Oral spit tobacco: Addiction, prevention and treatment

Nicotine and Tobacco Research

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 21-44

  Hatsukami, Dorothy K ^a   Severson, Herbert H ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^b OREGON RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NICOTINE;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; CHEMISTRY; CONSUMER; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PLANT; PREVALENCE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE; SMOKELESS TOBACCO; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; UNITED STATES;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; CONSUMER PARTICIPATION; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; NICOTINE; PLANTS, TOXIC; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICES; TOBACCO USE DISORDER; TOBACCO, SMOKELESS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033085847     PISSN: 14622203     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14622299050011131     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. Allen SS, Hatsukami D, Jensen J, Grillo M, Bliss R. 1995. Effects of treatment on cardiovascular risk among smokeless tobacco users. Preventive Medicine 24: 357-362.
2. Altman DG, Flora JA, Fortmann SP, Farquhar JW. 1987. The cost-effectiveness of three smoking cessation programs. American Journal of Public Health 77:162-165.
3. American Cancer Society 1988. Cancer Facts and Figures. New York.
4. Ary DV, Lichtenstein E, Severson HH. 1987. Smokeless tobacco use among male adolescents: patterns, correlates, predictors, and the use of other drugs. Preventive Medicine 16:385-401.
5. Ary DV, Lichtenstein E, Severson H, Weissman W, Seeley JR. 1989. An in-depth analysis of male adolescent smokeless tobacco users: interviews with users and their fathers. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 12:449-467.
6. Axell T, Mornstad H, Sundstrom B. 1976. The relation of the clinical picture to the histopathology of snuff differs' lesions in a Swedish population. Journal of Oral Pathology 5:229-236.
7. Bauman KE, Koch GG, Fisher LA, Bryan ES. 1989. Use of smokeless tobacco by age, race, and gender in ten standard metropolitan areas of the Southeast United States. NCI Monographs 8:35-37.
8. Benowitz N. 1991. Nicotine and cardiovascular disease. In: Adikofer E, Thurau K, eds. Effects of Nicotine on Biological Systems. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhauser Verlag, pp. 579-596.
9. Benowitz NL, Porchet H, Sheiner L, Jacob P. 1988. Nicotine absorption and cardiovascular effects with smokeless tobacco use: comparison with cigarettes and nicotine gum. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 44:23-28.
10. Bolinder G, Ahlborg B, Lindell J. 1992. Use of smokeless tobacco: blood pressure elevation and other health hazards found in a large-scale population survey. Journal of Internal Medicine 232:327-334.
11. Bolinder G, Alfredsson L, Englund A, de Faire U. 1994. Smokeless tobacco use and increased cardiovascular mortality. American Journal of Public Health 84:399-404.
12. Bonaguro J, Pugh M, Bonaguro E. 1986. Multivariate analysis of smokeless tobacco use by adolescents in grades four through twelve. Health Education (April/May), 4-7.
13. Botvin GJ, Baker E, Tortu S, Dusenbury L, Gessula J. 1989. Smokeless tobacco use among adolescents: correlates and concurrent predictors. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 10:181-186.
14. Boyle R, Claxton A, Forster J. 1997. The role of social influences and tobacco availability on adolescent smokeless tobacco use. Journal of Adolescent Health 20:279-285.
15. Boyle R, Severson H, Lichtenstein E, Gordon J. 1993. Smokeless tobacco cessation with nicotine reduction: a placebo controlled trial. Paper presented at the 21st Annual Meeting of the American Public Health Association, San Franciso, CA.
16. Boyle RG, Jensen J, Hatsukami DK, Severson HH. 1995. Measuring dependence in smokeless tobacco users. Addictive Behaviors 20:443-450.
17. Boyle RG, Stedman J, Forster JL. 1995. Availability of smokeless tobacco to underase youth in two Minnesota communities. Health Values 19:10-16.
18. Brunnemann K, Scott J, Hoffmann D. 1982. N-nitrosomorpholine and other volatile N-nitrosamines in snuff tobacco. Carcinogenesis 3:693-696.
19. Castonguay A, Tharp R, Hecht S. 1984. Kinetics of DNA methylation by the tobacco-specific carcinogen 4- (methyl-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-butanone in F244 rats. In O'Neill I, VonBorstel R, Miller C, Long J, Bartsch H, eds. N-nitroso compounds: Occurence biological effects and relevance to human cancer: IARC Scientific Publication 57, pp. 805-810
20. Castonguay G, Stoner H, Schut J, Hecht S. 1983. Metabolism of tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines by cultured human tissues. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 80:805-810.
21. Centers for Disease Control. 1993a. Use of smokeless tobacco among adults - United States, 1991. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 42:263-266.
22. Centers for Disease Control. 1993b. Minors' access to tobacco - Missouri, 1992, and Texas, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 42:125-128.
23. Centers for Disease Control. 1994a. Surveillance for selected tobacco use behaviors - United States, 1990-1994. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 43 (SS-3).
24. Centers for Disease Control. 1994b. Reasons for tobacco use and symptoms of nicotine withdrawal among adolescent and young adult tobacco users - United States, 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 43:745-750.
25. Centers for Disease Control. 1995a. State laws on tobacco control - United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 44:125-130.
26. Centers for Disease Control. 1995b. Minors' access to smokeless tobacco - Florida, 1994. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 44:839-841.
27. Centers for Disease Control. 1996. Accessibility of tobacco products to youths aged 12-17 years - United States, 1989 and 1993. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 45:125-130.
28. Chassin L, Presson CC, Sherman SJ, Margolis S. 1988. The social image of smokeless tobacco use in three different types of teenagers. Addictive Behaviors 13:107-112.
29. Chassin L, Presson C, Sherman SJ, McLaughlin L, Gioia D. 1985. Psychosocial correlates of adolescent smokeless tobacco use. Addictive Behaviors 10:431-435.
30. Chassin L, Presson CC, Sherman SJ, Steinberg L. 1989. Adolescent smokeless tobacco use: Future research needs. NCI Monograph 8:101-105.
31. Chisick MC, Lee S. 1992. A profile of tobacco use among teenage dependents. Military Medicine 157:354-357.
32. Chung F, Wang M, Hecht S. 1985. Effects of dietary indoles and isothiocynates on 4- (N-methyl-N-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone: alpha hydroxylation and DNA methylation in rat liver. Carcinogenesis 6:539-543.
33. Cohen, RY, Sattler J, Felix MRJ, Brownell KD. 1987. Experimentation with smokeless tobacco and cigarettes by children and adolescents: relationship to beliefs, peer use, and parental use. American Journal of Public Health 77:1454-1456.
34. Connolly G. 1995. The marketing of nicotine addiction by one oral snuff manufacturer. Tobacco Control 4:73-79.
35. Cullen JW, Blot W, Henningfield J, Boyd G, Mecklenburg R, Massey MM. 1986. Health consequences of using smokeless tobacco: summary of the advisory committee's report to the Surgeon General. Public Health Reports 101:355-373.
36. Daly MB, Pierson W. 1990. The use of smokeless tobacco among basic airmen. American Journal of Health Promotion 4:266-269.
37. deMoor C, Johnston DA, Werden DL. 1994. Patterns and correlates of smoking and smokeless tobacco use among continuation high school students. Addictive Behaviors 19:175-184.
38. Dent CW, Sussman S, Johnson CA, Hansen WB, Flay BR. 1987. Adolescent smokeless tobacco incidence: relations with other drugs and psychosocial variables. Preventive Medicine 16:422-431.
39. Dent CW, Sussman S, Stacy AW, Craig S. 1995. Two-year behavior outcomes of project towards no tobacco use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 63:676-677.
40. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration. 1981. Action levels for volatile N-nitrosamines in rubber baby bottle nipples. Federal Register 48:249.
41. Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration. 1983. Action level of N-nitrosodimethyamine in barley malt. Federal Register 46:147.
42. DiLorenzo T, Kern T, Pieper R. 1991. Treatment of smokeless tobacco use throuch a formalized cessation program. Behavior Therapy 22:41-46.
43. Djordjevic M, Hoffman D, Glynn T, Connolly G. 1995. US commercial brands of moist snuff, 1994. I. Assessment of nicotine, moisture, and pH. Tobacco Control 4:62-66.
44. Djordjevic MV, Brunnemann KD, Hoffman D. 1993. The need for regulation of carcinogenic N-nitrosamines in oral snuff. Food Chemistry and Toxicology 31:497-501.
45. Eakin E, Severson HH, Glasgow RE. 1989. Development and evaluation of a smokeless tobacco cessation program: a pilot study. NCI Monograph 8:95-100.
46. Edwards JG. 1987. An unusual case of nicotine dependence. Psychological Medicine 17:779-781.
47. Edwards S, Glover E, Schroeder K. 1987. The effects of smokeless tobacco and neuromuscular activity in athletes and nonathletes. The Physican and Sport Medicine 15:141-147.
48. Elder JP, McGraw SA, Rodriques A, Lasater TM, Ferreira A, Kendall L, Peterson G, Carleton RA. 1987. Evaluation of two community-wide smoking cessation contests. Preventive Medicine 16:221-234.
49. Elder JP, Wildey M, de Moor C, Sallis, JF Jr, Eckhardt L, Edwards C, et al. 1993. The long-term prevention of tobacco use among junior high school students: Classroom and telephone interventions. American Journal of Public Health 83:1239-1244.
50. Fant RV, Henningfield JE, Nelson RA, Pickworth WB. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of moist snuff in humans (In submission).
51. Feighery E, Altman D, Shaffer G. 1991. The effects of combining education and enforcement to reduce tobacco sales to minors. A study of four northern California communities. JAMA 266:3168-3171.
52. Fraumeni J. 1985. Regarding HR 760 and HR 2950, Testimony submitted before the Subcommittee on Health and the Environment of the Committee on Energy and Commerce. Washington, DC: United States House of Representatives.
53. Freeman AM. 1994 April 26. How tobacco giant doctors snuff brands to boost their "kick". Wall Street Journal A1:A14.
54. Glasgow RE, Kleges RC, Mizes JS, Pechacek TF. 1985. Quitting smoking: Strategies used and variables associated with success in stop-smoking contest. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 53:905-912.
55. Glover E, Wang M, Glover P. 1994. Development of a high school smokeless tobacco cessation manual. Health Values 18:28-33.
56. Glover ED. 1986. Conducting smokeless tobacco cessation clinics. American Journal of Public Health 76:207.
57. Glover ED, Laflin M, Flannery D, Albritton DL. 1989. Smokeless tobacco use among American college students. Journal of American College Health 38:81-85.
58. Glover ED, Schroeder KL, Henningfield JE, Severson HH, Christen AG. 1988. An interpretative review of smokeless tobacco research in the United States: Part I. Journal of Drug Education 18:285-310.
59. Gottlieb A, Pope SK, Rickert VI, Hardin BH. 1993. Patterns of smokeless tobacco use by young adolescents. Pediatrics 91:75-78.
60. Gottlieb NH, Gingiss PL, Weinstein RP. 1992. Attitudes, subjective norms, and models of use for smokeless tobacco among college athletes: Implications for prevention and cessation programming. Health Education Research 7:359-368.
61. Greene JC, Walsh MM, Masouredis C. 1994. A program to help major league baseball players quit using spit tobacco. Journal of the American Dental Association 125:559-568.
62. Greer RO Jr., Poulson TC. 1983. Oral tissue alterations associated with the use of smokeless tobacco by teen-agers. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology 56:275-284.
63. Gritz ER, Baer-Weiss V., Benowitz, NL, Van Vunakis H, Jarvik ME. 1981. Plasma nicotine and cotinine concentrations in habitual smokeless tobacco users. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 30:201-209.
64. Gritz ER, Ksir C, McCarthy WJ. 1985. Smokeless tobacco use in the United States: past and future trends. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 7:24-27.
65. Hanson K, Hatsukami D, Forster J., Boyle R. 1996. Minors' access to snuff: Purchase outcomes at corporate owned and independently owned convenience stores. Poster presented at the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco, Washington, D.C.
66. Hatsukami D. 1997. Interventions for smokeless tobacco use. Presented at the Tenth National Conference on Nicotine Dependence, American Society of Addiction Medicine, Minneapolis, MN.
67. Hatsukami DK, Boyle RG. 1997. Prevention and treatment of smokeless tobacco. Advances in Dental Research 11:342-349.
68. Hatsukami D, Lando H. In press. Cigarette smoking cessation treatment. In Tarter R, Ammerman R, Ott P, eds. Sourcebook on Substance Use. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.
69. Hatsukami DK, Anton D, Callies A, Keenan R. 1991. Situational factors and patterns associated with smokeless tobacco use. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 14:383-396.
70. Hatsukami DK, Gust SW, Keenan RM. 1987. Physiologic and subjective changes from smokeless tobacco withdrawal. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 41:103-107.
71. Hatsukami D, Jensen J, Allen S, Grillo M, Bliss R. 1996. Effects of behavioral and pharmacological treatment on smokeless tobacco users. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64:153-161.
72. Hatsukami DK, Keenan RM, Anton DJ. 1988. Topographical features of smokeless tobacco use. Psychopharmacology 96:428-429.
73. Hecht S, Linn, D, Castonguay A. 1983. Effects of alpha deterium substitution on the mutagenesis of 4- (N-methyl-N-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone. Carcinogenesis 4:305-310.
74. Hecht S, Young R, Chen C. 1980. Metabolism in the F344 rat of 4-(N-methyl-N-nitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone, a tobacco-specific carcinogen. Cancer Research 40:4144-4150.
75. Henningfield J, Radzius A, Cone E. 1995. Estimation of available nicotine content of six smokeless tobacco products. Tobacco Control 4:57-61.
76. Hill M, Harrell J, McCormick L. 1992. Predictors of smokeless tobacco use by adolescents. Research in Nursing & Health 15:359-368.
77. Hilton JF, Walsh MM, Masouredis CM, Drues JC, Grady DG, Ernster VL. 1994. Planning a spit tobacco cessation intervention: identification of beliefs associated with addiction. Addictive Behaviors 19:381-391.
78. Hirsch J, Heyden G, Thilander H. 1982. A clinical, histomorphological, and histochemical study of snuff-induced lesions of varying severity. Journal of Oral Pathology 11:387-389.
79. Hirsch JM, Hedner J, Wernstedt L, Lundberg J, Hedner T. 1992. Hemodynamic effects of the use of oral snuff. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 52:394-401.
80. Hoffmann D, Adams J. 1981. Carcinogenic tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines in snuff and the saliva of snuff dippers. Cancer Research 41:4305-4308.
81. Hoffman D, Djordjevic MV. 1997. Chemical composition and carcinogenicity of smokeless tobacco. Advances in Dental Research 11:322-329.
82. Hoffmann D, Brunnemann K, Adams T, Hecht S. 1984. Formation and analysis of N-nitrosamines in tobacco products and their endogenous formation in tobacco consumers. IARC Science Publications 57:743-762.
83. Hoffman D, Djordjevic MV, Fan J, Zang E, Glynn T, Connolly GN. 1995. Five leading US commercial brands of moist snuff in 1994: assessment of carcinogenic N-nitrosamines. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87:1862-1869.
84. Hoffmann D, Harley N, Fisenne I, Adams J, Brunnemann K. 1986. Carcinogenic agents in snuff. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 76:435-437.
85. Holm H, Jarvis MJ, Russell MAH, Feyerabend C. 1992. Nicotine intake and dependence in Swedish snuff takers. Psychopharmacology 108:507-511.
86. Hoppock K C, Houston TP. 1990. Availability of tobacco products to minors. Journal of Family Practice 30:174-176.
87. Howard-Pitney B, Killen J, Fortmann SP. In press. Quitting chew: results from a randomized trial using nicotine patches.
88. Huhtasaari F, Asplund K, Lundberg V, Stegmayr B, Wester, PO. 1992. Tobacco and myocardial infarction: is snuff less dangerous than cigarettes? British Medical Journal 305:1252-1256.
89. Hurt RD, Sachs DL, Glover ED, Offord KP, Johnston JA, Dale LC, Khayrallah MA, Schroeder DR, Glover PN, Sullivan CR, Croghan IT, Sullivan PM. 1997. A comparison of sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation. The New England Journal of Medicine 337:1196-1202.
90. Institute of Medicine 1994. Growing Up Tobacco Free. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
91. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 1985. Tobacco habits other than smoking: betel quid and areca nut chewing and some related nitrosamines. MRC Monograph 37:291.
92. Jacobs GA, Neufeld VA, Sayers S, Spielberger CD, Weinberg H. 1988. Personality and smokeless tobacco use. Addictive Behaviors 13:311-318.
93. Jason L, Ji P, Anes M, Birkhead S. 1991. Active enforcement of cigarette control laws in the prevention of cigarette sales to minors. JAMA 266:3159-3161.
94. Jensen J, Hatsukami D, Grillo M. 1994. Coping skills used in smokeless tobacco treatment. Poster presented at the Annunal Meeting of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, Boston, MA.
95. Jensen J, Hatsukami D, Longley K. 1995. Weight gain following smokeless tobacco cessation, Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, San Diego, CA.
96. Jones RB, Moberg DP. 1988. Correlates of smokeless tobacco use in a male adolescent population. American Journal of Public Health 78:61-63.
97. Keenan RM, Hatsukami DK, Anton DJ. 1989. The effects of short-term smokeless tobacco deprivation on performance. Psychopharmacology 98:126-130.
98. Leopardi E, Poulson T, Neiger B, Lindenmuth J, Greer R. 1989. A report of two smokeless tobacco surveys and associated intervention strategies among Utah adolescents. Journal of Cancer Education 4:125-134.
99. Lichtenstein E, Glasgow RE. 1997. A pragmatic framework for smoking cessation: Implications for clinical and public health programs. Psychology of Addictive Behavior 11:142-151.
100. Lichtenstein E, Severson HH, Friedman LS, Ary DV. 1984. Chewing tobacco use by adolescents: prevalence and relation to cigarette smoking. Addictive Behaviors 9:351-355.
101. Lisnerski DD, McClary CL, Brown TL, Martin JP, Jones DR. 1991. Demographic and predictive correlates of smokeless tobacco use in elementary school children. American Journal of Health Promotion 5:426-431.
102. Little SJ, Stevens VJ, LaChance PA, Severson HH, Bartley MH, Lichtenstein E, Leben JR. 1992. Smokeless tobacco habits and oral mucosal lesions in dental patients. Journal of Public Health Dentistry 52:269-276.
103. Little SJ, Stevens VJ, Severson H, Lichtenstein E. 1992. An effective smokeless tobacco intervention for dental hygiene patients. Journal of Dental Hygiene 66:185-190.
104. Marcus AC, Crane LA, Shopland DR, Lynn WR. 1989. Use of smokeless tobacco in the United States: recent estimates from the current population survey. NCI Monograph 8:17-23.
105. Marty PJ, McDermott RJ, Williams T. 1986. Patterns of smokeless tobacco use in a population of high school students. American Journal of Public Health 76:190-192.
106. Mattson M, Winn D. 1989. Smokeless tobacco: association with increased cancer risk. National Cancer Institute Monograph 8:13-16.
107. Maxwell J. 1995. The Maxwell-consumer report: the smokeless tobacco industry in 1994. Richmond, VA: Wheat First Butcher Singer.
108. Morse RM, Norvich RC, Graf JA. 1977. Tobacco chewing, an unusual case of drug dependence. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 52:358-360.
109. Murray DM, Roche LM, Goldman AI, Whitbeck J. 1988. Smokeless tobacco use among ninth graders in a north-central metropolitan population: cross-sectional and prospective associations with age, gender, race, family structure, and other drug use. Preventive Medicine 17:449-460.
110. Nasr MM, Reepmeyer JC, Tang Y. 1998. In vitro study of nicotine release from smokeless tobacco. Journal of AOAC International 81:540-543.
111. Offenbacher S, Weathers D. 1985. Effects of smokeless tobacco on the periodontal, mucosal, and caries of adolescent males. Journal of Oral Pathology 14:169-181.
112. Office of the Inspector General 1986. Youth use of smokeless tobacco: More than a pinch of trouble. Office of Analysis and Inspections; Region VI. Washington, D.C.
113. Ohsfeldt R, Boyle R. 1994. Tobacco excise taxes and rates of smokeless tobacco use in the US: an exploratory ecological analysis. Tobacco Control 3:316-323.
114. Ohsfeldt R, Boyle RG, Capilouto E. 1997. Effects of tobacco excise taxes on the use of smokeless tobacco products in the U.S.A. Health Economics 6:525-531.
115. Palladino G, Adams JD, Brunnemann KD, Haley NJ, Hoffmann D. 1986. Snuff-dipping in college students: a clinical profile. Military Medicine 151:342-346.
116. Peterson AV, Marek PM, Mann SL. 1989. Initiation and use of smokeless tobacco in relation to smoking. NCI Monograph 8:63-69.
117. Riley WT, Barenie JT, Mabe PA, Myers DR. 1990. Smokeless tobacco use in adolescent females: prevalence and psychosocial factors among racial/ethnic groups. Journal of Behavioral Medicine 13:207-220.
118. Riley WT, Barenie JT, Mabe PA, Myers DR. 1991. The role of race and ethnic status on the psychosocial correlates of smokeless tobacco use in adolescent males. Journal of Adolescent Health 12:15-21.
119. Riley WT, Barenie JT, Myers DR. 1989. Typology and correlates of smokeless tobacco use. Journal of Adolescent Health Care 10:357-362.
120. Riley W, Barenie J, Woodward C, Mabe PA. 1996. Perceived smokeless tobacco addiction among adolescents. Health Psychology 15:289-292.
121. Riley WT, Kaugars GE, Grisius TM, Page DG, Burns JC, Svirsky JA. 1996. Adult smokeless tobacco use and age of onset. Addictive Behaviors 1:135-138.
122. Rodu B. 1994. Editorial: An alternative approach to smoking control. The American Journal of the Medical Sciences 308:32-34.
123. Rouse BA. 1989. Epidemiology of smokeless tobacco use: a national study. NCI Monograph 8:29-33.
124. Russell MAH, Jarvis, MJ, Feyerabend C. 1980. A new age for snuff? The Lancet (1 March 1980):474-475.
125. Russell MAH, Jarvis MJ, West, RJ, Feyerabend C. 1985. Buccal absorption of nicotine from smokeless tobacco sachets. The Lancet 2:1370.
126. Salehi S, Elder N. 1995. Prevalence of cigarette and smokeless tobacco use among students in rural Oregon. Family Medicine 27:122-125.
127. Schaefer S D, Henderson AH, Glover ED, Christen AG. 1985. Patterns of use and incidence of smokeless tobacco consumption in school-age children. Archives of Otolaryngology 111:639-642.
128. Schinke SP, Gilchrist LD, Schilling RF, Senechal VA 1986. Smoking and smokeless tobacco use among adolescents: trends and intervention results. Public Health Reports 101:373-378.
129. Schroeder KL, Iaderosa GB, Chen MS, Glover ED, Edmundson EW. 1987. Bimodal initiation of smokeless tobacco usage: implications for cancer education. Journal of Cancer Education 2:15-21.
130. Schroeder KL, Rosen S, Romanurthy SN, Soller HA, Lee HM, Wenrick CJ. 1987. Relation between smokeless tobacco and oral health in young adults. Journal of Dental Research 66: Special Issue.
131. Severson HH. 1997. Smokeless Tobacco Outreach and Prevention - S.T.O.P. Guide. Point Richmond, CA: Applied Behavior Science Press.
132. Severson HH, Akers L, Andrews JA, Lichtenstein E, Jerome A. In press. Two self-help interventions for smokeless tobacco cessation. Addictive Behaviors.
133. Severson HH, Andrews J, Lichtenstein E, Gordon J, Barley MG. 1998. Using the hygiene visit to deliver a tobacco cessation program: results of a randomized clinical trial. Journal of American Dental Association 129:993-999.
134. Severson HH, Eakin EG, Lichtenstein E, Stevens J. 1990. The inside scoop on the stuff called snuff: An interview study of 94 adult male smokeless tobacco users. Journal of Substance Abuse 2:77-85.
135. Severson HH, Eakin EG, Stevens VJ, Lichtenstein E. 1990. Dental office practices for tobacco users: independent practice and HMO clinics. American Journal of Public Health 80:1503-1505.
136. Severson HH, Glasgow R, Wirt R, Brozovsky P, Zoref L, Black C, Biglan A, Ary D, Weissman W. 1991. Preventing the use of smokeless tobacco and cigarettes by teens: results of a classroom intervention. Health Education Research Theory and Practice 6:109-120.
137. Severson H, Lichtenstein E, Gallison C. 1985. A pinch or a pouch instead of a puff? Implications of chewing tobacco for addictive processes. Addictive Behaviors 4:85-92.
138. Shiffman S, Paty JA, Gnys M, Kassel J, Hickcox M. 1996. First lapses to smoking: within-subjects analysis of real-time reports. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64:366-379.
139. Siegel D, Benowitz N, Ernster VL, Grady DG, Hauck WW. 1992. Smokeless tobacco, cardiovascular risk factors, and nicotine and cotinine levels in professional baseball players. American Journal of Public Health 82:417-421.
140. Simon TR, Sussman S, Dent CW, Burton D, Flay BR. 1993. Correlates of exclusive or combined use of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco among male adolescents. Addictive Behaviors 18:623-634.
141. Simon TR, Sussman S, Dent CW, Burton D, Flay BR. 1995. Prospective correlates of exclusive or combined adolescent use of cigarettes and smokeless tobacco: A replication-extension. Addictive Behaviors 20:517-524.
142. Singer B, Grunberger D. 1983. Molecular Biology of Mutagens and Carcinogens. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, pp. 211-253.
143. Sinusas K, Coroso J. 1993. Smokeless tobacco cessation: report of a preliminary trial using nicotine chewing gum. The Journal of Family Practice 37:264-267.
144. Skretny M, Cummings K, Sciandra R, Marshall J. 1990. An intervention to reduce the sale of cigarettes to minors. New York State Journal of Medicine 90:54-55.
145. Squier C. 1984. Smokeless tobacco and oral cancer: a cause for concern. Ca: a Cancer Journal for Clinicians 34:242-247.
146. Squires WG Jr., Brandon T A, Zinkgraf S, Bonds D, Hartung G H, Murray T, Jackson AS, Miller RR. 1984. Hemodynamic effects of oral smokeless tobacco in dogs and young adults. Preventive Medicine 13:195-206.
147. Stevens MM, Freeman DH Jr., Mott LA, Youells FE, Linsey SC. 1993. Smokeless tobacco use among children: the New Hampshire study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 9:160-167.
148. Stevens VJ, Severson H, Lichtenstein E, Little SJ, Leben J. 1995. Making the most of a teachable moment: a smokeless-tobacco cessation intervention in the dental office. American Journal of Public Health 85:231-235.
149. Sussman S, Dent CW, Severson HH, Craig S. 1994. Prevalence of tobacco use in the California lumber mill industry. Health Values 18:19-24.
150. Sussman S, Holt L, Dent CW, Flay BR, Graham JW, Hansen WB, Johnson CA. 1989. Activity involvement, risk-taking, demographic variables, and other drug use: prediction of trying smokeless tobacco. NCI Monograph 8:57-62.
151. Tillgren P, Haglund BJ A, Ainetdin T, Holm LE. 1995. Who is a successful quitter? One-year follow-up of a National Tobacco Quit and Win contest in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine 23:193-201.
152. Tomar S, Henningfield J. 1997. Review of the evidence that pH is a determinant of nicotine dosage from oral use of smokeless tobacco. Tobacco Control 6:219-225.
153. Tomar SL, Giovino GA, Erickson MP. 1995. Smokeless tobacco brand preference and brand switching among US adolescents and young adults. Tobacco Control 4:67-72.
154. Tomar SL, Winn DM, Swango GA, Giovino GA, Kleinman DV. 1997. Oral mucosa smokeless tobacco lesions among adolescents in the United States. Journal of Dental Research 76:1277-86.
155. Tucker J, Ong T. 1985. Induction of sister chromatid exchanges by coal dust and tobacco snuff extracts in human peripheral lymphocytes. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis 7:313-324.
156. Tucker LA. 1989. Use of smokeless tobacco, cigarette smoking, and hypercholesterolemia. American Journal of Public Health 79:1048-1050.
157. Tyldesley WR. 1976. Tobacco chewing in English coalminers (2) Malignant transformation in a tobacco-induced leukoplakia. British Journal of Oral Surgery: 14, 93-94.
158. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1986. The Health Consequences of Using Smokeless Tobacco: A Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General (DHHS Publication No. 86-2874). Bethesda, Maryland: Author.
159. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1988. The Health Consequences of Smoking: Nicotine Addiction (DHHS Publication No.88-8406). Rockville MD: Author.
160. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1993. Spit Tobacco and Youth: Additional Analysis (DHHS Publication No OEI-06-92-00501). Washington, D.C: Office of Inspector General.
161. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1994. Preventing Tobacco Use Among Young People. A Report of the Surgeon General (S/N 017-001-00491-0). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, Centers for Disease Control, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention & Health Promotion, Office on Smoking & Health.
162. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 1996. National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, Main Findings 1994 (DHHS Publication No. 96-3085). Rockville, MD. SAMHSA, Office of Applied Studies.
163. Wallack L, Sciandra R. 1990-1991. Media advocacy and public education in the Community Intervention Trial to reduce smoking (COMMIT). International Quarterly of Community Education 11:205-222.
164. Westman EC. 1995. Does smokeless tobacco cause hypertension? Southern Medical Journal 88:716-720.
165. Williams N, Arheart K, Klesges R. 1995. A smokeless tobacco cessation program for postsecondary students. Health Values 19:33-42.
166. Williams T, Guyton R, Marty PJ, McDermott RJ, Young ME. 1986. Smokeless tobacco use among rural high school students in Arkansas. Journal of School Health 56:282-285.
167. Winn D. 1984. Tobacco chewing and snuff dipping: an association with human cancer. IARC Scientific Publication 57:837-849.
168. Winn D. 1992. Smokeless tobacco and aerodigestive tract cancers: recent research directions. Advances in Experimental Medicine & Biology 320:39-46.
169. Winn D. 1997. Epidemiology of cancer and other systemic effects associated with the use of smokeless tobacco. Advances in Dental Research 11:313-321.
170. Winn D, Blot W, Shy C, Pickle L, Toledo A, Fraumeni J. 1981. Snuff dipping and oral cancer among women in the southern U.S. New England Journal of Medicine 304:745-749.
171. World Health Organization. 1978. Definition of leukoplakia and related lesions: an aid to studies on oral precancer. Oral Surgery 46:539.
172. Young M, Williamson D. 1985. Correlates of use and expected use of smokeless tobacco among kindergarten children. Psychological Reports 56:63-66.
173. Zavela KJ, Harrison LR, Smith CA, Smith MR, Manske KA. 1995. The effectiveness of mint snuff as an oral substitute in smokeless tobacco cessation. Journal of the CDA, 26-27.