Frontiers into assets: The social construction of property in New Zealand, 1840-65

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 27, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 17-54

  Weaver, John C ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033246946     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086539908583072     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York, 1994), 9.
2. Robert W. Gordon, 'Paradoxical property', in Early Modern Conceptions of Property, edited by John Brewer and Susan Staves (London, 1996), 95.
3. See for example John Wilson, Reminiscences of the Early Settlement of Dunedin and South Otago (Dunedin, 1912), 120.
4. Alice, Lady Lovat, The Life of Frederick Weld G.C.M.G.: A Pioneer of Empire (London, 1914), 20.
5. John Shaw to Robert Godley, 12 Feb. 1851, 6/3, 280, Canterbury Association Papers, National Archives of New Zealand, Christchurch (hereafter CH).
6. Samuel Butler, A First Year in Canterbury Settlement with Other Early Essays, ed. R.A. Streatfeild (London, 1923), 98.
7. Alfred Duncan, Wakatipians: or Early Days in New Zealand (London, 1888), 3.
8. The early European population in New Zealand was established in enclaves or 'factories'. See Joseph Weller and others to His Excellency the Governor, Richard Bourke, 21 Aug. 1834, Weller Brothers Papers, 1832-41 (copies of originals in the Mitchell Library, Sydney), folder 1, MS 872, Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library of New Zealand (hereafter ATL).
9. William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York, 1983), 33.
10. Ann Parsonson, 'The Pursuit of Mana', in The Oxford History of New Zealand ed. W.H. Oliver with B.R. Williams (Oxford, 1981), 147-50; Angela Ballara, 'The Pursuit of Mana? A Re-evaluation of the Process of Land Alienation by the Maori', Journal of the Polynesian Society, 91, 4 (Dec. 1892), 519-41. A succinct discussion of Maori title that retains merit is found in Ian Wards, The Shadow of the Land: A Study of British Policy and Racial Conflict in New Zealand, 1832-1852 (Wellington, 1968), 55-6. The idea of negotiated arrangements between Maori and Europeans is a well-developed theme in James Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century (Auckland, 1996), 141-277.
11. Ann Parsonson, 'The Pursuit of Mana', in The Oxford History of New Zealand ed. W.H. Oliver with B.R. Williams (Oxford, 1981), 147-50; Angela Ballara, 'The Pursuit of Mana? A Re-evaluation of the Process of Land Alienation by the Maori', Journal of the Polynesian Society, 91, 4 (Dec. 1892), 519-41. A succinct discussion of Maori title that retains merit is found in Ian Wards, The Shadow of the Land: A Study of British Policy and Racial Conflict in New Zealand, 1832-1852 (Wellington, 1968), 55-6. The idea of negotiated arrangements between Maori and Europeans is a well-developed theme in James Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century (Auckland, 1996), 141-277.
12. Ann Parsonson, 'The Pursuit of Mana', in The Oxford History of New Zealand ed. W.H. Oliver with B.R. Williams (Oxford, 1981), 147-50; Angela Ballara, 'The Pursuit of Mana? A Re-evaluation of the Process of Land Alienation by the Maori', Journal of the Polynesian Society, 91, 4 (Dec. 1892), 519-41. A succinct discussion of Maori title that retains merit is found in Ian Wards, The Shadow of the Land: A Study of British Policy and Racial Conflict in New Zealand, 1832-1852 (Wellington, 1968), 55-6. The idea of negotiated arrangements between Maori and Europeans is a well-developed theme in James Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century (Auckland, 1996), 141-277.
13. Ann Parsonson, 'The Pursuit of Mana', in The Oxford History of New Zealand ed. W.H. Oliver with B.R. Williams (Oxford, 1981), 147-50; Angela Ballara, 'The Pursuit of Mana? A Re-evaluation of the Process of Land Alienation by the Maori', Journal of the Polynesian Society, 91, 4 (Dec. 1892), 519-41. A succinct discussion of Maori title that retains merit is found in Ian Wards, The Shadow of the Land: A Study of British Policy and Racial Conflict in New Zealand, 1832-1852 (Wellington, 1968), 55-6. The idea of negotiated arrangements between Maori and Europeans is a well-developed theme in James Belich, Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century (Auckland, 1996), 141-277.
14. Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions: Nature, Gender, and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, 1989); Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, 1983); The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republic in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991).
15. Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions: Nature, Gender, and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, 1989); Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, 1983); The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republic in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991).
16. Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions: Nature, Gender, and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, 1989); Richard White, The Roots of Dependency: Subsistence, Environment, and Social Change among the Choctaws, Pawnees, and Navajos (Lincoln, 1983); The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republic in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 1991).
17. For the variety of European attitudes toward the Maori, with particular reference to the formation of New Zealand law and judicial institutions see Alan Ward, A Show of Justice: Racial 'Amalgamation' in Nineteenth Century New Zealand (Toronto, 1973).
18. On ranching frontiers in North America see, Paul C. Henlein, Cattle Kingdom in the Ohio Valley, 1783-1860 (Lexington, 1959); Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers (Albuquerque, 1993).
19. On ranching frontiers in North America see, Paul C. Henlein, Cattle Kingdom in the Ohio Valley, 1783-1860 (Lexington, 1959); Terry Jordan, North American Cattle-Ranching Frontiers (Albuquerque, 1993).
20. In some areas this preference was due in part to explanations about land tenure provided by missionaries. See Paul Goldsmith, Wairarapa (Wellington, 1996), 13-14.
21. Edward Weller to George Weller, 18 May 1840, MS 872, folder 2, ATL.
22. Deed of Sale of Maori Lands to William Wakefield, for the New Zealand Company, 25 Oct. 1839, MS 3730, ATL.
23. Copy of Sir George Gipps' Address in the Legislative Council of New South Wales, 28 May 1840, MS 842, ATL; 'McIntosh v. Symonds in the Supreme Court', New Zealand Government Gazette (Auckland), 7, 11 (6 July 1847), 63-6.
24. Copy of Sir George Gipps' Address in the Legislative Council of New South Wales, 28 May 1840, MS 842, ATL; 'McIntosh v. Symonds in the Supreme Court', New Zealand Government Gazette (Auckland), 7, 11 (6 July 1847), 63-6.
25. Copies of Despatches between Sir George Gipps and William Hobson from the microfilm in the Mitchell Library, Gipps to Hobson, 6 May 1840, MS 843, ATL.
26. Memorandum of Governor George Grey to Colonial Secretary, Alfred Domett [1852], New Munster (hereafter NM) 8/54, 52/497, National Archives, Wellington (hereafter NA).
27. T.C. Harington to William Fox, 4 Aug. 1849, Despatches from the New Zealand Company's Secretary, London, to the Agent, Nelson, New Zealand Company Papers (hereafter NZC) 109/9, 55/49, NA.
28. There is a good discussion of the various groups of Europeans in early New Zealand in Wards, 39-40. He includes the missionaries who are omitted from the current discussion, though they were involved in land issues, as claimants and as advisers to both the Crown and the Maori.
29. The New Zealand Company adopted the scheme of Edward Gibbon Wakefield who proposed that colonial land, if sold at a proper price, could finance immigration. The company entered into purchasing agreements with the Maori and subsequently claimed ownership of about one third of New Zealand. Its claims land were greatly reduced, but it retained substantial territory. During its troubled existence, the company squabbled endlessly with colonial authorities, but company and government shared the common vision of close settlement. For a solid brief history see, 'New Zealand Company', in A.H. McLintock ed., An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, 2 (Wellington, 1966), 658-660. A scholarly history of the company has yet to be written, but for a survey account see Patricia Burns, Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company (Auckland, 1989).
30. The New Zealand Company adopted the scheme of Edward Gibbon Wakefield who proposed that colonial land, if sold at a proper price, could finance immigration. The company entered into purchasing agreements with the Maori and subsequently claimed ownership of about one third of New Zealand. Its claims land were greatly reduced, but it retained substantial territory. During its troubled existence, the company squabbled endlessly with colonial authorities, but company and government shared the common vision of close settlement. For a solid brief history see, 'New Zealand Company', in A.H. McLintock ed., An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, 2 (Wellington, 1966), 658-660. A scholarly history of the company has yet to be written, but for a survey account see Patricia Burns, Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company (Auckland, 1989).
31. Lord John Russell to Captain Hobson, 9 Dec. 1840, 10 March 1841, Ordinary Despatches from the Secretary of State for the Colonies to the Governor of New Zealand, 1, Office of the Governor General (hereafter G) 1/1, NA.
32. The Australian Agricultural Company was something of an exception, but instead of tenants it was to run with a labour force of convicts.
33. Harington to William Wakefield, 12 Nov. 1847, Despatches from the Company's Secretary, London, to the Principal Agent, wellington, NZC 102/17, NA.
34. Lord John Russell's Instructions to the First Governor of New Zealand, 9 Dec. 1840, MS 878, ATL.
35. Ibid.
36. The term leasing is sometimes used, but it may not always be appropriate, because the agreements were not of a single type. Some were verbal; some were written. The written ones I have seen were not in a legal format.
37. Hobson to Gipps, 16 Feb. 1841, Despatches to Governor George Gipps from Lieutenant-Governor William Hobson, 41/15, G 36/1a, NA.
38. H. Wayne Morgan and Anne Hodges Morgan, Oklahoma: A Bicentennial History (New York, 1977), 37-8.
39. New Zealand Gazette, 4, 10 (26 March 1844), 68-9.
40. Hobson to Gipps, 24 Dec. 1839, 39/1, G 36/1a, NA.
41. On the organization of a New Zealand speculators lobby, see John Clarke to George Weller, MS 872, folder 2, ATL. For Hobson's account of his meeting see, Hobson to Gipps, 16 Jan. 1840, Despatches of Governor Hobson to Sir George Gipps, G 36/1, NA.
42. Copy of a Despatch from Governor FitzRoy to Lord Stanley, 14 Oct. 1844, reproduced as document 23 in Henry Hanson Turton, An Epitome of Official Documents Relating to Native Affairs and Lands in the North Island of New Zealand (Wellington, 1883), np.
43. Stanley told Grey that FitzRoy had been recalled because he had been 'guided by an avowed dread of the resentment and insurrection of the New Zealanders, if he persisted in a line of policy respecting lands and revenues unacceptable to them'. Stanley to Governor Grey, 13 June 1845, 13, G 1/1, NA.
44. Richmond to FitzRoy, 30 March 1844; FitzRoy's minute, 31 May 1844 with enclosures, Internal Affairs (hereafter IA), 1/32, 44/1117, NA. Richmond to FitzRoy, 16 July 1844, Letterbook of the Superintendent, Southern District, to Lieutenant Governor, 1844-6, NM 10/2, NA.
45. 37. On the disturbances see Wards, 95-159, 214-39; Belich, 29-70.
46. On the disturbances see Wards, 95-159, 214-39; Belich, 29-70.
47. On FitzRoy's views about the Treaty of Waitangi, see Wards, 42.
48. Reverend Aldred to FitzRoy, 29 July 1845 and FitzRoy's minute on the same, 8 Aug. 1845, IA 1/44, 45/1748, NA.
49. 'Friends and the Inhabitants of Wairarapa', Oct. 1845 (original in Maori), unnumbered, Miscellaneous Correspondence, Protector of Aborigines, Southern Division, Maori Affairs, Wellington, (MA-W) 1/1.
50. Ward. 'The Treaty', 172.
51. Harington to Earl Grey, 7 April 1848, NZC 102/18, 21/48, NA.
52. Grey to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 15 May 1848, G 23, 3, NA.
53. Extract from Lieutenant-Governor Grey to Lord Stanley, 10 Dec. 1845, document 29 in Turton, An Epitome of Official Documents.
54. Hazel Riseborough and John Hutton, 'The Crown's Engagement with Customary Title in the Nineteenth Century' (Wellington: Waitangi Tribunal Ranganuau Whanui Series, 1997), 34-48.
55. The Taranaki Report (Wellington, 1996), 46-9.
56. Francis Jollie to William Fox, 9 Jan. 1849, Despatches from the Agent, Nelson, NZC 3/19, 4/49, NA. Grey visited Nelson and Jollie reported on a debate he had with Grey over the company's control over the Crown's domain, and whose squatting regulations should apply.
57. Colonial Secretary to the Venerable Archdeacon William Williams and Reverend Robert Maunsell, 5 Dec. 1846; Colonial Secretary to Reverend John Whiteley, 15 Feb. 1846, Governor's Miscellaneous Outward Letters, Letterbook, IA 4/3, NA. Grey to Secretary of State, 27 Nov. 1846, IA 4/3, NA. For Grey's continuing reluctance to prosecute, Domett to William Fox, 13 Sept. 1849; 22 Sept. 1849, 49/796, NM 10/10, NA.
58. Colonial Secretary to Richmond, 20 Nov. 1846, Outgoing Letters to the Superintendent of the Southern Division/New Munster, 1844-8, Governor's Letterbook, IA 4/174, NA.
59. Journal of the Proceedings in the Legislative Council, 11-16 Nov. 1846, New Zealand Gazette Auckland, 4, 20 (25 Nov. 1846), 100.
60. Printed Circular: 'Cattle Company: At a Public Meeting held at Barrett's Hotel, by adjournment, on Tuesday, Dec._, 1848'; Opinion on the Right of Company to grant a license to Mr. Rhodes [1842], Depasturing Licences File, NZC 131/13, NA.
61. Constantine Dillon to Margaret Hamilton, 24 May 1844 in C.A. Sharp (ed.), The Dillon Letters: The Letters of the Hon. Constantine Dillon, 1842-1853 (Wellington, 1844), 27.
62. Journal of the Voyage of Charles Johnson Pharazyn from London to New Zealand, and the Journal of Watarangi Station, 1840-50, page 19, MS 1174, ATL; Joseph Hugh Greenwood, Diary, 1841-7, entries from 1 Jan. 1841 to 2 March 1843, MS 4882, ATL.
63. Andrew Sinclair, Colonial Secretary, to the Commissioner of Crown Lands, Nelson, 29 Feb. 1856 with enclosure, Land and Surveys, Nelson (LS-N) 1/6, 56/47, NA.
64. Belich, 21; J.M. Sherrard, Kaikoura: A History of the District (Kaikoura: Kaikoura County Council, 1966), 91.
65. Belich, 21; J.M. Sherrard, Kaikoura: A History of the District (Kaikoura: Kaikoura County Council, 1966), 91.
66. Wards, 74-8, 84.
67. John Wilson, Reminiscences of the Early Settlement of Dunedin and South Otago (Dunedin, 1912), 44; 118.
68. Joseph Hugh Greenwood, Diary, 1841-7, 13 April 1846, MS 4882, ATL.
69. Domett to Resident Magistrate, Otago, 13 Oct. 1850, 50/567, NM 10/10, NA.
70. For accounts of early Wairarapa squatting see Farming Records of Frederick John Tiffen, Microfilm MS 570, reel 1, ATL. Miriam Macgregor, Early Stations of Hawke's Bay (Wellington, 1970), 186-7.
71. A.G. Bagnell, Wairarapa: An Historical Excursion (Masterton, 1979), 59.
72. William Wakefield to Harington, 30 April 1845, Wellington Duplicate Despatches, NZC 3/5, NA.
73. Richmond to FitzRoy, 19 March 1845, NM 10/2, NA; Report of Thomas Forsaith to Richmond, 29 March 1845, Miscellaneous Correspondence, Maori Affairs, Southern District (MA-W) 1/1, NA.
74. Francis Dillon Bell to William Wakefield, 23 March 1847, Wellington Duplicate Despatches, NZC 3/7, NA.
75. Bagnall, 91.
76. Goldsmith, 5.
77. Mein Smith and others to the Lieutenant Governor, 10 Oct. 1850, 50/1054, Inwards Letters to the Colonial Secretary, New Munster, NM 8/43, NA; Domett to Mein Smith and the Gentlemen signing the Petition to the Lieutenant Governor, 26 Nov. 1850, 50/860, NM 10/10.
78. The recognition that Maori land use agreements would increase the price of lands by increasing Maori familiarity with land values came to William Wakefield during a trip to the Wairarapa Valley. Wakefield to Harington, 30 April 1845, Wellington Duplicate Despatches, NZC 3/5, NA.
79. Dillon Bell to Harington, 31 Dec. 1848, Wellington Duplicate Despatches, 27/48, NZC 3/9. Bell provided an account of the important meeting held by the Executive Council in Oct. 1848, concerning tactics for purchasing land in the Wairarapa Valley.
80. Dishonest seems a fair adjective, because information about the unwillingness of the Crown to prosecute established squatters was denied to Maori chiefs. They were left to make an important decision with incomplete information, and this incompleteness was integral to a conspiracy that involved the government.
81. Minutes of the Executive Council, 4 Oct. 1848, NM 7/1, NA; Domett to H.T. Kemp, 12 Oct. 1848,48/1102, NM 10/9, NA.
82. McLean to Mr. Carrington, 26 March 1847, 47/2, Maori Affairs, Maori Land Purchasing Department, New Plymouth (MA, MLP-NP) 1; Joseph Masters to Dillon Bell, 28 Oct. 1854, 54/282, LS-W 2/3, NA; McLean to Commissioner of Crown Lands, 29 Dec. 1854, 55/21, MA, MLP-NP 2/4, NA.
83. G.B. Earp quoted in A.D. McIntosh, Marlborough: A Provincial History (Blenheim, 1940), 101.
84. McLean to Dillon Bell, 7 Dec. 1853, 53/385, LS-W 2/2, NA.
85. Schedule of Pasturage Licences issued by the Canterbury Association for the Current Year expiring 31st Dec. 1852, Canterbury Association Papers, CH 290 6/6; Pasturage Licences outside the Canterbury Block, CH 290 25/1; Pasturage Allotment Register, 1852-3, CH 290 27/1; Canterbury Association Runs, Pasturage Class 3, 1851-3, CH 290 28/4, Licences to Squat within the Canterbury Settlement (no pre-emptive right) CH 290 29/9; Captain Thomas, Chief Surveyor to Canterbury Association, to Robert Godley 2 Sept. 1851 [report on land available for agriculture and pasturage in the Canterbury Block], 341, CH 290 6/3.
86. Harington to Wakefield, 12 Nov. 1847, NZC 102/17, NA; Jollie to Fox, 7 Feb. 1849, 17/49, NZC 3/19, NA; Harington to Fox, 4 Aug. 1849, NZC 102/19, NA.
87. Fox to Wakefield, 17 March 1847, 6/47, NZC 3/17; Enclosures: 'Resolutions of Meeting of land purchasers held at the Waketa Hotel, 13 Dec. 1848' and 'Resolutions of Meeting convened at the Odd Fellows' Arms, 2 Jan. 1849', 17/49, NZC 3/19, NA.
88. The Memorial of the Undersigned Settlers of Nelson in the Colony of New Zealand, 26 Feb. 1852, Superintendent of the Southern District, Nelson, Incoming Letters (SSD) 1/5, NA.
89. For examples of these promises, see Daniel Dougherty to Domett, 14 Aug. 1847 and Ayre's minute on the same, dated 2 Sept., 47/573, NM 8/20, NA; H.R. Russell to Dillon Bell, 27 Feb. 1856, 52/84, LS-W 2/1, William Fitzherbert to Dillon Bell, 27 Feb. 1856, 56/57, LS-W 2/5, NA.
90. Copy of a Statement by Mr. R. Collins about a Run...with letter relating thereto, 57/46, LS-NA 1/2, NA.
91. For an example of how the applications worked to improve one squatter's claim over that of another, see NA, NM 10/10, 51/354, Domett to C.R. Reed, 26 March 1851.
92. Henry R. Russell to McLean, 20 Oct. 1854, Donald McLean Papers, reel 87, MS 535, ATL.
93. For pressure to buy land see Henry R. Russell to Donald McLean, 20 Oct. 1854, reel 87, MS 535, ATL; Dillon Bell to Domett, 13 Sept. 1854, 54/50, LS-NA, 1/1b, NA. For applications see the correspondence register for the Commissioner of Crown Lands, Hawke's Bay, LS-NA 2/1; J. Ormond to Domett, 15 March 1854, 54/12, LS-NA 1/1b, NA. See also the statement of T.H. Fitzgerald in Government Gazette. Province of Hawkes Bay, 1, 33 (6 Dec. 1860), 182-4. For the active participation of commissioners in allowing squatters onto Maori land, and even moving hypothetical runs onto Maori land to adjust boundaries elsewhere, see Memorandum in the case of Messrs. Grant and Tully, 27 March 1857 and Memorandum in the case of Mssrs. Duncan, Fannin, and Wrogan, March 1857, both at 57/28, LS-NA 1/2, NA. A glimpse into the friction that resulted from condoned trespassing on Maori land is provided in Judith Binney, Redemption Songs: A Life of Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki (Auckland, 1996), 21.
94. For pressure to buy land see Henry R. Russell to Donald McLean, 20 Oct. 1854, reel 87, MS 535, ATL; Dillon Bell to Domett, 13 Sept. 1854, 54/50, LS-NA, 1/1b, NA. For applications see the correspondence register for the Commissioner of Crown Lands, Hawke's Bay, LS-NA 2/1; J. Ormond to Domett, 15 March 1854, 54/12, LS-NA 1/1b, NA. See also the statement of T.H. Fitzgerald in Government Gazette. Province of Hawkes Bay, 1, 33 (6 Dec. 1860), 182-4. For the active participation of commissioners in allowing squatters onto Maori land, and even moving hypothetical runs onto Maori land to adjust boundaries elsewhere, see Memorandum in the case of Messrs. Grant and Tully, 27 March 1857 and Memorandum in the case of Mssrs. Duncan, Fannin, and Wrogan, March 1857, both at 57/28, LS-NA 1/2, NA. A glimpse into the friction that resulted from condoned trespassing on Maori land is provided in Judith Binney, Redemption Songs: A Life of Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki (Auckland, 1996), 21.
95. A proper biography is needed. In the meantime, see James Cowan, Sir Donald Maclean: The Story of a New Zealand Statesman (Wellington, 1940), 1-4. Cowan used McLean's son's spelling of the family name.
96. Cowan, 60.
97. Domett to McLean, 5 Dec. 1850, 50/875, NM, 10/10, NA; McLean to Domett, 2 Dec. 1850, with enclosure, 52/499, NM 8/54, NA.
98. G.H. Scholefield (ed.), A Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, Volume 1, A-L (Wellington, 1940).
99. Alexander Alexander to McLean, 24 Dec. 1850, folder 142, MS 32, Donald McLean Papers, ATL.
100. Alexander to McLean, 24 Dec. 1850; 15 April 1851, folder 142, MS 32, ATL.
101. Cowan, 61-2.
102. When squatters with Maori rental agreements co-operated with the Crown, they received favourable consideration. The Deans at Port Cooper surrendered their run to the Canterbury Association and received another run. Also at Port Cooper, William Rhodes bought the Greenwoods' run and the Crown honoured the terms of the Maori agreement by granting a licence period that extended until the agreement would have expired. See Harry C. Evison, Te Wai Pounamu: The Greenstone Island (Wellington, 1993).
103. Alexander Alexander to Donald McLean, 29 April 1851, folder, MS 32, ATL.
104. Macgregor, 122-3.
105. Alexander to McLean, 29 Nov. 1853, folder 142, McLean Papers, MS 32.
106. Alexander to McLean, 22 Aug. 1864, folder 945, MS 32, ATL.
107. Alexander to McLean, 30 Jan. 1856, folder 142, MS 32, ATL.
108. T. Purvis Russell to McLean, 3 Aug., 1851, reel 87, MS 535, ATL.
109. Wilson, 199.
110. 99. There is an abundant literature on violence in American history and its supposed roots. For better studies see Richard Maxwell Brown, Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism (New York, 1975); David T. Courtwright, Violent Land: Single Men and Social Disorder from the Frontier to the Inner City (Cambridge, MA, 1996.
111. There is an abundant literature on violence in American history and its supposed roots. For better studies see Richard Maxwell Brown, Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism (New York, 1975); David T. Courtwright, Violent Land: Single Men and Social Disorder from the Frontier to the Inner City (Cambridge, MA, 1996.
112. Domett to Dillon Bell, 25 July 1851, 51/6, LS-W 2/1, NA. For squatters' eagerness to have Crown regulations applied, see Walter Mantell to Colonial Secretary, 21 June 1852, 52/839, NM 8/56, NA.
113. From 1851 forward, those graziers who held Crown licences were not squatters. In Australia, these graziers still were called squatters, but in New Zealand the preferred term was runholder. For continuity in this article, the term squatter will be used.
114. John King to W.H. Donald, 8 June 1854, 54/153, LS-W 2/3, NA.
115. Oliver Gillespie, South Canterbury: A Record of Settlement (Timaru, 1971), 71-5.
116. James Campbell to Constamine Dillon, 19 Nov. 1851, 51/70, Lands and Surveys, Nelson Office (LS-N) 1/1, NA; Campbell to Samuel Hodgkinson, 9 Jan. 1852; to Colonial Secretary, 5 April 1852; to Robert and George Rhodes, 29 April 1852; to Colonial Secretary, 21 July 1852; to Stuart Wortly, 26 Nov. 1852; to George Duppa, 18 Feb. 1853; Domett to Campbell 9 April 1853 (copy) James Campbell's Letterbook, CH 290 7/1, NA.
117. Gillespie, 74-5.
118. Mantell to Civil Secretary, 18 Aug. 1853, Letterbook, Mantell Papers, MS 661, ATL.
119. Ibid.
120. Mantell to J. Hyde Harris, 22 Nov. 1851; Mantell to Colonial Secretary, 19 May 1852, MS 661, ATL.
121. Grey to Packington, 11 Aug. 1852, Despatches to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, G 25/5, NA; John Cargill to Grey, 10 May 1852; Cargill to Domett, 18 June 1852; Domett's minute, 28 June 1852, 52/840, NM 8/56, NA.
122. Dean Cowie, Hawke's Bay (Wellington, 1996), 23-130.
123. For Domett's run hunting, see Domett to Donald McLean, 15 July 1854, folder 204, MS 32, ATL. For assessments of him as a Commissioner of Crown Lands, see Donald Gollan to Donald McLean, 12 Dec. 1854, reel 55, MS 535, ATL.
124. Alexander to McLean, 25 Aug. 1854, folder 142, MS 32, ATL.
125. Domett to McLean, 7 March 1854, folder 797, MS 32, ATL.
126. Alfred Domett to McLean, 7 March 1854, folder 797, MS 32, ATL.
127. T.H. Fitzgerald to Domett, 6 April 1854, 54/17, LS-NA 1/1b, NA; McLean to Domett, 21 March 1855, 55/27, LS-NA 1/1a, NA.
128. F.W.C. Sturm to Alexander McLean, 24 March 1862, folder 954, MS 32, ATL.
129. McLean to Domett, 29 March 1855, 55/59, LS-NA 1/1a, NA.
130. James Grindell to Donald McLean, 29 May 1861, reel 56, MS 535, ATL; Malcolm McRae to Alexander McLean, 6 Sept. 1864, folder 945, MS 32, ATL. For the complexities of Maori leasing, see the account of the Rangitikei area in Report by James Grindell from 1 March to 30 April 1859, folder 9, MS 32, ATL.
131. Alexander to McLean, 6 July 1861, folder 142, MS 32, ATL.
132. Rutherford, 201-3.
133. Grey to Lord Grey, 27 March 1849, G 25/3, NA; Lambton Carter to Henry S. Tiffen, 2 March 1857, 57/23, LS-NA 1/2, NA. For an early protests over the declaring of a hundred, see A.C. Picard to Constantine Dillon, 24 Sept. 1851, 51/45, LS-N, 1/1, NA. For the use of the hundreds against graziers see James Herries Beattie, The Southern Runs (Invercargill, 1979), 67.
134. A.C. Strode, Resident Magistrate of Otago, to Domett, 15 May 1852, with Domett's minute [1852], 52/696, NM 8/55, NA.
135. 123. W.J. Gardner, The Amuri: A County History (Calverden, 1956), 96; W.H.S. Roberts, North Otago from the Earliest Day (n.p., n.d.), 26; W.H. Scotter, Run, Estate, and Farm (Otago, 1948), 13-4.
136. W.J. Gardner, The Amuri: A County History (Calverden, 1956), 96; W.H.S. Roberts, North Otago from the Earliest Day (n.p., n.d.), 26; W.H. Scotter, Run, Estate, and Farm (Otago, 1948), 13-4.
137. W.J. Gardner, The Amuri: A County History (Calverden, 1956), 96; W.H.S. Roberts, North Otago from the Earliest Day (n.p., n.d.), 26; W.H. Scotter, Run, Estate, and Farm (Otago, 1948), 13-4.
138. Osborne Gibbes to Dillon Bell, 6 June 1853, 53/140, LS-W, 2/2, NA; John McCarthy to Dillon Bell, 16 Oct. 1854, 54/268, LS-W 2/3, NA; Edward Jollie to Richmond, 26 Feb. 1856, unnumbered, LS-N, 1/6, NA.
139. Francis Dillon Bell, Memorandum [1856], 56/7, LS-NA 1/1a, NA; James Kelham to Domett, 1854, map enclosed, 54/56, LS-NA 1/1b, NA; Alexander Alexander to Donald McLean, 24 Oct. 1858, folder 142, MS 32, ATL
140. Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives (Wellington, 1862). D-10, 12.
141. H.R. Russell to Domett, 12 Aug. 1854, 54/102, LS-NA 1/1b, NA. Tollemache to McLean, 1 Aug. 1859, reel 195, MS 535; Daniel Munn to McLean, 2 April 1862, reel 75, MS 535, ATL.
142. J.W. Carlisle to McLean, 28 July 1876, reel 44, MS 535, ATL.
143. For McLean's assessment of the role of native affairs in making the South Island more attractive see Donald McLauchlan to McLean, 15 March 1860, folder 773, MS 32, ATL. McLean's thoughts are noted on the back of the letter.
144. Henry R. Russell to Donald McLean, 28 March 1854, Reel 87, MS 535, ATL.
145. For Duppa see Gardiner, 97. B.R. Paterson, 'Whatever Happened to Poor Waring Taylor? Insights from Business Manuscripts', The Turnbull Library Record, 24 (Oct., 1991), 125. For an early example of financial institution support for a squatter, see Robert Hart to Dillon Bell, 18 Oct. 1854, 54/354, LS-W 2/3, NA.
146. For Duppa see Gardiner, 97. B.R. Paterson, 'Whatever Happened to Poor Waring Taylor? Insights from Business Manuscripts', The Turnbull Library Record, 24 (Oct., 1991), 125. For an early example of financial institution support for a squatter, see Robert Hart to Dillon Bell, 18 Oct. 1854, 54/354, LS-W 2/3, NA.
147. J.D. Ormond to The Receiver of Land Revenue, 4 July 1865, unnumbered, LS-NA 7/1, NA.
148. James Henton to Tiffen, 26 March 1858, 58/68, LS-NA 1/2, NA; Journal Notes of Hector William Smith, the Owner of the station Olrig at Hawke's Bay, 7, MS 3520, ATL.
149. Joseph Rhodes to Tiffen, 16 Feb. 1858, 58/28, LS-NA 1/2, NA.
150. H.R. Russell to T. Fitzgerald, 7 July 1855, 55/143, LS-NA 1/1a, NA.
151. John Harding Papers, George Wrogan to John Harding, 9 Sept. 1858, John Harding Papers, MS 662, ATL.
152. Joseph Rhodes to Tiffen, 22 Jan. 1859, 59/2;, Samuel Franklin to Tiffen, 59/80, LS-NA 1/2, NA.
153. F. Abbot to Alexander McLean, 26 Sept. 1857, MS 32, folder 943, ATL.
154. For McLean's assessment of the role of native affairs in making the South Island more attractive see Donald McLauchlan to McLean, 15 March 1860, folder 773, MS 32, ATL. McLean's thoughts are noted on the back of the letter.
155. John Tully to Domett, 7 Jan. 1856, 56/1, LS-NA 1/1a, NA.
156. Gillespie, 105.
157. Butler, 96.
158. Taylor, 325.
159. Beattie, 12.
160. Herries Beattie, The Pioneers Explore Otago: A Record of Exploreres, Travellers, Surveyors, Bushmen, Seekers of Pastoral County, Inland Voyagers, and Wayfaring Men (Dunedin, 1947), 37-9, 93.
161. Robert Gilkison, Early Days in Central Otago: Being Tales of Days Gone By (Auckland, 1936), 15.
162. Wilson, 126.
163. W.P. Morrell, The Provincial System in New Zealand (Christchurch, 1964), 4.
164. David Fieldhouse quoted in Stephen Howe, 'David Fieldhouse and "Imperialism": Some Historiographic Revisions', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 26, 2 (April 1998), 217.
165. J.E. Murray, Crown Policy on Maori Reserved Lands, 1840 to 1865, and Lands Restricted from Alienation, 1865 to 1900 (Waitangi Tribunal, 1997), passim.
166. 'Waitangi fatigue', Sunday Star-Times (Auckland), 24 Aug. 1997, C1-2.