Risks of gene flow from transgenic herbicide-resistant canola (Brassica napus) to weedy relatives in southern Australian cropping systems

Australian Journal of Agricultural Research

Volumn 50, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 115-128

  Rieger, Mary A ^a   Preston, Chris ^a   Powles, Stephen B ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUSTRALIA; CULTIVAR; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE FLOW; GLYPHOSATE; HERBICIDE RESISTANCE; HYBRID; OUTCROSSING; PHOSPHINOTHRICIN; PLANT GENETICS; TRANSGENIC PLANT;

GENE FLOW; HERBICIDE; PESTICIDE RESISTANCE; RISK ASSESSMENT; VEGETABLE; WEED;

BRASSICA JUNCEA; BRASSICA NAPUS; BRASSICA TOURNEFORTII; DIPLOTAXIS TENUIFOLIA; RAPHANUS RAPHANISTRUM; SISYMBRIUM OFFICINALE; SISYMBRIUM ORIENTALE;

EID: 0033025598     PISSN: 00049409     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1071/A97138     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Alvarado, J . I. (1997). Herbicide resistance in populations of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.). MAgSc Faculty of Agricultural and Natural Resource Sciences, University of Adelaide-Waite Campus, Department of Crop Protection.
2. Anderson, E. (1949). 'Introgressive Hybridisation.' (John Wiley and Sons: New York.)
3. Arias, D. M., and Rieseberg, L. H. (1994). Gene flow between cultivated and wild sunflowers. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 89, 655-60.
4. Arnold, M. L., Buckner, C. M., and Robinson, J. J. (1991). Pollen-mediated introgression and hybrid speciation in Louisiana irises. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 88, 1398-402.
5. Bajaj, Y. P. S., Mahajan, S. K., and Labana, K. S. (1986). Interspecific hybridisation of Brassica napus and B. juncea through ovary, ovule and embryo culture. Euphytica 35, 103-9.
6. Ballal, S. R., Fore, S. A., and Guttman, S. I. (1994). Apparent gene flow and genetic structure of Acer saccharum subpopulations in forest fragments. Canadian Journal of Botany 72, 1311-15.
7. Baranger, A., Chevre, A. M., Eber, F., and Renard, M. (1995). Effect of oilseed rape genotype on the spontaneous hybridisation rate with a weedy species - an assessment of transgenic dispersal. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 91, 956-63.
8. Bateman, A. J. (1955). Self-incompatibility systems in angiosperms III. Cruciferae. Heredity 9, 53-68.
9. Beck, C., and Ulrich, T (1993). Biotechnology in the Food Industry. Bio/Technology 11, 895-902.
10. Beversdorf, W., Weiss, J. L., Erickson, L. R., and Souza, M. V. (1980). Transfer of cytoplasmically-inherited triazine resistance from bird's rape to cultivated oilseed rape (Brassica campestris and B. napus). Canadian Journal of Genetics and Cytology 22, 67-172.
11. Bing, D. J., Downey, R. K., and Rakow, G. F. W. (1995). An evaluation of the potential of intergeneric gene transfer between Brassica napus and Sinapis arvensis. Plant Breeding 114, 481-4.
12. Bing, D. J., Downey, R. K., and Rakow, G. F. W. (1996). Assessment of transgene escape from Brassica rapa (B. rapa) into B. nigra or Sinapis arvensis. Plant Breeding 115, 1-4.
13. Black, J. M. (1929). 'Flora of South Australia.' (British Science Guild, South Australian Branch: Adelaide.)
14. Bowes, D. M. (1997). The new green revolution: transgenic crops - panacea or panic: a consumer overview of some recent literature. In 'Commercialisation of Transgenic Crops; Risk, Benefit and Trade Considerations'. (Eds G. D. McLean, P. M. Waterhouse, G. Evans, and M. J. Gibbs.) pp. 363-73. (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra.)
15. Brown, B. A., and Clegg, M. T. (1984). Influences of flower colour polymorphisms on genetic transmission in a natural population of the common morning glory, Ipomoea purpurea. Evolution 38, 796-803.
16. Brown, J., and Brown, A. P. (1996). Gene transfer between canola (Brassica napus L. and B. campestris L.) and related weed species. Annals of Applied Biology 129, 513-22.
17. Buzza, G (1979). Rapeseed. In 'Australian Field Crops Volume 2 - Tropical Cereals, Oilseeds, Grain Legumes and Other Crops'. (Eds J. V. Lovett and A. Lazenby.) pp. 183-97. (Angus and Robertson Publishers: London.)
18. Campbell, D. R. (1991). Comparing pollen dispersal and gene flow in a natural population. Evolution 45, 1965-8.
19. Chase, M. R., Moller, C., Kesseli, R., and Bawa, K. S. (1996). Distant gene flow in tropical trees. Nature 383, 398-9.
20. Cheam, A. H. (1986). Seed production and seed dormancy in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) and some possibilities for improving control. Weed Research 26, 405-13.
21. Chevre, A., Eber, F., Baranger, A., Kerlan, M. C., Barret, P., Festoc, G., Vallee, P., and Renard, M. (1994). Interspecific gene flow as a component of risk assassment for transgenic Brassicas. Acta Horticulture 407, 169-79.
22. Chevre, A. M., Eber, F., Baranger, A., and Renard, M. (1997). Gene flow in transgenic crops. Nature 389, 924.
23. Colton, R. (1980). 'Harvesting and Windrowing Rapeseed.' (Government Printer: NSW.)
24. Colwell, R., Norse, E. A., Pimentel, D., Sharples, F. E., and Simberoff, D. (1985). Genetic engineering in agriculture. Science 229, 111-12.
25. Crawley, M. (1993). Arm-chair risk assessment. Bio/Technology 11, 1496.
26. Crawley, M., and Brown, S. L. (1995). Seed limitation and the dynamics of feral oilseed rape on the M25 motorway. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 259, 49-54.
27. Crawley, M., Hails, R. S., Rees, M., Kohn, D., and Buxton, J. (1993). Ecology of transgenic oilseed rape in natural habitats. Nature 363, 620-3.
28. Cresswell, J. E., Bassam, A. P., Bell, S. A., Collins, S. J., and Kelly, T. R. (1995). Predicted pollen dispersal by honey-bees and three species of bumble-bees foraging on oilseed rape - a comparison of three models. Functional Ecology 6, 829-41.
29. Dale, P. J. (1994). The impact of hybrids between genetically modified crop plants and their related species: general considerations. Molecular Ecology 3, 31-6.
30. Darmency, H. (1994). The impact of hybrids between genetically modified crop plants and their related species; introgression and weediness. Molecular Ecology 3, 37-40.
31. Darmency, H., Fleury, A., and Lefol, E. (1995). Effect of transgenic release on weed biodiversity: oilseed rape and wild radish. In 'Brighton Crop Protection Conference - Weeds'. Vol. 2. pp. 433-8. (British Crop Protection Council: Farnham, UK.)
32. Demeke, T., Adams, R. P., and Chibbar, R. (1992). Potential taxonomic use of randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD): a case history in Brassica. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 84, 990-4.
33. Doebley, J. (1990). Molecular evidence of gene flow among Zea species. BioScience 40, 443-8.
34. Dyer, W. E. (1993). Herbicide-resistant crops: a weed scientist's perspective. Phytoprotection 75 (Suppl. S), 71-7.
35. Eber, F., Tanguy, X., Chevre, A. M., Baranger, A., Vallee, P., and Renard, M. (1994). Spontaneous hybridisation between a male sterile oilseed rape and two weeds. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 88, 362-8.
36. Eckert, J. E. (1933). The flight range of the honeybee. Journal of Agricultural Research 47, 257-85.
37. Ellstrand, N. (1988). Pollen as a vehicle for the escape of engineered genes? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 3, 30S-2S.
38. Ellstrand, N. (1993). How ya gonna keep transgenes down on the farm? The Amicus Journal 15, 31.
39. Ellstrand, N. C. (1992). Gene flow by pollen: implications for plant conservation genetics. Oikos 63, 77-86.
40. Ellstrand, N. C., Devlin, B., and Marshall, D. L. (1989). Gene flow by pollen into small populations: data from experimental and natural stands of wild radish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 86, 9044-7.
41. Ellstrand, N. C., and Hoffman, C. A. (1990). Hybridisation as an avenue of escape for engineered genes. BioScience 40, 438-42.
42. Ellstrand, N. C., Whitkus, R., and Rieseberg, L. (1996). Distribution of spontaneous plant hybrids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 93, 5090-3.
43. Frello, S., Hansen, K. R., Jensen, J., and Jorgensen, R. B. (1995). Inheritance of rapeseed (Brassica napus) specific RAPD markers and a transgene in the cross B. juncea × (B. juncea × B. napus). Theoretical and Applied Genetics 91, 236-41.
44. Gerdemann-Knorck, M., Nielen, S., Tzschectzsch, C., Iglisch, J., and Schieder, O. (1995). Transfer of disease resistance within the genus Brassica through asymmetric somatic hybridisation. Euphytica 85, 247-53.
45. Goy, P. A., and Duesing, J. H. (1995). From pots and plots: genetically modified plants on trial. Biotechnology 13, 454-8.
46. Griffiths, M. (1992). 'The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening.' (Macmillan Press: London.)
47. Hancock, J., Gumet, R., and Hokansen, S. (1996). The opportunity for escape of engineered genes from transgenic crops. HortScience 31, 1080-5.
48. Harberd, D. J., and McArthur, E. D. (1980). Meiotic analysis of some species and genus hybrids in the Brassiceae. In 'Brassica Crops and Wild Allies: Biology and Breeding'. (Eds S. Tsunoda, K. Hinta, and C. Gomez-Campo.) pp. 65-87. (Japan Scientific Societies Press: Tokyo.)
49. Heyn, F. (1977). Analysis of unreduced gametes in the Brassicaceae by crosses between species and ployidy levels. Journal of Plant Breeding 78, 13-30.
50. Inomata, N. (1993). Crossability and cytology of hybrid progenies in the cross between Brassica rapa and four wild relatives of B. oleraceae, B. bourgeaui, B. cretica and B. montana. Euphytica 69, 7-17.
51. Jandurova, O. M., and Dolezel, J. (1995). Cytological study of interspecific hybrid between Brassica rapa × B. hirta (Sinapis alba). Sexual Plant Reproduction 8, 37-43.
52. Jessop, J. P., and Toelken, H. R. (1986). 'Flora of Australia. Part 1: Lycopodiaceae-Rosaceae.' 4th Edn. (South Australian Government Printing Divison: Adelaide.)
53. Jorgensen, R. B., and Andersen, B. (1994). Spontaneous hybridisation between oilseed rape (Brassica napus) and weedy Brassica rapa (Brassicaceae) - a risk of growing genetically modified oilseed rape. American Journal of Botany 81, 1620-6.
54. Jorgensen, R. B., Hauser, T., Mikkelsen, T. R., and Ostergard, H. (1996). Transfer of engineered genes from crops to wild plants. Trends in Plant Sciences 1, 356-8.
55. Kapteijns, A. J. A. M. (1993). Risk assessment of genetically modified crops - potential of four arable crops to hybridize with the wild flora. Euphytica 66, 145-9.
56. Keeler, K. (1989). Can genetically engineered crops become weeds? Bio/Technology 7, 1134-9.
57. Keeler, K. H., Turner, C. E., and Bolick, M. R. (1997). Movement of crop transgenes into wild plants. In 'Herbicide-Resistant Crops. Agricultural, Environmental, Economic, Regulatory and Technical Aspects.' (Ed. S. O. Duke.) pp. 303-30. (Lewis: Boca Raton, FL.)
58. Kerlan, M. C., Chevre, A. M., and Eber, F. (1993). Interspecific hybrids between a transgenic rapeseed (Brassica napus) and related species: cytogenetical characterisation and detection of the transgene. Genome 36, 1099-106.
59. Kerlan, M. C., Chevre, A. M., Eber, F., Baranger, A., and Renard, M. (1992). Risk assessment of outcrossing of transgenic rapeseed to related species. I. Interspecific hybrid production under optimal conditions with emphasis on pollination and fertilisation. Euphytica 62, 145-53.
60. Kimber, D. S., and McGregor, D. I. (1995). The species and their origin, cultivation and world production. In 'Brassica Oilseeds: Production and Utilisation'. (Eds D. Kimber and D. I. McGregor.) pp. 1-7. (University Press: Cambridge.)
61. Kirkpatrick, K., and Wilson, W. (1991). Interspecific gene flow in Cucurbita: C. texensis versus C. pepo. American Journal of Botany 75, 519-27.
62. Klinger, T., Elam, D., and Ellstrand, N. (1991). Radish as a model system for the study of engineered gene escape rates via crop-weed mating. Conservation Biology 4, 531-5.
63. Lack, A. J., and Kay, Q. O. N. (1987). Genetic structure, gene flow and reproduction ecology in sand-dune population of Polygala vulgaris. Journal of Ecology 75, 259-76.
64. Langevin, S. A., Clay, K., and Grace, J. B. (1990). The incidence and effects of hybridisation between cultivated rice and its related weed red rice (Oryza sativa L.). Evolution 44, 1000-8.
65. Langridge, D. F., and Goodman, R. D. (1982). Honeybee pollination of oilseed rape, cultivar Midas. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 22, 124-6.
66. Lavigne, C., Manch, H., Guyard, C., and Gasauez, J. (1995). The cost of herbicide resistance in white chicory - ecological implications for its commercial release. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 91, 1301-8.
67. Lefol, E., Danielou, V., and Darmency, H. (1996a). Predicting hybridisation between transgenic oilseed rape and wild mustard. Field Crops Research 45, 153-61.
68. Lefol, E., Danielou, V., Darmency, H., Kerlan, M. C., Vallee, P., Chevre, A. M., and Renard, M. (1991). Escape of engineered genes from rapeseed to wild Brassicaceae. In 'Brighton Crop Protection Conference - Weeds'. Vol. 3, pp. 1049-56. (British Crop Protection Council: Farnham, UK.)
69. Lefol, E., Fleury, A., and Darmency, H. (19960). Gene dispersal from transgenic crops II. Hybridisation between oilseed rape and wild hoary mustard. Sexual Plant Reproduction 9, 189-96.
70. Lefol, E., Seguin-Swartz, G., and Downey, K. (1997). Sexual hybridisation in crosses of cultivated Brassica species with the crucifers Erucastrum gallicum and Raphanus raphanistrum: potential for gene introgression. Euphytica 95, 127-39.
71. Levin, D. A. (1981). Dispersal versus gene flow in plants. Annals of the Missouri Botanic Gardens 8, 233-53.
72. Levin, D. A., and Kerster, H. W. (1974). Gene flow in seed plants. Evolutionary Biology 7, 139-220.
73. Loveless, M. D., and Hamrick, J. L. (1984). Ecological determinants of genetic structure in plant populations. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 15, 65-95.
74. Manasse, R. S. (1992). Ecological risks of transgenic plants: effects of spatial dispersion on gene flow. Ecological Applications 2, 431-8.
75. Matheson, E. M. (1976). 'Vegetable Oil Seeds Crops in Australia.' (Holt, Rinehart and Winston: Sydney.)
76. Mathias, R. (1985). Transfer of cytoplasmic male sterility from brown mustard (Brassica juncea L. Coss.) into rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Plant Breeding 95, 371-4.
77. Melampy, M. N. (1987). Flowering phenology, pollen flow and fruit production in the andean shrub, Befaria resinosa. Oecologia 73, 293-300.
78. Mellon, M., and Rissler, J. (1995). Transgenic crops: USDA data on small-scale tests contribute little to commercial risk assessment. Bio/Technology 13, 96.
79. Metz, P. L. J., Nap, J. P., and Stielema, W. J. (1995). Hybridisation of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) and oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) through a flower-culture method. Euphytica 83, 159-68.
80. Mikkelsen, T. R., Andersen, B., and Jorgensen, R. B. (1996a). The risk of transgenic crop spread. Nature 330, 31.
81. Mikkelsen, T. R., Jensen, J., and Jorgensen, R. B. (19960). Inheritance of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) RAPD markers in a backcross progeny with Brassica rapa. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 92, 492-7.
82. Miller, H., Huttner, S. L., Beachy, R., Crawley, M. J., and Kareiva, P. (1993). Risk assessment experiments for 'genetically modified' plants. Bio/Technology 11, 1323-4.
83. Morinaga, T. (1934). Interspecific hybridisation in Brassica. VI. The cytology of F1 hybrids of B. juncea and B. nigra. Cytologia 6, 62-7.
84. Morris, W. F. (1993). Predicting the consequences of plant spacing and biased movement for pollen dispersal by honeybees. Ecology 74, 493-500.
85. Morris, W. F., Kareiva, P. M., and Raymer, P. L. (1994). Do barren zones and pollen traps reduce gene flow from transgenic plants. Ecological Applications 4, 157-65.
86. Murawski, D. A., and Gilbert, L. E. (1986). Pollen flow in Psiguria warscewiczii: a comparison of Heliconius butterflies and humming-birds. Oecologia 68, 161-7.
87. Nelson, A. (1927). Fertility in the genus Brassica. Journal of Genetics 18, 109-35.
88. Nieuwhof, M. (1969). 'Cole Crops; Botany, Cultivation and Utilisation.' (Lenard Hill: London.)
89. Nilsson, L. A., Rabakonandrianina, E., and Pettersson, B. (1992). Exact tracking of pollen transfer and mating in plants. Nature 360, 666-9.
90. Paul, E. M., Thompson, C., and Dunwell, J. M. (1995). Gene dispersal from genetically modified oil seed rape in the field. Euphytica 81, 283-9.
91. Pearson, O. (1928). A suggested classification of the genus Brassica. Proceedings of the American Society of Horticultural Science 25, 105-10.
92. Pekrun, C., Hewitt, J. D. J., and Lutman, P. J. W. (1998). Cultural control of volunteer oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Journal of Agricultural Science 130, 155-63.
93. Pekrun, C., Lutman, P. J. W., and Baeumer, K. (1997). Germination behaviour of dormant oilseed rape seeds in relation to temperature. Weed Research 37, 419-31.
94. Picard-Nizou, A. L., Pham Delegue, M. H., Kerguelen, V., Douault, P., Marilleau, R., Olsen, L., Grison, R., Toppan, A., and Masson, C. (1995). Foraging behaviour of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) on transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus L. var. oleifera). Transgenic Research 4, 270-6.
95. Prakash, S., and Chopra V. (1988). Introgression of resistance to shattering in Brassica napus from Brassica juncea through non-homologous recombination. Plant Breeding 101, 167-8.
96. Prakash, S., and K. Hinata, (1980). Taxonomy, cytogenetics and origin of crop Brassicas, a review. Opera Botanica 55, 1-57.
97. Rakow, G., and Woods, D. L. (1987). Outcrossing in rape and mustard under Saskatchewan Praire conditions. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 67, 147-51.
98. Rasmussen, I. R., and Brodsgaard, B. (1992). Gene flow inferred from seed dispersal and pollinator behaviour compared to DNA analysis of restriction site variation in a patchy population of Lotus corniculatus L. Oecologia 89, 277-83.
99. Raybould, A., and Gray, A. (1994). Will hybrids of genetically modified crops invade natural communities? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9, 85-9.
100. Reeves, T. G., Code, G. R., and Piggins, C. M. (1981). Seed production and longevity, seasonal emergence and phenology of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.). Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 21, 524-30.
101. Renouf, C. (1997). Public concerns about transgenic crops. In 'Commercialisation of Transgenic Crops; Risk, Benefit and Trade Considerations'. (Eds G. D. McLean, P. M. Waterhouse, G. Evans, and M. J. Gibbs.) pp. 357-61. (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra.)
102. Ringdahl, E., McVetty, P., and Sernyk, J. L. (1987). Intergeneric hybridisation of Diplotaxis spp. with Brassica napus: a source of new CMS systems? Canadian Journal of Plant Science 67, 239-43.
103. Rissler, J., and Mellon, M. (1996). 'The Ecological Risks of Engineered Crops.' (MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.)
104. Rogers, H. J., and Parkes, H. C. (1995). Transgenic plants and the environment. Journal of Experimental Botany 46, 467-88.
105. Roy, N. (1978). A study on disease variation in the populations of an interspecific cross of Brassica juncea L. × B. napus L. Euphytica 27, 145-9.
106. Roy, N. (1980). Species crossability and early generation plant fertility in interspecific crosses of Brassica. Sabrao Journal 12, 43-53.
107. Roy, N. (1984). Interspecific transfer of Brassica juncea-type high blackleg resistance to Brassica napus. Euphytica 33, 295-303.
108. Sabharwal, P., and Dolezel J. (1993). Interspecific hybridisation in Brassica - application of flow cytometry for analysis of ploidy and genome composition in hybrid plants. Biologia Plantarum 35, 169-77.
109. Saccristan, M., and Gerdemann, M. (1986). Different behaviour of Brassica juncea and B. caranata as sources of Phoma lingam resistance in experiments of interspecific transfer to B. napus. Plant Breeding 97, 304-14.
110. Salisbury, P. A., and Wratten, N. (1997). Potential for gene transfer from transgenic canola (Brassica napus) to related crufier species under Australian conditions. In 'Commercialisation of Transgenic Crops; Risk, Benefit and Trade Considerations'. (Eds G. D. McLean, P. M. Waterhouse, G. Evans, and M. J. Gibbs.) pp. 95-114. (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra.)
111. Santoni, S., and Berville, A. (1992). Evidence for gene exchange between sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) and wild beets: consequences for transgenic sugar beets. Plant Molecular Biology 20, 578-80.
112. Sarashima, M. (1964). Studies on the breeding of artificially synthesised rape (Brassica napus). I. F1 hybrids between B. campestris group and B. oleracea group and derived F2 plants. Japanese Journal of Breeding 14, 226-37.
113. Scheffler, J. A., and Dale, P. J. (1994). Opportunities for gene transfer from transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus) to related species. Transgenic Research 3, 263-78.
114. Scheffler, J. A., Parkinson, R., and Dale, P. J. (1993). Frequency and distance of pollen dispersal from transgenic oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Transgenic Research 2, 356-64.
115. Scheffler, J. A., Parkinson, R., and Dale, P. J. (1995). Evaluating the effectiveness of isolation distance for field plots of oilseed rape (Brassica napus) using a herbicide resistance transgene as a selectable marker. Plant Breeding 114, 317-21.
116. Schmitt, J. (1980). Pollinator foraging behaviour and gene dispersal in Senecio (Compositae). Evolution 34, 934-43.
117. Sindel, B. M. (1997). Outcrossing of transgenes to weedy relatives. In 'Commercialisation of Transgenic Crops; Risk, Benefit and Trade Considerations'. (Eds G. D. McLean, P. M. Waterhouse, G. Evans, and M. J. Gibbs.) pp. 43-81. (Australian Government Publishing Service: Canberra.)
118. Slatkin, M. (1985). Rare alleles as indicators of gene flow. Evolution 39, 53-65.
119. Song, K., Osborn, T. C., and Williams, P. H. (1990). Brassica taxonomy based on nuclear restriction fragment length polymorphisms. (RFLPs). 3. Genome relationships in Brassica and related genera and the origin of B. oleracea and B. rapa (syn. campestris. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 79, 497-506.
120. Stringam, G. R., and Downey, R. K. (1978). Effectiveness of isolation distance in turnip rape. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 58, 427-34.
121. Sutton, A. W. (1908). Brassica crosses. Journal of the Linnean Society 38, 337-49.
122. Thomson, J. D., Price, M. V., Waser, N. M., and Stratton, D. A. (1986). Comparative studies of pollen and fluorescent dye transport by bumblebees visiting Erythonium grandiflorum. Oecologia 69, 561-6.
123. Timmons, A. M., O'Brien, E. T., Charters, Y. M., Dubbels, S. J., and Wilkinson, M. J. (1995). Assessing the risks of wind pollination from fields of genetically modified Brassica napus ssp. oleifera. Euphytica 85, 417-23.
124. Tsunoda, S. (1980). Eco-physiology of wild and cultivated forms in Brassica and allied genera. In 'Brassica Crops and Wild Allies; Biology and Breeding'. (Eds S. Tsunoda, K. Hinata, and C. Gomez-Campo.) pp. 109-20. (Japan Scientific Society Press: Tokyo.)
125. Tutin, T. G., Heywood, V. H., Burges, N. A., Valentine, D. H., Walters, S. M., and Webb, D. A. (1964). 'Flora Europaea. Vol. 1: Lycopodiaceae to Plantanaceae.' (University Press: Cambridge.)
126. U, N. (1935). Genome analysis in Brassica with special reference to the experimental formation of B. napus and peculiar mode of fertilisation. Japanese Journal of Botany 7, 389-452.
127. Virtue, J. G. (1996). Improving the assessment of new weed threats: developing techniques with cruciferous weeds of cropping. In 'Proceedings of the Eleventh Australian Weeds Conference: Melbourne, Australia', pp. 85-8. (Weed Society of Victoria: Frankston, Vic.)
128. Warwick, S. I. (1991). Herbicide resistance in weedy plants: physiology and population biology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 22, 95-114.
129. Warwick, S. I., and Black, L. D. (1991). Molecular systematics of Brassica and allied genera (subtribe Brassicinae, Brassiceae) - chloroplast genome and cytodeme congruence. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 82, 81-92.
130. Waser, N. M., Price, M. V. (1989). Optimal outcrossing in Ipomopsis aggregata: seed-set and offspring fitness. Evolution 43, 1097-109.
131. Williams, I. (1984). The concentration of air-borne pollen over a crop of oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Agricultural Science 103, 353-7.
132. Williams, I., Martin, A., and White, R. (1986). The pollination requirements of oil-seed rape. The Journal of Agricultural Science 106, 27-30.
133. Williams, I., Martin, A., and White, R. (1987). The effect of insect pollination on plant development and seed production in winter oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.). The Journal of Agricultural Science 109, 135-9.
134. Williamson, M., Perrins, J., and Fitter, A. (1990). Releasing genetically engineered plants: Present proposals and possible hazards. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5, 417-19.
135. Wilson, H., and Manhart, J. (1993). Crop/weed gene flow: Chenopodium quinoa Willd. and C. berlandieri Moq. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 86, 642-8.