myers, et al., 'Segurança e conflito', pp. 29, 64, 89; A. Harding, CPI, conversation (20 July 1995); Myers, 'Competitive Rights', 621.
50. Myers, et al., 'Segurança e conflito', pp. 29, 64, 89; A. Harding, CPI, conversation (20 July 1995); Myers, 'Competitive Rights', 621.
51. Myers, et al., 'Segurança e conflito', pp. 29, 64, 89; A. Harding, CPI, conversation (20 July 1995); Myers, 'Competitive Rights', 621.
52. Figures supplied by Dutch Embassy, Maputo, June 1994.
53. As of 1993, Renamo was also privatising land under its jurisdiction. See Myers et al., 'Segurança e conflito', p. 19.
54. Mozambique, MOA, DEA, SAUE, 'Dossier', pp. 4-20.
55. Mozambique, MOA, DEA, SAUE, 'Dossier', pp. 20-22.
56. Mozambique, Ministério de Agriculture, Diagnostico provincial do sector agrário de Cabo Delgado, X, DEA, PNUD-FAO, Moz/86/007 (March 1991), p. 54.
57. Myers and West, 'Land Tenure Security', p. 56.
58. C. Coetzee, Director, N'ropa LOMACO, Interview, 9 May 1994; see also Myers and West, 'Land Tenure Security', p. 56.
59. Mozambique, Min. de Agricultura, Diagnóstico provincial, Table 6.
60. Prior to 1991, the government intended to retain the cotton sector as a state enterprise, even though JFS had been managing a part of the Nampula enterprise for the state from 1986. Perhaps the interest expressed by Lonrho, Grupo Entreposto and JFS in cotton production during the late 1980s and the bankruptcy of the state changed its mind.
61. Mozambique, Boletim da República, I Série. Lei 4/84 (18 August 1984); CPI. 'Legislation on Investment in Mozambique', Law 3/93 (8 June 1993). pamphlet; and A. Harding, CPI, Conversation, 7 June 1994.
62. Mozambique, Boletim da República, I Série. Lei 4/84 (18 August 1984); CPI. 'Legislation on Investment in Mozambique', Law 3/93 (8 June 1993). pamphlet; and A. Harding, CPI, Conversation, 7 June 1994.
63. Mozambique, Boletim da República, I Série. Lei 4/84 (18 August 1984); CPI. 'Legislation on Investment in Mozambique', Law 3/93 (8 June 1993). pamphlet; and A. Harding, CPI, Conversation, 7 June 1994.
64. E. Muhate, Director, Cotton Institute, Interview, 7 June 1994 and see Mozambique, Conselho de Ministros, 'Autorizaçao do Projecto "SODAN"', Resolução Interna, No. 3/91, 24 May 1991 and 'Autorização do Projecto "LOMACO-Montepuez"', Resolução Interna, No. 4/90, 28 May 1990.
65. 'Autorização-SODAN'.
66. João Ferreira dos Santos, 'Brief Presentation of João Ferreira dos Santos Group', mimeo.
67. V. Francisco, Director-Geral Adjunto, JFS, Interview, 25 April 1994.
68. V. Gonçalves, Director, JFS, Interview, 16 February 1994.
69. C. Neves, Conversation, 30 May 1994.
70. A. Machado, Director-family sector production, SODAN and M. Martins, Director, SODAN, Interviews, May 1994.
71. M. Martins, Director, SODAN, Interview, 17 May 1994.
72. 'Autorização-SODAN', anicle 22 and Anexo 1 'Adenda aocontrato de concessão de 26 de Agosto de 1986 entre o estado Moçambicano e a Lonrho International Ltd', Maputo (2 June 1990), article 2. For SODAN, amounts in meticais converted to dollars at 1991 exchange rates.
73. Information supplied by Worldwide Companies on Nexus/Lexus, load date 18 October 1994.
74. A. Vines, '"No Democracy without Money" The Road to Peace in Mozambique' (1982-1992), CIIR briefing paper (April 1994), p. 12.
75. C. Coetzee, Director, N'ropa, LOMACO, Interview 9 May 1994.
76. Hanlon, Who Calls the Shots?, p. 244. For nearly a year prior to the elections, Renamo occupied the Cardoso Hotel, another Lonrho investment.
77. See 'Autorização-LOMACO-Montepuez'.
78. C. Henriques, Director, Lomaco-Montepuez and C. Jordão, World Bank extension work coordinator, Conversation, 5 August 1994.
79. Ibid.
80. Visit to LOMACO, April-May 1994; C. Henriques, Director. LOMACO-Montepuez, Conversation, 5 August 1994.
81. Conversation with trader, 5 July 1994.
82. Myers and West, 'Land Tenure Security', pp. 61-62, suggest that land displacement is already occurring though no one mentioned this in over 30 interviews I conducted with producers and company personnel.
83. For a more detailed economic and financial analysis of performance in the cotton sub-sector, see the useful study undertaken by M. Fok, 'The Cotton Sub-Sector in Mozambique: Institutional Diversity, Performance and Prospects for Improvements', Mozambique, Ministry of Agriculture and Fishing, Direction of Agrarian Economics (May 1995), Draft copy.
84. C. Adam, W. Cavendish and P. Mistry, Adjusting Privatisation: Case Studies from Developing Countries (London, 1992), pp. 12-17.
85. 'Autorização-SODAN' and 'Autorização-LOMACO'.
86. Instituto de Algodão de Moçambique, 'Relatório sobre a produção do algodão da campanha 1992/1993 e previsões 93/94', mimeo; and Fok, 'The Cotton Sub-Sector', p. 31.
87. Instituto de Algodão de Moçambique, 'Relatório sobre a produção do algodão da campanha 1992/1993 e previsões 93/94', mimeo; and Fok, 'The Cotton Sub-Sector', p. 31.
88. World Bank, 'Macroeconomic Perspectives for Mozambique in the Post-War Period', Draft, June 1993, p. 12 and Mozambique, Balança da execução do piano de 1994 e plano económico e social de 1995 (May 1995), p. 53.
89. World Bank, 'Macroeconomic Perspectives for Mozambique in the Post-War Period', Draft, June 1993, p. 12 and Mozambique, Balança da execução do piano de 1994 e plano económico e social de 1995 (May 1995), p. 53.
90. See 'Autorização SODAN and LOMACO'.
91. C. Henriques, Director, LOMACO-Montepuez, speech to Land Tenure Center conference, 27 May 1994; and Fok, 'The Cotton Sub-Sector', p. 31.
92. LOMACO visit, May 1994.
93. J. Alexander, 'Land and Political Authority in Post-War Mozambique: A View from Manica Province', Land Tenure Center, 1994.
94. Chief, N'ropa, Interview, 4 May 1994.
95. Mozambique, Conselho dos Ministros, 'Contrato de Fomento entre o Govemo da RPM e a LOMACO'.
96. 'Autorização-SODAN' and 'Autorização-LOMACO'.
97. Fok, in The Cotton Sub-sector' has calculated a 37% profit for those companies such as LOMACO and SODAN that gin over 1,700 tons of fibre, see p. 10 and 62. R. Tibana also calculated a profit of 35% in a study for the World Bank in 1992 (R. Tibana, conversation, July 1995). I would like to thank P. Wegener, World Bank extension project, Ministério de Agricultura e Pescas; R. Uaiene, Manager, INIA, Namialo, Nampula: and J. Watson, Agronomist, British Cotton Growing Association for help with my calculations.
98. Interview with producer, SODAN area, May 1994 and see Myers and West, 'Land Tenure Security' for similar findings in the LOMACO zones, p. 61.
99. IAM, 'Relatório 1992/3' and PUPI statistics supplied by LOMACO, 22 April 1994.
100. Interviews with 2 producers, SODAN area, May 1994.
101. Mozambique, Ministério da Agricultura (MOA), Direcção Nacional de Economia Agrária (DNEA), 'A Socio-Economic Survey in the Province of Nampula: Cotton in the Smallholder Economy', MOA/MSU/UA research team, 5E (January 1991), p. 15.
102. C. Coetzee, Director, N'ropa, LOMACO, Interview, 9 May 1994.
103. Mozambique, MOA, DNEA, 'A Socio-Economic Survey', p. 13.
104. Mozambique, MOA, DNEA, 'Evolution of Rural Economy in Post-War Mozambique: Insights from a Rapid Appraisal in Monapo District of Nampula Province', MOA/MSU Research Team, 16 (10 January 94), pp. 24-25.
105. For the challenge to food security posed by coercion in cotton production during the colonial period see Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty.
106. R. Galli, personal communication, 27 July 1994. Information based on article by C. Coelho, 'Commercialização de algodão: Intervenientes na campanha trocam acusações em Nampula', Notícias, 16 July 1994.
107. R. Galli, personal communication, 27 July 1994. Information based on article by C. Coelho, 'Commercialização de algodão: Intervenientes na campanha trocam acusações em Nampula', Notícias, 16 July 1994.
108. Mediafax, 'Concessionária versus "Compradores Ilegais"', 5 July 1995; 'Manifestação de Produtores de Algodão', 20 July 1995; and 'Guerra de Algodão Termina', 31 July 1995. I personally witnessed cotton strikes in Netia and Corrane, Nampula province (July 1995).
109. Mediafax, 'Concessionária versus "Compradores Ilegais"', 5 July 1995; 'Manifestação de Produtores de Algodão', 20 July 1995; and 'Guerra de Algodão Termina', 31 July 1995. I personally witnessed cotton strikes in Netia and Corrane, Nampula province (July 1995).
110. Mediafax, 'Concessionária versus "Compradores Ilegais"', 5 July 1995; 'Manifestação de Produtores de Algodão', 20 July 1995; and 'Guerra de Algodão Termina', 31 July 1995. I personally witnessed cotton strikes in Netia and Corrane, Nampula province (July 1995).
111. For a discussion of the need for regulation see Adam, et al. Adjusting Privatisation, pp. 19-22.
112. V. Francisco, SODAN, Interview, 25 May 1994; E. Muhate, IAM, Interview, 8 April 1994. The producer price is a minimum not a maximum price and companies are expected to negotiate higher prices directly with producers.
113. E. Muhate, IAM, Interview, 8 April 1994.
114. Erasmo Muhate, 8 April 1994.
115. At the Second National Land Conference, Maputo, 25-27 May 1994, Carlos Henriques, director of LOM ACO-Montepuez felt compelled to defend LOMACO publicly against charges that the company had abused its water rights in Chokwe.
116. M. Martins, Director, SODAN, Interview, 17 May 1994; C. Henriques, Director, LOMACO-Montepuez, Conversation, 8 May 1994; E. Muhate, Director, IAM, Interview, 8 April 1994.
117. E. Muhate, Interview, 7 July 1994.
118. Simpson, 'Foreign and Domestic Factors', p. 335.
119. On the contradictions and compromises that resulted from this policy see Alexander, 'Land and Political Authority in Post-War Mozambique'.
120. Interviews in Netia, Nampula, May 1994.
121. L. C. Metselaar et al., 'Relatório da Missão de Levantamento de Dados nos Distritos de Malema, Lalaua, Ribaué e Murrupula na Província de Nampula', Maputo (March 1994), pp. 13-15.
122. A. Machado, Director, Family Sector Production, SODAN, Conversations, 17-26 May 1994.
123. Interviews with regulos, Netia, 21 May 1994.
124. Interviews with regulos, Netia, 21 May 1994.
125. Interviews, chefe de posto, Netia, May 1994: Conversations with António Machado, 17-26 May 1994.
126. Interviews, Chris Coetzee; chief of N'ropa, regulo of N'ropa, May 1994.
127. A. Machado, Director of Family Sector Production, SODAN, Conversations, 17-26 May 1994.
128. Interviews with regulos, Netia, 21 May 1994.
129. 'Autorização-SODAN', Art. 29.2. 104 SODAN, 'Fomento Algodoeiro-Posição em 14.5.94', mimeo.
130. H. Simon, Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organisation 3rd edn (New York, 1976), pp. xxix-xxx, 38-41.