The nature of the firm: Towards an ecocultural history of business

Business History Review

Volumn 73, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 577-600

  Rosen, Christine Meisner ^a   Sellers, Christopher ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033264906     PISSN: 00076805     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0007680500062437     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. Much of this early work gave no attention to environmental problems even though it was highly critical of the industrialists who created big business. For example, Matthew Josephson's The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861-1901 (New York, 1934), one of the early classics in American history, bitterly critiques the architects of American big business without specifically addressing their business's many harmful environmental impacts. This failure is particularly clear in books dealing with John D. Rockefeller and the development of the environmentally degrading oil industry. See for example, Ida M. Tarbell, History of the Standard Oil Company (New York, 1925) and Allan Nevins, Study in Power: John D. Rockefeller, Industrialist and Philanthropist (New York, 1953). See also Peter D. A. Jones, ed., The Robber Barons Revisited (Boston, 1968).
2. Much of this early work gave no attention to environmental problems even though it was highly critical of the industrialists who created big business. For example, Matthew Josephson's The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861-1901 (New York, 1934), one of the early classics in American history, bitterly critiques the architects of American big business without specifically addressing their business's many harmful environmental impacts. This failure is particularly clear in books dealing with John D. Rockefeller and the development of the environmentally degrading oil industry. See for example, Ida M. Tarbell, History of the Standard Oil Company (New York, 1925) and Allan Nevins, Study in Power: John D. Rockefeller, Industrialist and Philanthropist (New York, 1953). See also Peter D. A. Jones, ed., The Robber Barons Revisited (Boston, 1968).
3. Much of this early work gave no attention to environmental problems even though it was highly critical of the industrialists who created big business. For example, Matthew Josephson's The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861-1901 (New York, 1934), one of the early classics in American history, bitterly critiques the architects of American big business without specifically addressing their business's many harmful environmental impacts. This failure is particularly clear in books dealing with John D. Rockefeller and the development of the environmentally degrading oil industry. See for example, Ida M. Tarbell, History of the Standard Oil Company (New York, 1925) and Allan Nevins, Study in Power: John D. Rockefeller, Industrialist and Philanthropist (New York, 1953). See also Peter D. A. Jones, ed., The Robber Barons Revisited (Boston, 1968).
4. Much of this early work gave no attention to environmental problems even though it was highly critical of the industrialists who created big business. For example, Matthew Josephson's The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861-1901 (New York, 1934), one of the early classics in American history, bitterly critiques the architects of American big business without specifically addressing their business's many harmful environmental impacts. This failure is particularly clear in books dealing with John D. Rockefeller and the development of the environmentally degrading oil industry. See for example, Ida M. Tarbell, History of the Standard Oil Company (New York, 1925) and Allan Nevins, Study in Power: John D. Rockefeller, Industrialist and Philanthropist (New York, 1953). See also Peter D. A. Jones, ed., The Robber Barons Revisited (Boston, 1968).
5. For evidence of Chandler's immediate impact, see Louis Gambols, "The Emerging Organizational Synthesis in American History," Business History Review 44 (Autumn 1970): 279-290 and Glenn Porter, The Rise of Big Business, 1860-1910 (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1973) An excellent review article detailing Chandler's longer term impact is Richard R. John "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review 71 (Summer 1997): 151-200. Chandler's most important contributions to the field include Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962); Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
6. For evidence of Chandler's immediate impact, see Louis Gambols, "The Emerging Organizational Synthesis in American History," Business History Review 44 (Autumn 1970): 279-290 and Glenn Porter, The Rise of Big Business, 1860-1910 (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1973) An excellent review article detailing Chandler's longer term impact is Richard R. John "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review 71 (Summer 1997): 151-200. Chandler's most important contributions to the field include Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962); Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
7. For evidence of Chandler's immediate impact, see Louis Gambols, "The Emerging Organizational Synthesis in American History," Business History Review 44 (Autumn 1970): 279-290 and Glenn Porter, The Rise of Big Business, 1860-1910 (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1973) An excellent review article detailing Chandler's longer term impact is Richard R. John "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review 71 (Summer 1997): 151-200. Chandler's most important contributions to the field include Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962); Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
8. For evidence of Chandler's immediate impact, see Louis Gambols, "The Emerging Organizational Synthesis in American History," Business History Review 44 (Autumn 1970): 279-290 and Glenn Porter, The Rise of Big Business, 1860-1910 (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1973) An excellent review article detailing Chandler's longer term impact is Richard R. John "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review 71 (Summer 1997): 151-200. Chandler's most important contributions to the field include Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962); Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
9. For evidence of Chandler's immediate impact, see Louis Gambols, "The Emerging Organizational Synthesis in American History," Business History Review 44 (Autumn 1970): 279-290 and Glenn Porter, The Rise of Big Business, 1860-1910 (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1973) An excellent review article detailing Chandler's longer term impact is Richard R. John "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review 71 (Summer 1997): 151-200. Chandler's most important contributions to the field include Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962); Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
10. For evidence of Chandler's immediate impact, see Louis Gambols, "The Emerging Organizational Synthesis in American History," Business History Review 44 (Autumn 1970): 279-290 and Glenn Porter, The Rise of Big Business, 1860-1910 (Arlington Heights, Ill., 1973) An excellent review article detailing Chandler's longer term impact is Richard R. John "Elaborations, Revisions, Dissents: Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.'s, The Visible Hand after Twenty Years," Business History Review 71 (Summer 1997): 151-200. Chandler's most important contributions to the field include Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962); Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass., 1977); and Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
11. An exception is Joseph A. Pratt, "Growth of a Clean Environment? Responses to Petroleum-Related Pollution in the Gulf Coast Refining Region," Business History Review 52 (Spring 1978): 1-29. By the mid-1980s business historians were awakening to the importance of addressing environmental issues. See, for example, Richard S. Tedlow and Richard R. John, Jr., eds., Managing Big Business: Essays from the Business History Review (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), which included a section on "The Corporation, Technology, and the Environment." But this section only reprinted Pratt's article alongside two others that confined their environmental attentions to energy issues - a telling indication of how little research of this sort had as yet been done. In this collection, see also Albro Martin, "James J. Hill and the First Energy Revolution: A Study in Entrepreneurship, 1865-1878," 88-106 (first appeared in Business History Review 50 [Summer 1976]: 179-197); and Richard H. K. Vietor, "The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program: Energy Politics in the Truman Era," 299-328 (first appeared in Business History Review 54 [Spring 1980]: 1-34).
12. An exception is Joseph A. Pratt, "Growth of a Clean Environment? Responses to Petroleum-Related Pollution in the Gulf Coast Refining Region," Business History Review 52 (Spring 1978): 1-29. By the mid-1980s business historians were awakening to the importance of addressing environmental issues. See, for example, Richard S. Tedlow and Richard R. John, Jr., eds., Managing Big Business: Essays from the Business History Review (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), which included a section on "The Corporation, Technology, and the Environment." But this section only reprinted Pratt's article alongside two others that confined their environmental attentions to energy issues - a telling indication of how little research of this sort had as yet been done. In this collection, see also Albro Martin, "James J. Hill and the First Energy Revolution: A Study in Entrepreneurship, 1865-1878," 88-106 (first appeared in Business History Review 50 [Summer 1976]: 179-197); and Richard H. K. Vietor, "The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program: Energy Politics in the Truman Era," 299-328 (first appeared in Business History Review 54 [Spring 1980]: 1-34).
13. An exception is Joseph A. Pratt, "Growth of a Clean Environment? Responses to Petroleum-Related Pollution in the Gulf Coast Refining Region," Business History Review 52 (Spring 1978): 1-29. By the mid-1980s business historians were awakening to the importance of addressing environmental issues. See, for example, Richard S. Tedlow and Richard R. John, Jr., eds., Managing Big Business: Essays from the Business History Review (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), which included a section on "The Corporation, Technology, and the Environment." But this section only reprinted Pratt's article alongside two others that confined their environmental attentions to energy issues - a telling indication of how little research of this sort had as yet been done. In this collection, see also Albro Martin, "James J. Hill and the First Energy Revolution: A Study in Entrepreneurship, 1865-1878," 88-106 (first appeared in Business History Review 50 [Summer 1976]: 179-197); and Richard H. K. Vietor, "The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program: Energy Politics in the Truman Era," 299-328 (first appeared in Business History Review 54 [Spring 1980]: 1-34).
14. An exception is Joseph A. Pratt, "Growth of a Clean Environment? Responses to Petroleum-Related Pollution in the Gulf Coast Refining Region," Business History Review 52 (Spring 1978): 1-29. By the mid-1980s business historians were awakening to the importance of addressing environmental issues. See, for example, Richard S. Tedlow and Richard R. John, Jr., eds., Managing Big Business: Essays from the Business History Review (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), which included a section on "The Corporation, Technology, and the Environment." But this section only reprinted Pratt's article alongside two others that confined their environmental attentions to energy issues - a telling indication of how little research of this sort had as yet been done. In this collection, see also Albro Martin, "James J. Hill and the First Energy Revolution: A Study in Entrepreneurship, 1865-1878," 88-106 (first appeared in Business History Review 50 [Summer 1976]: 179-197); and Richard H. K. Vietor, "The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program: Energy Politics in the Truman Era," 299-328 (first appeared in Business History Review 54 [Spring 1980]: 1-34).
15. Donald Worster, "Transformations of the Earth: Toward an Agroecological Perspective in History," and William Cronon, "Modes of Prophecy and Production: Placing Nature in History," Journal of American History 76 (1990): 1089, 1122 (quotes).
16. Donald Worster, "Transformations of the Earth: Toward an Agroecological Perspective in History," and William Cronon, "Modes of Prophecy and Production: Placing Nature in History," Journal of American History 76 (1990): 1089, 1122 (quotes).
17. Reviews of this historiography include: Richard White, "Historiographic Essay; American Environmental History: The Development of a New Historical Field," Pacific Historical Review (1985): 297-335; Donald Worster, "Doing Environmental History," in idem., ed., The Ends of the Earth (New York, 1988); Alfred Crosby, "The Past and Present of Environmental History," American Historical Review 100 (1995): 1177-89; J. Donald Hughes, "Whither Environmental History," American Society for Environmental History News 8 (Autumn, 1997): 1-3.
18. Reviews of this historiography include: Richard White, "Historiographic Essay; American Environmental History: The Development of a New Historical Field," Pacific Historical Review (1985): 297-335; Donald Worster, "Doing Environmental History," in idem., ed., The Ends of the Earth (New York, 1988); Alfred Crosby, "The Past and Present of Environmental History," American Historical Review 100 (1995): 1177-89; J. Donald Hughes, "Whither Environmental History," American Society for Environmental History News 8 (Autumn, 1997): 1-3.
19. Reviews of this historiography include: Richard White, "Historiographic Essay; American Environmental History: The Development of a New Historical Field," Pacific Historical Review (1985): 297-335; Donald Worster, "Doing Environmental History," in idem., ed., The Ends of the Earth (New York, 1988); Alfred Crosby, "The Past and Present of Environmental History," American Historical Review 100 (1995): 1177-89; J. Donald Hughes, "Whither Environmental History," American Society for Environmental History News 8 (Autumn, 1997): 1-3.
20. Reviews of this historiography include: Richard White, "Historiographic Essay; American Environmental History: The Development of a New Historical Field," Pacific Historical Review (1985): 297-335; Donald Worster, "Doing Environmental History," in idem., ed., The Ends of the Earth (New York, 1988); Alfred Crosby, "The Past and Present of Environmental History," American Historical Review 100 (1995): 1177-89; J. Donald Hughes, "Whither Environmental History," American Society for Environmental History News 8 (Autumn, 1997): 1-3.
21. The many works offering critiques of capitalism include, Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930's (New York, 1979) and Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985); William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York, 1983); Richard White, Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, Nebr, 1983); and Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions; Nature, Gender and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1987).
22. The many works offering critiques of capitalism include, Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930's (New York, 1979) and Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985); William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York, 1983); Richard White, Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, Nebr, 1983); and Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions; Nature, Gender and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1987).
23. The many works offering critiques of capitalism include, Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930's (New York, 1979) and Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985); William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York, 1983); Richard White, Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, Nebr, 1983); and Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions; Nature, Gender and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1987).
24. The many works offering critiques of capitalism include, Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930's (New York, 1979) and Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985); William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York, 1983); Richard White, Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, Nebr, 1983); and Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions; Nature, Gender and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1987).
25. The many works offering critiques of capitalism include, Donald Worster, Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930's (New York, 1979) and Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York, 1985); William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York, 1983); Richard White, Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, Nebr, 1983); and Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions; Nature, Gender and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1987).
26. Samuel Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (1959; edition used, New York, 1975); Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (third edition; New Haven, 1982); Susan Schrepfer, The Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of Environmental Reform, 1917-1978 (Madison, Wisc., 1983); Michael Cohen, The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness (Madison, Wisc., 1984); Stephen Fox, John Muir and His Legacy: The American Conservation Movement (Boston, 1981); on agriculture, see most works cited in footnote 5.
27. Samuel Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (1959; edition used, New York, 1975); Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (third edition; New Haven, 1982); Susan Schrepfer, The Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of Environmental Reform, 1917-1978 (Madison, Wisc., 1983); Michael Cohen, The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness (Madison, Wisc., 1984); Stephen Fox, John Muir and His Legacy: The American Conservation Movement (Boston, 1981); on agriculture, see most works cited in footnote 5.
28. Samuel Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (1959; edition used, New York, 1975); Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (third edition; New Haven, 1982); Susan Schrepfer, The Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of Environmental Reform, 1917-1978 (Madison, Wisc., 1983); Michael Cohen, The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness (Madison, Wisc., 1984); Stephen Fox, John Muir and His Legacy: The American Conservation Movement (Boston, 1981); on agriculture, see most works cited in footnote 5.
29. Samuel Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (1959; edition used, New York, 1975); Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (third edition; New Haven, 1982); Susan Schrepfer, The Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of Environmental Reform, 1917-1978 (Madison, Wisc., 1983); Michael Cohen, The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness (Madison, Wisc., 1984); Stephen Fox, John Muir and His Legacy: The American Conservation Movement (Boston, 1981); on agriculture, see most works cited in footnote 5.
30. Samuel Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (1959; edition used, New York, 1975); Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind (third edition; New Haven, 1982); Susan Schrepfer, The Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of Environmental Reform, 1917-1978 (Madison, Wisc., 1983); Michael Cohen, The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness (Madison, Wisc., 1984); Stephen Fox, John Muir and His Legacy: The American Conservation Movement (Boston, 1981); on agriculture, see most works cited in footnote 5.
31. See Donald Worster, Alfred Crosby, Richard White, Carolyn Merchant, William Cronon, and Stephen J. Pyne, "A Roundtable: Environmental History," Journal of American History 76 (1990): 1087-1147.
32. Jeffrey Stine and Joel Tarr, "At the Intersection of Histories: Technology and the Environment," Technology and Culture 39 (1998): 601-641, see especially 621-225. Quotes are from pp. 621 and 623.
33. Stine and Tarr, 622-623. A big exception is the recent book by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA (Austin, Tex., 1996) on the management of hazardous waste by the chemical industry. Far more typical is David Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy; Du Pont R&D 1902-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1988), which squeezes fine research into that firm's industrial toxicology into a tiny and anomalous corner of its narrative. Histories centered on a single firm deal with environmental questions in a similar vein, see Sheldon Hochheiser, Rohm and Haas: History of A Chemical Company (Philadelphia, 1986); Andrew J. Butrica, Out of Thin Air: A History of Air Products and Chemicals. Inc., 1940-1990 (New York, 1990); and David Oyer and David B. Sicilia, Labors of a Modern Hercules: Evolution of a Chemical Company (Boston, 1990); though see also Fred Aftalion, A History of the International Chemical Industry, trans. Otto Theodor Fenfey (Philadelphia, 1991). Jeffrey Meikle's Plastic: A Cultural History (New Brunswick, N.J., 1996) carves out a more central place in its story for environmental anxieties about plastic, mostly in connection with cancer and biodegradability.
34. Stine and Tarr, 622-623. A big exception is the recent book by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA (Austin, Tex., 1996) on the management of hazardous waste by the chemical industry. Far more typical is David Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy; Du Pont R&D 1902-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1988), which squeezes fine research into that firm's industrial toxicology into a tiny and anomalous corner of its narrative. Histories centered on a single firm deal with environmental questions in a similar vein, see Sheldon Hochheiser, Rohm and Haas: History of A Chemical Company (Philadelphia, 1986); Andrew J. Butrica, Out of Thin Air: A History of Air Products and Chemicals. Inc., 1940-1990 (New York, 1990); and David Oyer and David B. Sicilia, Labors of a Modern Hercules: Evolution of a Chemical Company (Boston, 1990); though see also Fred Aftalion, A History of the International Chemical Industry, trans. Otto Theodor Fenfey (Philadelphia, 1991). Jeffrey Meikle's Plastic: A Cultural History (New Brunswick, N.J., 1996) carves out a more central place in its story for environmental anxieties about plastic, mostly in connection with cancer and biodegradability.
35. Stine and Tarr, 622-623. A big exception is the recent book by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA (Austin, Tex., 1996) on the management of hazardous waste by the chemical industry. Far more typical is David Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy; Du Pont R&D 1902-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1988), which squeezes fine research into that firm's industrial toxicology into a tiny and anomalous corner of its narrative. Histories centered on a single firm deal with environmental questions in a similar vein, see Sheldon Hochheiser, Rohm and Haas: History of A Chemical Company (Philadelphia, 1986); Andrew J. Butrica, Out of Thin Air: A History of Air Products and Chemicals. Inc., 1940-1990 (New York, 1990); and David Oyer and David B. Sicilia, Labors of a Modern Hercules: Evolution of a Chemical Company (Boston, 1990); though see also Fred Aftalion, A History of the International Chemical Industry, trans. Otto Theodor Fenfey (Philadelphia, 1991). Jeffrey Meikle's Plastic: A Cultural History (New Brunswick, N.J., 1996) carves out a more central place in its story for environmental anxieties about plastic, mostly in connection with cancer and biodegradability.
36. Stine and Tarr, 622-623. A big exception is the recent book by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA (Austin, Tex., 1996) on the management of hazardous waste by the chemical industry. Far more typical is David Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy; Du Pont R&D 1902-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1988), which squeezes fine research into that firm's industrial toxicology into a tiny and anomalous corner of its narrative. Histories centered on a single firm deal with environmental questions in a similar vein, see Sheldon Hochheiser, Rohm and Haas: History of A Chemical Company (Philadelphia, 1986); Andrew J. Butrica, Out of Thin Air: A History of Air Products and Chemicals. Inc., 1940-1990 (New York, 1990); and David Oyer and David B. Sicilia, Labors of a Modern Hercules: Evolution of a Chemical Company (Boston, 1990); though see also Fred Aftalion, A History of the International Chemical Industry, trans. Otto Theodor Fenfey (Philadelphia, 1991). Jeffrey Meikle's Plastic: A Cultural History (New Brunswick, N.J., 1996) carves out a more central place in its story for environmental anxieties about plastic, mostly in connection with cancer and biodegradability.
37. Stine and Tarr, 622-623. A big exception is the recent book by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA (Austin, Tex., 1996) on the management of hazardous waste by the chemical industry. Far more typical is David Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy; Du Pont R&D 1902-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1988), which squeezes fine research into that firm's industrial toxicology into a tiny and anomalous corner of its narrative. Histories centered on a single firm deal with environmental questions in a similar vein, see Sheldon Hochheiser, Rohm and Haas: History of A Chemical Company (Philadelphia, 1986); Andrew J. Butrica, Out of Thin Air: A History of Air Products and Chemicals. Inc., 1940-1990 (New York, 1990); and David Oyer and David B. Sicilia, Labors of a Modern Hercules: Evolution of a Chemical Company (Boston, 1990); though see also Fred Aftalion, A History of the International Chemical Industry, trans. Otto Theodor Fenfey (Philadelphia, 1991). Jeffrey Meikle's Plastic: A Cultural History (New Brunswick, N.J., 1996) carves out a more central place in its story for environmental anxieties about plastic, mostly in connection with cancer and biodegradability.
38. Stine and Tarr, 622-623. A big exception is the recent book by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA (Austin, Tex., 1996) on the management of hazardous waste by the chemical industry. Far more typical is David Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy; Du Pont R&D 1902-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1988), which squeezes fine research into that firm's industrial toxicology into a tiny and anomalous corner of its narrative. Histories centered on a single firm deal with environmental questions in a similar vein, see Sheldon Hochheiser, Rohm and Haas: History of A Chemical Company (Philadelphia, 1986); Andrew J. Butrica, Out of Thin Air: A History of Air Products and Chemicals. Inc., 1940-1990 (New York, 1990); and David Oyer and David B. Sicilia, Labors of a Modern Hercules: Evolution of a Chemical Company (Boston, 1990); though see also Fred Aftalion, A History of the International Chemical Industry, trans. Otto Theodor Fenfey (Philadelphia, 1991). Jeffrey Meikle's Plastic: A Cultural History (New Brunswick, N.J., 1996) carves out a more central place in its story for environmental anxieties about plastic, mostly in connection with cancer and biodegradability.
39. Stine and Tarr, 622-623. A big exception is the recent book by Craig E. Colten and Peter N. Skinner, The Road to Love Canal: Managing Industrial Waste before EPA (Austin, Tex., 1996) on the management of hazardous waste by the chemical industry. Far more typical is David Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy; Du Pont R&D 1902-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1988), which squeezes fine research into that firm's industrial toxicology into a tiny and anomalous corner of its narrative. Histories centered on a single firm deal with environmental questions in a similar vein, see Sheldon Hochheiser, Rohm and Haas: History of A Chemical Company (Philadelphia, 1986); Andrew J. Butrica, Out of Thin Air: A History of Air Products and Chemicals. Inc., 1940-1990 (New York, 1990); and David Oyer and David B. Sicilia, Labors of a Modern Hercules: Evolution of a Chemical Company (Boston, 1990); though see also Fred Aftalion, A History of the International Chemical Industry, trans. Otto Theodor Fenfey (Philadelphia, 1991). Jeffrey Meikle's Plastic: A Cultural History (New Brunswick, N.J., 1996) carves out a more central place in its story for environmental anxieties about plastic, mostly in connection with cancer and biodegradability.
40. Philip Scranton and Roger Horowitz, eds., "The Future of Business History," Business and Economic History 26 (1997): 1-281; Christine Meisner Rosen, "Industrial Ecology and the Greening of Business History," Business and Economic History 26 (1997): 123-137.
41. Philip Scranton and Roger Horowitz, eds., "The Future of Business History," Business and Economic History 26 (1997): 1-281; Christine Meisner Rosen, "Industrial Ecology and the Greening of Business History," Business and Economic History 26 (1997): 123-137.
42. For references on recent trends in green packaging, ecotourism, and organic food industry, see N.H. Lampkin and S. Padel, eds., The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective (Oxon, 1994).
43. Robert Gottlieb, ed., Reducing Toxics: A New Approach to Policy and Industrial Decision Making (Washington D.C., 1995). An excellent source of information on developments in environmental regulation in the U.S. and Europe is Business and the Environment published by Cutter Information Corp. beginning in 1990.
44. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
45. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
46. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
47. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
48. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
49. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
50. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
51. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
52. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
53. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
54. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
55. Braden R. Allenby and Deanna J. Richards, eds., The Greening of Industrial Ecosystems (Washington D.C., 1994); Robert Ayres, Industrial Ecology: Towards Closing the Materials Cycle (Cheltenham, UK, 1996); John R. Ehrenfeld, "Industrial Ecology: A Strategic Framework for Product Policy and Other Sustainable Practices," The Second International Conference and Workshop on Product-Oriented Policy, Stockholm (1994); T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Industrial Ecology (Upper Saddle River, N.J., 1995), T.E. Gradel and B.R. Allenby, Design for Environment (Upper Saddle River, N.J, 1996); Tim Jackson, Material Concerns, Pollution Profit and the Quality of Life (London, 1996); E.A. Lowe, J.L. Warren, and S.R. Moran, Discovering Industrial Ecology: An Executive Briefing and Source Book (Columbus, 1997); Robert Sokolow, Industrial Ecology and Global Change (Cambridge, U.K., 1994); Ronald Smith, Profit Centers in Industrial Ecology: The Business Executive's Approach to the Environment (Westport, Conn., 1998); see also the Journal of Industrial Ecology, which began in 1997 out of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. A useful but already somewhat outdated reference book on this topic is Peter Groenewegen, The Greening of Industry Resource Guide and Bibliography (Washington D.C., 1996). See also Business and the Environment.
56. Robert Costanza, An Introduction to Ecological Economics (Boca Raton, Fla., 1997); Malte Michael Faber, Ecological Economics: Concepts and Methods (Cheltenham, U.K., 1996); A.-M. Jansen, ed., Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability (Washington, D.C., 1994); Robert Costanza, ed., Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability (New York, 1991); Thomas Prugh et. al., Natural Capital and Human Economic Survival (Solomons, Md., 1995); Herman Daly, "On Economics as a Life Science," Journal of Political Economy 76 (1968): 392-406. These approaches mostly extend the resource economics developed by Harold Hoteling ("The Economics of Exhaustible Resources," Journal of Political Economy 39 [1939]: 137ff.) and others to a growing range of natural, heretofore unpriced entities defined by ecologists and other natural scientists. Economists interested in this endeavor founded the International Society for Ecological Economics in the early 1990s.
57. Robert Costanza, An Introduction to Ecological Economics (Boca Raton, Fla., 1997); Malte Michael Faber, Ecological Economics: Concepts and Methods (Cheltenham, U.K., 1996); A.-M. Jansen, ed., Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability (Washington, D.C., 1994); Robert Costanza, ed., Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability (New York, 1991); Thomas Prugh et. al., Natural Capital and Human Economic Survival (Solomons, Md., 1995); Herman Daly, "On Economics as a Life Science," Journal of Political Economy 76 (1968): 392-406. These approaches mostly extend the resource economics developed by Harold Hoteling ("The Economics of Exhaustible Resources," Journal of Political Economy 39 [1939]: 137ff.) and others to a growing range of natural, heretofore unpriced entities defined by ecologists and other natural scientists. Economists interested in this endeavor founded the International Society for Ecological Economics in the early 1990s.
58. Robert Costanza, An Introduction to Ecological Economics (Boca Raton, Fla., 1997); Malte Michael Faber, Ecological Economics: Concepts and Methods (Cheltenham, U.K., 1996); A.-M. Jansen, ed., Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability (Washington, D.C., 1994); Robert Costanza, ed., Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability (New York, 1991); Thomas Prugh et. al., Natural Capital and Human Economic Survival (Solomons, Md., 1995); Herman Daly, "On Economics as a Life Science," Journal of Political Economy 76 (1968): 392-406. These approaches mostly extend the resource economics developed by Harold Hoteling ("The Economics of Exhaustible Resources," Journal of Political Economy 39 [1939]: 137ff.) and others to a growing range of natural, heretofore unpriced entities defined by ecologists and other natural scientists. Economists interested in this endeavor founded the International Society for Ecological Economics in the early 1990s.
59. Robert Costanza, An Introduction to Ecological Economics (Boca Raton, Fla., 1997); Malte Michael Faber, Ecological Economics: Concepts and Methods (Cheltenham, U.K., 1996); A.-M. Jansen, ed., Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability (Washington, D.C., 1994); Robert Costanza, ed., Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability (New York, 1991); Thomas Prugh et. al., Natural Capital and Human Economic Survival (Solomons, Md., 1995); Herman Daly, "On Economics as a Life Science," Journal of Political Economy 76 (1968): 392-406. These approaches mostly extend the resource economics developed by Harold Hoteling ("The Economics of Exhaustible Resources," Journal of Political Economy 39 [1939]: 137ff.) and others to a growing range of natural, heretofore unpriced entities defined by ecologists and other natural scientists. Economists interested in this endeavor founded the International Society for Ecological Economics in the early 1990s.
60. Robert Costanza, An Introduction to Ecological Economics (Boca Raton, Fla., 1997); Malte Michael Faber, Ecological Economics: Concepts and Methods (Cheltenham, U.K., 1996); A.-M. Jansen, ed., Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability (Washington, D.C., 1994); Robert Costanza, ed., Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability (New York, 1991); Thomas Prugh et. al., Natural Capital and Human Economic Survival (Solomons, Md., 1995); Herman Daly, "On Economics as a Life Science," Journal of Political Economy 76 (1968): 392-406. These approaches mostly extend the resource economics developed by Harold Hoteling ("The Economics of Exhaustible Resources," Journal of Political Economy 39 [1939]: 137ff.) and others to a growing range of natural, heretofore unpriced entities defined by ecologists and other natural scientists. Economists interested in this endeavor founded the International Society for Ecological Economics in the early 1990s.
61. Robert Costanza, An Introduction to Ecological Economics (Boca Raton, Fla., 1997); Malte Michael Faber, Ecological Economics: Concepts and Methods (Cheltenham, U.K., 1996); A.-M. Jansen, ed., Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability (Washington, D.C., 1994); Robert Costanza, ed., Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability (New York, 1991); Thomas Prugh et. al., Natural Capital and Human Economic Survival (Solomons, Md., 1995); Herman Daly, "On Economics as a Life Science," Journal of Political Economy 76 (1968): 392-406. These approaches mostly extend the resource economics developed by Harold Hoteling ("The Economics of Exhaustible Resources," Journal of Political Economy 39 [1939]: 137ff.) and others to a growing range of natural, heretofore unpriced entities defined by ecologists and other natural scientists. Economists interested in this endeavor founded the International Society for Ecological Economics in the early 1990s.
62. Robert Costanza, An Introduction to Ecological Economics (Boca Raton, Fla., 1997); Malte Michael Faber, Ecological Economics: Concepts and Methods (Cheltenham, U.K., 1996); A.-M. Jansen, ed., Investing in Natural Capital: The Ecological Economics Approach to Sustainability (Washington, D.C., 1994); Robert Costanza, ed., Ecological Economics: The Science and Management of Sustainability (New York, 1991); Thomas Prugh et. al., Natural Capital and Human Economic Survival (Solomons, Md., 1995); Herman Daly, "On Economics as a Life Science," Journal of Political Economy 76 (1968): 392-406. These approaches mostly extend the resource economics developed by Harold Hoteling ("The Economics of Exhaustible Resources," Journal of Political Economy 39 [1939]: 137ff.) and others to a growing range of natural, heretofore unpriced entities defined by ecologists and other natural scientists. Economists interested in this endeavor founded the International Society for Ecological Economics in the early 1990s.
63. Michael Kraft and Norman Vig, "Environmental Policy from the 1970's to the 1990's," in Kraft and Vid, eds., Environmental Policy in the 1990's (Washington, D.C, 1994); Harnessing Market Forces to Protect Our Environment: Initiatives for the New President, A Public Policy Study Sponsored by Senator Timothy E. Wirth, Colorado, and Senator John Heinz, Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C., 1988); see also the critical commentary by Samuel Hays in "The Future of Environmental Regulation," in Explorations in Environmental History (Pittsburgh, 1998), 109-114.
64. Michael Kraft and Norman Vig, "Environmental Policy from the 1970's to the 1990's," in Kraft and Vid, eds., Environmental Policy in the 1990's (Washington, D.C, 1994); Harnessing Market Forces to Protect Our Environment: Initiatives for the New President, A Public Policy Study Sponsored by Senator Timothy E. Wirth, Colorado, and Senator John Heinz, Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C., 1988); see also the critical commentary by Samuel Hays in "The Future of Environmental Regulation," in Explorations in Environmental History (Pittsburgh, 1998), 109-114.
65. Michael Kraft and Norman Vig, "Environmental Policy from the 1970's to the 1990's," in Kraft and Vid, eds., Environmental Policy in the 1990's (Washington, D.C, 1994); Harnessing Market Forces to Protect Our Environment: Initiatives for the New President, A Public Policy Study Sponsored by Senator Timothy E. Wirth, Colorado, and Senator John Heinz, Pennsylvania (Washington, D.C., 1988); see also the critical commentary by Samuel Hays in "The Future of Environmental Regulation," in Explorations in Environmental History (Pittsburgh, 1998), 109-114.
66. Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C., 1993); Laura Pulido, Environmentalism and Economic Justice: Two Chicano Struggles in the Southwest (Tucson, 1996); Eileen Maura McGurty, "From NIMBY to Civil Rights: The Origins of the Environmental Justice Movement," Environmental History 2 (1997): 301-23; Temma Kaplan, Crazy for Democracy: Women's Grassroots Movements in the U.S. and South Africa (New York, 1996).
67. Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American
68. Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C., 1993); Laura Pulido, Environmentalism and Economic Justice: Two Chicano Struggles in the Southwest (Tucson, 1996); Eileen Maura McGurty, "From NIMBY to Civil Rights: The Origins of the Environmental Justice Movement," Environmental History 2 (1997): 301-23; Temma Kaplan, Crazy for Democracy: Women's Grassroots Movements in the U.S. and South Africa (New York, 1996).
69. Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C., 1993); Laura Pulido, Environmentalism and Economic Justice: Two Chicano Struggles in the Southwest (Tucson, 1996); Eileen Maura McGurty, "From NIMBY to Civil Rights: The Origins of the Environmental Justice Movement," Environmental History 2 (1997): 301-23; Temma Kaplan, Crazy for Democracy: Women's Grassroots Movements in the U.S. and South Africa (New York, 1996).
70. William Cronon's award winning Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991) marked the emergence of this new attitude. For evidence of its spread and growing influence, see Char Miller and Hal Rothman, eds., Out of the Woods: Essays in Environmental History (Pittsburgh, 1997) and William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
71. William Cronon's award winning Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991) marked the emergence of this new attitude. For evidence of its spread and growing influence, see Char Miller and Hal Rothman, eds., Out of the Woods: Essays in Environmental History (Pittsburgh, 1997) and William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
72. William Cronon's award winning Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991) marked the emergence of this new attitude. For evidence of its spread and growing influence, see Char Miller and Hal Rothman, eds., Out of the Woods: Essays in Environmental History (Pittsburgh, 1997) and William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
73. Philip Scranton and Roger Horowitz, "'The Future of Business History': An Introduction," Business and Economic History 26 (1997): 3-4.
74. "Nature-culture" is from Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Cambridge, U.K., 1993), 7, 96, 105-09. Other representatives of a vast emerging literature include, in science history, Mikolas Teich, Roy Porter, and Bo Gustaffson, Nature and Society in Historical Context (Cambridge, U.K., 1997); in anthropology, Klaus Seeland, ed., Nature Is Culture: Indigenous Knowledge and Socio-Cultural Aspects of Trees and Forests in Non-European Cultures (London, 1997); Philippe Descola and Gísli Pálsson, eds., Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives (London, 1996); in sociology, Raymond Murphy, Sociology and Nature: Social Action in Context, (Boulder, Colo., 1997); and in cultural studies, Tom Jagtenberg, Eco-impacts and the Greening of Postmodernity: New Maps for Communication Studies, Cultural Studies, and Sociology (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1997). For environmental history, see William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
75. "Nature-culture" is from Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Cambridge, U.K., 1993), 7, 96, 105-09. Other representatives of a vast emerging literature include, in science history, Mikolas Teich, Roy Porter, and Bo Gustaffson, Nature and Society in Historical Context (Cambridge, U.K., 1997); in anthropology, Klaus Seeland, ed., Nature Is Culture: Indigenous Knowledge and Socio-Cultural Aspects of Trees and Forests in Non-European Cultures (London, 1997); Philippe Descola and Gísli Pálsson, eds., Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives (London, 1996); in sociology, Raymond Murphy, Sociology and Nature: Social Action in Context, (Boulder, Colo., 1997); and in cultural studies, Tom Jagtenberg, Eco-impacts and the Greening of Postmodernity: New Maps for Communication Studies, Cultural Studies, and Sociology (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1997). For environmental history, see William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
76. "Nature-culture" is from Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Cambridge, U.K., 1993), 7, 96, 105-09. Other representatives of a vast emerging literature include, in science history, Mikolas Teich, Roy Porter, and Bo Gustaffson, Nature and Society in Historical Context (Cambridge, U.K., 1997); in anthropology, Klaus Seeland, ed., Nature Is Culture: Indigenous Knowledge and Socio-Cultural Aspects of Trees and Forests in Non-European Cultures (London, 1997); Philippe Descola and Gísli Pálsson, eds., Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives (London, 1996); in sociology, Raymond Murphy, Sociology and Nature: Social Action in Context, (Boulder, Colo., 1997); and in cultural studies, Tom Jagtenberg, Eco-impacts and the Greening of Postmodernity: New Maps for Communication Studies, Cultural Studies, and Sociology (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1997). For environmental history, see William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
77. "Nature-culture" is from Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Cambridge, U.K., 1993), 7, 96, 105-09. Other representatives of a vast emerging literature include, in science history, Mikolas Teich, Roy Porter, and Bo Gustaffson, Nature and Society in Historical Context (Cambridge, U.K., 1997); in anthropology, Klaus Seeland, ed., Nature Is Culture: Indigenous Knowledge and Socio-Cultural Aspects of Trees and Forests in Non-European Cultures (London, 1997); Philippe Descola and Gísli Pálsson, eds., Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives (London, 1996); in sociology, Raymond Murphy, Sociology and Nature: Social Action in Context, (Boulder, Colo., 1997); and in cultural studies, Tom Jagtenberg, Eco-impacts and the Greening of Postmodernity: New Maps for Communication Studies, Cultural Studies, and Sociology (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1997). For environmental history, see William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
78. "Nature-culture" is from Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Cambridge, U.K., 1993), 7, 96, 105-09. Other representatives of a vast emerging literature include, in science history, Mikolas Teich, Roy Porter, and Bo Gustaffson, Nature and Society in Historical Context (Cambridge, U.K., 1997); in anthropology, Klaus Seeland, ed., Nature Is Culture: Indigenous Knowledge and Socio-Cultural Aspects of Trees and Forests in Non-European Cultures (London, 1997); Philippe Descola and Gísli Pálsson, eds., Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives (London, 1996); in sociology, Raymond Murphy, Sociology and Nature: Social Action in Context, (Boulder, Colo., 1997); and in cultural studies, Tom Jagtenberg, Eco-impacts and the Greening of Postmodernity: New Maps for Communication Studies, Cultural Studies, and Sociology (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1997). For environmental history, see William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
79. "Nature-culture" is from Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Cambridge, U.K., 1993), 7, 96, 105-09. Other representatives of a vast emerging literature include, in science history, Mikolas Teich, Roy Porter, and Bo Gustaffson, Nature and Society in Historical Context (Cambridge, U.K., 1997); in anthropology, Klaus Seeland, ed., Nature Is Culture: Indigenous Knowledge and Socio-Cultural Aspects of Trees and Forests in Non-European Cultures (London, 1997); Philippe Descola and Gísli Pálsson, eds., Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives (London, 1996); in sociology, Raymond Murphy, Sociology and Nature: Social Action in Context, (Boulder, Colo., 1997); and in cultural studies, Tom Jagtenberg, Eco-impacts and the Greening of Postmodernity: New Maps for Communication Studies, Cultural Studies, and Sociology (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1997). For environmental history, see William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
80. "Nature-culture" is from Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern (Cambridge, U.K., 1993), 7, 96, 105-09. Other representatives of a vast emerging literature include, in science history, Mikolas Teich, Roy Porter, and Bo Gustaffson, Nature and Society in Historical Context (Cambridge, U.K., 1997); in anthropology, Klaus Seeland, ed., Nature Is Culture: Indigenous Knowledge and Socio-Cultural Aspects of Trees and Forests in Non-European Cultures (London, 1997); Philippe Descola and Gísli Pálsson, eds., Nature and Society: Anthropological Perspectives (London, 1996); in sociology, Raymond Murphy, Sociology and Nature: Social Action in Context, (Boulder, Colo., 1997); and in cultural studies, Tom Jagtenberg, Eco-impacts and the Greening of Postmodernity: New Maps for Communication Studies, Cultural Studies, and Sociology (Thousand Oaks, Calif., 1997). For environmental history, see William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature (New York, 1995).
81. See Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London, 1776); David Ricardo, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (London, 1817); Karl Marx, Capital vol. 1 (1872; edition used, New York, 1967), 177-98; A. Marshall, Principles of Economics (London, 1890); A.C. Pigou, The Economics of Welfare (London, 1920). Thanks to Bradley Bateman for sharing his unpublished manuscript on "Supply" that sketches out this history.
82. See Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London, 1776); David Ricardo, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (London, 1817); Karl Marx, Capital vol. 1 (1872; edition used, New York, 1967), 177-98; A. Marshall, Principles of Economics (London, 1890); A.C. Pigou, The Economics of Welfare (London, 1920). Thanks to Bradley Bateman for sharing his unpublished manuscript on "Supply" that sketches out this history.
83. See Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London, 1776); David Ricardo, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (London, 1817); Karl Marx, Capital vol. 1 (1872; edition used, New York, 1967), 177-98; A. Marshall, Principles of Economics (London, 1890); A.C. Pigou, The Economics of Welfare (London, 1920). Thanks to Bradley Bateman for sharing his unpublished manuscript on "Supply" that sketches out this history.
84. See Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London, 1776); David Ricardo, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (London, 1817); Karl Marx, Capital vol. 1 (1872; edition used, New York, 1967), 177-98; A. Marshall, Principles of Economics (London, 1890); A.C. Pigou, The Economics of Welfare (London, 1920). Thanks to Bradley Bateman for sharing his unpublished manuscript on "Supply" that sketches out this history.
85. See Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (London, 1776); David Ricardo, On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (London, 1817); Karl Marx, Capital vol. 1 (1872; edition used, New York, 1967), 177-98; A. Marshall, Principles of Economics (London, 1890); A.C. Pigou, The Economics of Welfare (London, 1920). Thanks to Bradley Bateman for sharing his unpublished manuscript on "Supply" that sketches out this history.
86. For instance, Kenneth Arrow, "Dynamic Aspects of Achieving Optimal Allocation of Resources," Econometrica 20 (1952): 86; Idem., "The Future and the Present in Economic Life," Economic Inquiry 16 (1978): 157ff.; R.H. Coase, "The Problem of Social Cost," Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960): Iff.; Robert Solow, "On the Intergenerational Allocation of Natural Resources," Scandanavian Journal of Economics 88 (1986): 141ff; John Krutilla and Anthony Fischer, The Economics of Natural Environments (Baltimore, 1975); Paul Portney and Ruth Haas, eds., Current Issues in Natural Resource Policy (Washington, D.C., 1982); Kenneth Arrow, et al., Benefit-Cost Analysis in Environmental, Health, and Safety Regulation (Washington, D.C., 1996).
87. For instance, Kenneth Arrow, "Dynamic Aspects of Achieving Optimal Allocation of Resources," Econometrica 20 (1952): 86; Idem., "The Future and the Present in Economic Life," Economic Inquiry 16 (1978): 157ff.; R.H. Coase, "The Problem of Social Cost," Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960): Iff.; Robert Solow, "On the Intergenerational Allocation of Natural Resources," Scandanavian Journal of Economics 88 (1986): 141ff; John Krutilla and Anthony Fischer, The Economics of Natural Environments (Baltimore, 1975); Paul Portney and Ruth Haas, eds., Current Issues in Natural Resource Policy (Washington, D.C., 1982); Kenneth Arrow, et al., Benefit-Cost Analysis in Environmental, Health, and Safety Regulation (Washington, D.C., 1996).
88. For instance, Kenneth Arrow, "Dynamic Aspects of Achieving Optimal Allocation of Resources," Econometrica 20 (1952): 86; Idem., "The Future and the Present in Economic Life," Economic Inquiry 16 (1978): 157ff.; R.H. Coase, "The Problem of Social Cost," Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960): Iff.; Robert Solow, "On the Intergenerational Allocation of Natural Resources," Scandanavian Journal of Economics 88 (1986): 141ff; John Krutilla and Anthony Fischer, The Economics of Natural Environments (Baltimore, 1975); Paul Portney and Ruth Haas, eds., Current Issues in Natural Resource Policy (Washington, D.C., 1982); Kenneth Arrow, et al., Benefit-Cost Analysis in Environmental, Health, and Safety Regulation (Washington, D.C., 1996).
89. For instance, Kenneth Arrow, "Dynamic Aspects of Achieving Optimal Allocation of Resources," Econometrica 20 (1952): 86; Idem., "The Future and the Present in Economic Life," Economic Inquiry 16 (1978): 157ff.; R.H. Coase, "The Problem of Social Cost," Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960): Iff.; Robert Solow, "On the Intergenerational Allocation of Natural Resources," Scandanavian Journal of Economics 88 (1986): 141ff; John Krutilla and Anthony Fischer, The Economics of Natural Environments (Baltimore, 1975); Paul Portney and Ruth Haas, eds., Current Issues in Natural Resource Policy (Washington, D.C., 1982); Kenneth Arrow, et al., Benefit-Cost Analysis in Environmental, Health, and Safety Regulation (Washington, D.C., 1996).
90. For instance, Kenneth Arrow, "Dynamic Aspects of Achieving Optimal Allocation of Resources," Econometrica 20 (1952): 86; Idem., "The Future and the Present in Economic Life," Economic Inquiry 16 (1978): 157ff.; R.H. Coase, "The Problem of Social Cost," Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960): Iff.; Robert Solow, "On the Intergenerational Allocation of Natural Resources," Scandanavian Journal of Economics 88 (1986): 141ff; John Krutilla and Anthony Fischer, The Economics of Natural Environments (Baltimore, 1975); Paul Portney and Ruth Haas, eds., Current Issues in Natural Resource Policy (Washington, D.C., 1982); Kenneth Arrow, et al., Benefit-Cost Analysis in Environmental, Health, and Safety Regulation (Washington, D.C., 1996).
91. For instance, Kenneth Arrow, "Dynamic Aspects of Achieving Optimal Allocation of Resources," Econometrica 20 (1952): 86; Idem., "The Future and the Present in Economic Life," Economic Inquiry 16 (1978): 157ff.; R.H. Coase, "The Problem of Social Cost," Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960): Iff.; Robert Solow, "On the Intergenerational Allocation of Natural Resources," Scandanavian Journal of Economics 88 (1986): 141ff; John Krutilla and Anthony Fischer, The Economics of Natural Environments (Baltimore, 1975); Paul Portney and Ruth Haas, eds., Current Issues in Natural Resource Policy (Washington, D.C., 1982); Kenneth Arrow, et al., Benefit-Cost Analysis in Environmental, Health, and Safety Regulation (Washington, D.C., 1996).
92. For instance, Kenneth Arrow, "Dynamic Aspects of Achieving Optimal Allocation of Resources," Econometrica 20 (1952): 86; Idem., "The Future and the Present in Economic Life," Economic Inquiry 16 (1978): 157ff.; R.H. Coase, "The Problem of Social Cost," Journal of Law and Economics 3 (1960): Iff.; Robert Solow, "On the Intergenerational Allocation of Natural Resources," Scandanavian Journal of Economics 88 (1986): 141ff; John Krutilla and Anthony Fischer, The Economics of Natural Environments (Baltimore, 1975); Paul Portney and Ruth Haas, eds., Current Issues in Natural Resource Policy (Washington, D.C., 1982); Kenneth Arrow, et al., Benefit-Cost Analysis in Environmental, Health, and Safety Regulation (Washington, D.C., 1996).
93. For a detailed overview of externalities and other market imperfections and their relevance to market performance and public policy, see Jeffrey M. Perloff, Microeconomics (Reading, Mass., 1999), 369-459, 655-725. For a brief summary of types of market failure and regulatory responses to them see: James M. Carman and Robert G. Harris, "The Political Economy of Regulation: An Analysis of Market Failure" and "The Political Economy of Regulation: Analysis of Regulatory Responses," in S. Prakash Sethi and Cecilia M. Falbe, eds., Business and Society: Dimensions of Conflict and Cooperation (Lexington, 1987), 177-213.
94. For a detailed overview of externalities and other market imperfections and their relevance to market performance and public policy, see Jeffrey M. Perloff, Microeconomics (Reading, Mass., 1999), 369-459, 655-725. For a brief summary of types of market failure and regulatory responses to them see: James M. Carman and Robert G. Harris, "The Political Economy of Regulation: An Analysis of Market Failure" and "The Political Economy of Regulation: Analysis of Regulatory Responses," in S. Prakash Sethi and Cecilia M. Falbe, eds., Business and Society: Dimensions of Conflict and Cooperation (Lexington, 1987), 177-213.
95. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science 162 (1968): 1243-48; quote comes from T O'Riordan and R.K. Turner, An Annotated Reader in Environmental Planning and Management (Oxford, U.K., 1983); for the general "commons" literature, see Garrett Hardin and John Baden, eds., Managing the Commons (San Francisco, Calif, 1977); Bonnie J. Mcay and James Acheson, eds., The Question of the Commons: The Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources (Tucson, Ariz., 1987). The best-known explicit adaptation of this model to environmental history is by Arthur McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1986); also Marvin Soroos, "The International Commons: A Historical Perspective," Environmental Review 12 (1988): 1-22; Louis Warren, The Hunter's Came; Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn., 1997). Much environmental history has been guided less explicitly by this model.
96. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science 162 (1968): 1243-48; quote comes from T O'Riordan and R.K. Turner, An Annotated Reader in Environmental Planning and Management (Oxford, U.K., 1983); for the general "commons" literature, see Garrett Hardin and John Baden, eds., Managing the Commons (San Francisco, Calif, 1977); Bonnie J. Mcay and James Acheson, eds., The Question of the Commons: The Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources (Tucson, Ariz., 1987). The best-known explicit adaptation of this model to environmental history is by Arthur McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1986); also Marvin Soroos, "The International Commons: A Historical Perspective," Environmental Review 12 (1988): 1-22; Louis Warren, The Hunter's Came; Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn., 1997). Much environmental history has been guided less explicitly by this model.
97. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science 162 (1968): 1243-48; quote comes from T O'Riordan and R.K. Turner, An Annotated Reader in Environmental Planning and Management (Oxford, U.K., 1983); for the general "commons" literature, see Garrett Hardin and John Baden, eds., Managing the Commons (San Francisco, Calif, 1977); Bonnie J. Mcay and James Acheson, eds., The Question of the Commons: The Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources (Tucson, Ariz., 1987). The best-known explicit adaptation of this model to environmental history is by Arthur McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1986); also Marvin Soroos, "The International Commons: A Historical Perspective," Environmental Review 12 (1988): 1-22; Louis Warren, The Hunter's Came; Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn., 1997). Much environmental history has been guided less explicitly by this model.
98. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science 162 (1968): 1243-48; quote comes from T O'Riordan and R.K. Turner, An Annotated Reader in Environmental Planning and Management (Oxford, U.K., 1983); for the general "commons" literature, see Garrett Hardin and John Baden, eds., Managing the Commons (San Francisco, Calif, 1977); Bonnie J. Mcay and James Acheson, eds., The Question of the Commons: The Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources (Tucson, Ariz., 1987). The best-known explicit adaptation of this model to environmental history is by Arthur McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1986); also Marvin Soroos, "The International Commons: A Historical Perspective," Environmental Review 12 (1988): 1-22; Louis Warren, The Hunter's Came; Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn., 1997). Much environmental history has been guided less explicitly by this model.
99. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science 162 (1968): 1243-48; quote comes from T O'Riordan and R.K. Turner, An Annotated Reader in Environmental Planning and Management (Oxford, U.K., 1983); for the general "commons" literature, see Garrett Hardin and John Baden, eds., Managing the Commons (San Francisco, Calif, 1977); Bonnie J. Mcay and James Acheson, eds., The Question of the Commons: The Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources (Tucson, Ariz., 1987). The best-known explicit adaptation of this model to environmental history is by Arthur McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1986); also Marvin Soroos, "The International Commons: A Historical Perspective," Environmental Review 12 (1988): 1-22; Louis Warren, The Hunter's Came; Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn., 1997). Much environmental history has been guided less explicitly by this model.
100. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science 162 (1968): 1243-48; quote comes from T O'Riordan and R.K. Turner, An Annotated Reader in Environmental Planning and Management (Oxford, U.K., 1983); for the general "commons" literature, see Garrett Hardin and John Baden, eds., Managing the Commons (San Francisco, Calif, 1977); Bonnie J. Mcay and James Acheson, eds., The Question of the Commons: The Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources (Tucson, Ariz., 1987). The best-known explicit adaptation of this model to environmental history is by Arthur McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1986); also Marvin Soroos, "The International Commons: A Historical Perspective," Environmental Review 12 (1988): 1-22; Louis Warren, The Hunter's Came; Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn., 1997). Much environmental history has been guided less explicitly by this model.
101. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons," Science 162 (1968): 1243-48; quote comes from T O'Riordan and R.K. Turner, An Annotated Reader in Environmental Planning and Management (Oxford, U.K., 1983); for the general "commons" literature, see Garrett Hardin and John Baden, eds., Managing the Commons (San Francisco, Calif, 1977); Bonnie J. Mcay and James Acheson, eds., The Question of the Commons: The Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources (Tucson, Ariz., 1987). The best-known explicit adaptation of this model to environmental history is by Arthur McEvoy, The Fisherman's Problem: Ecology and Law in the California Fisheries, 1850-1980 (Cambridge, U.K., 1986); also Marvin Soroos, "The International Commons: A Historical Perspective," Environmental Review 12 (1988): 1-22; Louis Warren, The Hunter's Came; Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn., 1997). Much environmental history has been guided less explicitly by this model.
102. Christine Meisner Rosen, "Businessmen Against Pollution in Late Nineteenth Century Chicago," Business History Review 71 (Fall 1995): 351-397. See also critiques of the commons model such as those by Bonnie J. McCay ("The Ocean Commons and Community," Dalhausie Review 74 ([1994-95]: 311-338), Arthur McEvoy, and Louis Warren which call for "a more anthropological approach" (quote from McCay, 316).
103. Christine Meisner Rosen, "Businessmen Against Pollution in Late Nineteenth Century Chicago," Business History Review 71 (Fall 1995): 351-397. See also critiques of the commons model such as those by Bonnie J. McCay ("The Ocean Commons and Community," Dalhausie Review 74 ([1994-95]: 311-338), Arthur McEvoy, and Louis Warren which call for "a more anthropological approach" (quote from McCay, 316).
104. Christopher Sellers, Hazards of the Job: From Industrial Disease to Environmental Health Science (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997).
105. Karl Marx, The German Ideology: Including Theses on Feuerhach and Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy (edition used; Amherst, N.Y., 1998), 170.
106. Richard White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York, 1995).
107. The following conceptualization of materials and energy flows is derived from work being done in the emerging field of "industrial ecology." See citations at n. 14. For further discussion of the concept see: Robert A. Frosch and Nicholas E. Gallopoulos, "Strategies for Manufacturing," Readings from Scientific American: Managing Planet Earth (New York, 1990), 18-26; T.E. Graedel, B.R. Allenby, and P.B. Linhard, "Implementing Industrial Ecology," IEEE Technology and Society Magazine (Spring, 1993): 18-26; and Hardin Tibbs, "Industrial Ecology: An Environmental Agenda for Industry," Arthur D. Little, Inc. (1991). For further development of the ways in which the industrial ecology concept can be fruitfully applied in business history see Rosen, "Industrial Ecology and the Greening of Business History."
108. The following conceptualization of materials and energy flows is derived from work being done in the emerging field of "industrial ecology." See citations at n. 14. For further discussion of the concept see: Robert A. Frosch and Nicholas E. Gallopoulos, "Strategies for Manufacturing," Readings from Scientific American: Managing Planet Earth (New York, 1990), 18-26; T.E. Graedel, B.R. Allenby, and P.B. Linhard, "Implementing Industrial Ecology," IEEE Technology and Society Magazine (Spring, 1993): 18-26; and Hardin Tibbs, "Industrial Ecology: An Environmental Agenda for Industry," Arthur D. Little, Inc. (1991). For further development of the ways in which the industrial ecology concept can be fruitfully applied in business history see Rosen, "Industrial Ecology and the Greening of Business History."
109. The following conceptualization of materials and energy flows is derived from work being done in the emerging field of "industrial ecology." See citations at n. 14. For further discussion of the concept see: Robert A. Frosch and Nicholas E. Gallopoulos, "Strategies for Manufacturing," Readings from Scientific American: Managing Planet Earth (New York, 1990), 18-26; T.E. Graedel, B.R. Allenby, and P.B. Linhard, "Implementing Industrial Ecology," IEEE Technology and Society Magazine (Spring, 1993): 18-26; and Hardin Tibbs, "Industrial Ecology: An Environmental Agenda for Industry," Arthur D. Little, Inc. (1991). For further development of the ways in which the industrial ecology concept can be fruitfully applied in business history see Rosen, "Industrial Ecology and the Greening of Business History."
110. The following conceptualization of materials and energy flows is derived from work being done in the emerging field of "industrial ecology." See citations at n. 14. For further discussion of the concept see: Robert A. Frosch and Nicholas E. Gallopoulos, "Strategies for Manufacturing," Readings from Scientific American: Managing Planet Earth (New York, 1990), 18-26; T.E. Graedel, B.R. Allenby, and P.B. Linhard, "Implementing Industrial Ecology," IEEE Technology and Society Magazine (Spring, 1993): 18-26; and Hardin Tibbs, "Industrial Ecology: An Environmental Agenda for Industry," Arthur D. Little, Inc. (1991). For further development of the ways in which the industrial ecology concept can be fruitfully applied in business history see Rosen, "Industrial Ecology and the Greening of Business History."
111. See for instance Kenneth Arrow, "Informational Structure of the Firm," American Economic Review 75 (1985): 303ff; Idem., "Exposition of the Theory of Choice under Uncertainty," Synthese 16 (1966): 253ff.
112. See for instance Kenneth Arrow, "Informational Structure of the Firm," American Economic Review 75 (1985): 303ff; Idem., "Exposition of the Theory of Choice under Uncertainty," Synthese 16 (1966): 253ff.
113. Path-breaking varieties of this approach are Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Social Contraction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills, Calif, 1979); and Steve Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyles, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, 1985). For a sense of the range of approaches that then evolved in science studies, see Andrew Pickering, ed., Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, 1992). For culturalist perspectives on knowledges of special relevance to business history, see Michael Power, ed., Accounting and Science; Natural Inquiry and Commercial Reason (Cambridge, U.K., 1994).
114. Path-breaking varieties of this approach are Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Social Contraction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills, Calif, 1979); and Steve Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyles, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, 1985). For a sense of the range of approaches that then evolved in science studies, see Andrew Pickering, ed., Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, 1992). For culturalist perspectives on knowledges of special relevance to business history, see Michael Power, ed., Accounting and Science; Natural Inquiry and Commercial Reason (Cambridge, U.K., 1994).
115. Path-breaking varieties of this approach are Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Social Contraction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills, Calif, 1979); and Steve Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyles, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, 1985). For a sense of the range of approaches that then evolved in science studies, see Andrew Pickering, ed., Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, 1992). For culturalist perspectives on knowledges of special relevance to business history, see Michael Power, ed., Accounting and Science; Natural Inquiry and Commercial Reason (Cambridge, U.K., 1994).
116. Path-breaking varieties of this approach are Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Social Contraction of Scientific Facts (Beverly Hills, Calif, 1979); and Steve Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyles, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, 1985). For a sense of the range of approaches that then evolved in science studies, see Andrew Pickering, ed., Science as Practice and Culture (Chicago, 1992). For culturalist perspectives on knowledges of special relevance to business history, see Michael Power, ed., Accounting and Science; Natural Inquiry and Commercial Reason (Cambridge, U.K., 1994).
117. For a critique of business historians' more recent neglect of "power" questions, see Louis Galambos, "What Makes Us Think We Can Put Business Back into American History?" Business and Economic History 20 (1991): esp. 9-10.