Women in science and engineering: Advances, challenges, and solutions

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 869, Issue , 1999, Pages 34-57

  Sonnert, Gerhard ^a  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACHIEVEMENT; CAREER; COLLEGE; CONFERENCE PAPER; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EDUCATION; ENGINEERING; FAMILY; FEMALE; FEMALE WORKER; GENDER; HUMAN; SCIENCE; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIOLOGY; TECHNOLOGY;

EID: 0033006953     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08353.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (166)

1. ABIR-AM, P. G. & D. OUTRAM, Eds. 1987. Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science, 1789-1979. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick, NJ.
2. ALLISON, P. D. & J. A. STEWART. 1974. Productivity differences among scientists: Evidence for accumulative advantage. Am. Soc. Rev. 39: 596-606.
3. AMBROSE, S. A., K. L. DUNKLE, B. B. LAZARUS, I. NAIR & D. A. MARKUS. 1997. Journeys of Women in Science and Engineering: No Universal Constants. Temple University Press. Philadelphia, PA.
4. ASTIN, H. S. 1978. Factors affecting women's scholarly productivity. In The Higher Education of Women. Essays in Honor of Rosemary Park. H. S. Astin & W. Z. Hirsch, Eds.: 133-157. Praeger. New York.
5. ASTIN, H. S. & L. H. SAX. 1996. Developing scientific talent in undergraduate women. In The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. C. S. Davis et al., Eds.: 96-121. JosseyBass. San Francisco.
6. BABCO, E. L., Ed. 1997. Professional Women and Minorities. 12th edit. Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology. Washington, DC.
7. BELENKY, M. F., B. M. CLINCHY, N. R. GOLDBERGER & J. M. TARULE. 1986. Women's Ways of Knowing. The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind. Basic Books. New York.
8. BENBOW, C. P. & J. C. STANLEY. 1980. Sex differences in mathematical ability. Fact or artifact. Science 210: 1262-1264.
9. BERG, H. M. & M. A. FERBER. 1983. Men and women graduate students: Who succeeds and why? J. Higher Ed. 54: 629-648.
10. BERRYMAN, S. E. 1983. Who Will Do Science? Trends, and Their Causes, in Minority and Female Representation Among Holders of Advanced Degrees in Science and Mathematics. Rockefeller Foundation. Washington, DC.
11. BETTELHEIM, B. 1965. The commitment required of a woman entering a scientific profession in present-day American society. In Women and the Scientific Professions: The M.I.T. Symposium on American Women in Science and Engineering. J. A. Mattfeld & C. G. Van Aken, Eds.: 3-19. M.I.T. Press. Cambridge, MA.
12. BILLARD, L. 1991. The past, present, and future of academic women in the mathematical sciences. Notices AMS 38(7): 707-714.
13. BIRD, S. J. & C. J. DIDION. 1992. Retaining women science students: A mentoring project of the Association for Women in Science. Initiatives 55(3): 3-11.
14. BLALOCK, H. M., JR. 1967. Toward a Theory of Minority-Group Relations. John Wiley. New York.
15. BLEIER, R. 1984. Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and Its Theories on Women. Pergamon. New York.
16. BROWN, S. V. 1996. The career progress of minority women. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, February 8-13. Baltimore, MD.
17. BRUSH, S. G. 1991. Women in science and engineering. Am. Sci. 79: 404-419.
18. CAMPBELL, P. F. & S. C. GELLER. 1984. Early socialization. Causes and cures of mathematics anxiety. In Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions. V. B. Haas & C. C. Perrucci, Eds.: 173-180. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor, MI.
19. CHAMBERLAIN, M. K., Ed. 1988. Women in Academe: Progress and Prospects. Russell Sage. New York.
20. CHUBIN, D. E. 1996. Changing perceptions: Reculturing science: Politics, policy, and promises to keep. Sci. Pub. Policy 23(1): 2-12.
21. CHUBIN, D. E. 1996. Policy perspectives on careers in science. Paper given at the Symposium on Science Careers, Gender Equity, and the Changing Economy, held by the Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology and the Radcliffe Public Policy Institute. October 29. Washington, DC.
22. CHUBIN, D. E. & S. M. MALCOM. 1996. Policies to promote women in science. In The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. C.-S. Davis et al., Eds.: 1-28. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco.
23. CIVIAN, J. T., WITH P. RAYMAN, B. BRETT & L. M. BALDWIN. 1997. Pathways for Women in the Sciences: The Wellesley Report. Part II. Wellesley Center for Research on Women. Wellesley, MA.
24. CLEWELL, B. C. & A. B. GINORIO. 1996. Examining women's progress in the sciences from the perspective of diversity. In The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. C.-S. Davis et al., Eds.: 163-231. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco.
25. COLE, J. R. 1979. Fair Science. Women in the Scientific Community. Free Press. New York.
26. COLE, J. R. & B. SINGER. 1991. A theory of limited differences. Explaining the productivity puzzle in science. In The Outer Circle. Women in the Scientific Community. H. Zuckerman, J. R. Cole & J. T. Bruer, Eds.: 277-310. Norton. New York.
27. COLE, J. R. & H. ZUCKERMAN. 1984. The productivity puzzle: Persistence and change in patterns of publication of men and women scientists. In Advances in Motivation and Achievement, vol. 2. M. W. Steinkamp & M. L. Maehr, Eds.: 217-256. JAI Press. Greenwich, CT.
28. COLE, J. R. & H. ZUCKERMAN. 1987. Marriage, motherhood, and research performance in science. Sci. Am. 255(2): 119-125.
29. COLE, S. & R. FIORENTINE. 1991. Discrimination against women in science. The confusion of outcome and process. In The Outer Circle: Women in the Scientific Community. H. Zuckerman, J. R. Cole & J. T. Bruer, Eds.: 205-226. Norton. New York.
30. DAVIS, C.-S. et al., Eds. 1996. The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco.
31. DAVIS, C.-S. & S. V. ROSSER. 1996. Program and auricular interventions. In C.-S. Davis et al., Eds.: 232-264. The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco.
32. DIDION, C. J. 1994. The current climate for women in science. J. Coll. Sci. Teach. 23: 272-274.
33. DRESSELHAUS, M. S. 1986. Women graduate students. Phys. Today 39(June): 74-75.
34. DRESSELHAUS, M. S., J. FRANZ & B. C. CLARK, (no year). Improving the Climate for Women in Physics Departments. American Physical Society and American Association of Physics Teachers. College Park, MD.
35. ECCLES, J. S. 1987. Gender roles and women's achievement-related decisions. Psychol. Women Q. 11: 135-172.
36. ECCLES, J. S. & J. E. JACOBS. 1986. Social forces shape math attitudes and perfor- . mance. Signs 11: 367-380.
37. ECCLES, J. S., J. E. JACOBS & R. D. HAROLD. 1990. Gender role stereotypes, expectancy effects, and parents' socialization of gender differences. J. Soc. Issues 46(2): 183-201.
38. ECCLES-PARSONS, J., T. F. ADLER & C. M. KACZALA. 1982. Socialization of achievement attitudes and beliefs: Parental influences. Child Dev. 53: 310-321.
39. ENTWISLE, D. R. & L. A. HAYDUK. 1988. Lasting effects of elementary school. Sociol. Educ. 6: 147-159.
40. EPSTEIN, C. F. 1988. Deceptive Distinctions: Sex, Gender, and the Social Order. Yale University Press. New Haven, CT.
41. ETZKOWITZ, H., C. KEMELGOR & J. ALONZO. 1995. The Rites and Wrongs of Passage: Critical Transitions for Female Ph.D. Students in the Sciences. Report to the NSF. Arlington, VA.
42. ETZKOWITZ, H., C. KEMELGOR, M. NEUSCHATZ & B. Uzzi. 1994. Barriers to women's participation in academic science and engineering. In Who Will Do Science? Educating the Next Generation. W. Pearson, Jr. & A. Fechter, Eds.: 43-67. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.
43. ETZKOWITZ, H., C. KEMELGOR, M. NEUSCHATZ, B. Uzzi & J. ALONZO. 1994. The paradox of critical mass for women in science. Science 266(7 October): 51-54.
44. EVETTS, J. 1996. Gender and Career in Science and Engineering. Taylor & Francis. London, UK.
45. FAUSTO-STERLING, A. 1985. Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men. Basic Books. New York.
46. FAVA, S. F. & K. DEIERLEIN. 1988. Women physicists in the U.S. The career influence of marital status. Gazette. A Newsletter of the Committee on the Status of Women in Physics of the American Physical Society 8(2): 1-3.
47. FEHRS, M. & R. CZUJKO. 1992. Women in physics: Reversing the exclusion. Phys.Today (August, part 1): 33-40.
48. FERBER, M. & J. HUBER. 1979. Husbands, wives, and careers. J. Marriage Family 41: 315-325.
49. FERBER, M. & J. LOEB. 1997. Academic Couples. University of Illinois Press. Urbana, IL.
50. FISHER, A., J. MARGOLIS & F. MILLER. 1997. Undergraduate women in computer science: Experience, motivation, and culture. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCSE Technical Symposium, March (available at URL: www.cs.cmu.edu/~gendergap).
51. FISS, O. M. 1991. An uncertain inheritance. In The Outer Circle: Women in the Scientific Community. H. Zuckerman, J. R. Cole & J. T. Bruer, Eds.: 259-273. Norton. New York.
52. FORT, D. C., S. J. BIRD & C. J. DIDION. 1993. A Hand Up: Women Mentoring Women in Science. Association for Women in Science. Washington, DC.
53. FOX, M. F. 1991. Gender, environmental milieu, and productivity in science. In The Outer Circle: Women in the Scientific Community. H. Zuckerman, J. R. Cole & J. T. Bruer, Eds.: 188-204. Norton. New York.
54. FOX, M. F. 1995. Women and scientific careers. In Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. S. Jasanoff, G. E. Markle, J. C. Petersen & T. Pinch, Eds.: 205-223. Sage. Thousand Oaks, CA.
55. FOX, M. F. 1996. Women, academia, and careers in science and engineering. In The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. C.-S. Davis et al., Eds.: 265-289. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco.
56. FRAZIER-KOUASSI, S., et al. 1992. Women in Mathematics and Physics: Inhibitors and Enhancers. University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, MI.
57. HAACK, S. 1993. Knowledge and propaganda: Reflections of an old feminist. Partisan Rev. 60: 556-564.
58. HALL, R. M. 1982. The Classroom Climate: A Chilly One for Women? (Project on the Status and Education of Women). Association of American Colleges. Washington, DC.
59. HANSOM, S. L. 1996. Lost Talent: Women in the Sciences. Temple University Press. Philadelphia, PA.
60. HARDING, S. 1986. The Science Question in Feminism. Cornell University Press. Ithaca, NY.
61. HARGENS, L. L., J. C. MCCANN & B. F. RESKIN. 1978. Productivity and reproductivity: Professional achievement among research scientists. Soc. Forces 57: 154-163.
62. HAYES, D. W. 1993. Making inroads-women in science and technical research: Environmental change slow and difficult. Black Issues Hieher Educ. 10(17): 34-38.
63. HEIKKINEN, H. 1978. Sex bias in chemistry texts. Where is women's place? Sci. Teacher 45: 16-21.
64. HOBEN, T. 1985. A theory of high mathematical aptitude. J. Math. Psychol. 29(June): 231-242.
65. HOLLENSHEAD, C., et al. 1996. The graduate experience in the sciences and engineering: Rethinking a gendered institution. In The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. C.-S. Davis et al., Eds.: 122-162. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco.
66. HOLLENSHEAD, C., et al. 1996. Ensuring educational and career equity for women: A research and policy agenda. In The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. C.-S. Davis et al., Eds.: 321-333. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco.
67. HORNIG, L. S. 1984. Women in science and engineering: Why so few? Technol. Rev. 87(8): 30-41.
68. HORNIG, L. S. 1984. Professional women in transition. In Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions. V. B. Haas & C. C. Perrucci, Eds.: 43-58. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor, MI.
69. HORNIG, L. S. 1987. Women graduate students. In Women: Their Underrepresentation and Career Differentials in Science and Engineering. L. S. Dix, Ed.: 103-122. National Academy Press. Washington, DC.
70. HUBBARD, R., M. S. HENIFIN & B. FRIED, Eds. 1979. Women Look at Biology Looking at Women. G. K. Hall. Boston.
71. HUBBARD, R. & M. LOWE, Eds. 1979. Genes and Gender. Vol. II: Pitfalls in Research on Sex and Gender. Gordian Press. New York.
72. HUSTON-STEIN, A. & A. HIGGINS-TRENK. 1978. Development of females from childhood through adulthood. Careers and feminine role orientations. Life Span Dev. Behav. 1: 257-296.
73. KANTER, R. M. 1977. Men and Women of the Corporation. Basic Books. New York.
74. KANTER, R. M. 1977. Some effects of proportions on group life. Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. Am. J. Sociol. 82: 965-990.
75. KELLER, E. F. 1983. A Reling for the Organism. The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock. W. H. Freeman. New York.
76. KELLER, E. F. 1985. Reflections on Gender and Science. Yale University Press. New Haven, CT.
77. KELLER, E. F. 1989. Feminism and science. In Women, Knowledge, and Reality. Explorations in Feminist Philosophy. A. Carry & M. Pearsall, Eds.: 175-188. Unwin Hyman. Boston.
78. KELLER, E. F. & H. E. LONGING, Eds. 1996. Feminism and Science. Oxford University Press. Oxford, UK.
79. KELLY, A. 1985. The construction of masculine science. Br. J. Sociol. Educ. 6: 133-154.
80. KERR, P. 1988. A conceptualization of learning, teaching and research experiences of women scientists and its implications for science. Doctoral dissertation. Cornell University. Ithaca, NY.
81. KISTIAKOWSKY, V. 1980. Women in physics: Unnecessary, injurious and out of place? Physics Today 33(Feb.): 32-40.
82. KJERULFF, K. H. & M. R. BLOOD. 1973. A comparison of communication patterns in male and female graduate students. J. Higher Educ. 44: 623-632.
83. KOHLSTEDT, S. G. & H. LONGING, Eds. 1997. Women, Gender, and Science: New Directions. Osiris, 12 (second series).
84. KOMAROVSKY, M. 1985. Women in College: Shaping New Feminine Identities. Basic Books. New York.
85. KUNDSIN, R. B. 1974. To autonomous women: An introduction. In Women & Success: The Anatomy of Achievement. R. B. Kundsin, Ed.: 9-12. William Morrow & Co. New York.
86. LEGGON, C. B. & S. M. MALCOM. 1994. Human resources in science and engineering: Policy implications. In Who Will Do Science? Educating the Next Generation. W. Pearson, Jr. & A. Fechter, Eds.: 141-151. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.
87. LENTZ, L. 1980. The college choice of career-salient women: Coed or women's. J. Educ. Equity Leadership 1: 28-35.
88. LEVIN, M. 1988. Caring new world. Feminism and science. Am. Scholar. 57: 100-106.
89. LIPMAN-BLUMEN, J. 1972. How ideology shapes women's lives. Sci. Am. 226(1): 34-42.
90. LONG, J. S. 1990. The origins of sex differences in science. Social Forces 68: 1297-1315.
91. LONG, J. S. 1992. Measures of sex differences in scientific productivity. Social Forces 71: 159-178.
92. LONG, J. S. & M. F. FOX. 1995. Scientific careers: Universalism and particularism. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 21: 45-71.
93. MALCOM, S. M. 1991. More than market forces: Policies to promote change. In Investing in Human Potential: Science and Engineering at the Crossroads. M. L. Matyas & S. M. Malcom, Eds.: 139-145. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Washington, DC.
94. MANIS, J. D., N. G. THOMAS, B. F. SLOAT & C.-S. DAVIS. 1989. An analysis of factors affecting choices of majors in science, mathematics, and engineering at the University of University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, MI.
95. MATYAS, M. L. 1991. Women, minorities and persons with physical disabilities in science and engineering. Contributing factors and study methodology. In Investing in Human Potential. Science and Engineering at the Crossroads. M. L. Matyas & S. M. Malcom, Eds.: 13-36. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Washington, DC.
96. MATYAS, M. L. 1992. Promoting undergraduate studies in science and engineering. In Science and Engineering Programs. On Target for Women? M. L. Matyas & L. S. Dix, Eds.: 43-65. National Academy Press. Washington, DC.
97. MATYAS, M. L. & L. S. Dix, Eds. 1992. Science and Engineering Programs. On Target for Women? National Academy Press. Washington, DC.
98. MATYAS, M. L. & S. M. MALCOM, Eds. 1991. Investing in Human Potential: Science and Engineering at the Crossroads. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Washington, DC.
99. MERTON, R. K. 1973. The Sociology of Science. Theoretical and Empirical Investigations. University of Chicago Press. Chicago.
100. MOEN, P. 1988. Women as a human resource. Manuscript NSB/EHR 89-05. Sociology Program, Division of Social and Economic Science, National Science Foundation. Washington, DC.
101. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (NRC). 1981. Postdoctoral Appointments and Disappointments. A report of the Committee on a Study of Postdoctorals in Science and Engineering in the United States. Commission on Human Resources. National Academy Press. Washington, DC.
102. NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (NRC). 1994. Women Scientists and Engineers Employed in Industry: Why So Few? National Academy Press. Washington, DC.
103. NATIONAL SCIENCE BOARD (NSB). 1996. Science and Engineering Indicators-1996. U.S. Government Printing Office. Washington, DC.
104. NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (NSF). 1986. Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering. National Science Foundation. Washington, DC.
105. NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (NSF). 1990. Future Scarcities of Scientists and Engineers. Problems and Solutions. Directorate for Scientific, Technological and International Affairs, Division of Policy Research and Analysis. (Working Draft, Summer 1990). National Science Foundation. Washington, DC.
106. NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (NSF). 1996. Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 1996. NSF 96-311. National Science Foundation. Arlington, VA.
107. OATES, M. L. & S. WILLIAMSON. 1978. Women's colleges and women achievers. Signs 3(4): 795-806.
108. PASCARELLA, E. T. & P. T. TERENZINI. 1991. How college affects students: Findings and insights from twenty years of research. Jossey Bass. San Francisco, CA.
109. PEARSON, W., JR. & A. FECHTER, Eds. 1994. Who Will Do Science? Educating the Next Generation. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.
110. PHELAN, W. 1979. Undergraduate orientations toward scientific and scholarly careers. Am. Educ. Res. J. 16: 411-422.
111. PRIMACK, R. B. & V. O'LEARY. 1993. Cumulative disadvantages in the careers of women ecologists. BioScience 43(3): 158-165.
112. PYCIOR, H. M., N. G. SLACK & P. G. ABIR-AM. 1996. Creative Couples in the Sciences. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick, NJ.
113. RADCLIFFE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE EDUCATION FOR WOMEN. 1956. Graduate Education of Women: The Radcliffe Ph.D. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA.
114. RADKE SHARPE, N. & C. H. FULLER. 1995. Baccalaureate origins of women physical science and engineering doctorates: Trends and transitions. SLAW Technical Report No. 95-001, Department of Mathematics, Pomona College. Claremont, CA.
115. RADKE SHARPE, N. & C. H. FULLER. 1995. Baccalaureate origins of women physical science doctorates: Relationship to institutional gender and science discipline. J. Women Minorities Sci. Eng. 2: 1-15.
116. RAYMAN, P. M. & B. BRETT. 1993. Pathways for Women in the Sciences: The Wellesley Report. Part I. Wellesley Center for Research on Women. Wellesley, MA.
117. RAYMAN, P. & B. BRETT. 1995. Women science majors: What makes a difference in persistence after graduation? J. Higher Educ. 66: 388-414.
118. RAYMAN, P. & J. S. JACKSON. 1996. Women scientists in industry. In The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. C.-S. Davis et al., Eds.: 290-320. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco.
119. REISS, M. J. 1993. Science Education for a Pluralist Society. Open University Press. Buckingham, UK.
120. RESKIN, B. 1976. Sex differences in status attainment in science: The case of the postdoctoral fellowship. Am. Sociol. Rev. 41: 597-612.
121. ROSENFELD, R. A. 1984. Academic career mobility for women and men psychologists. In Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions. V. B. Haas & C. C. Perrucci, Eds.: 89-127. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor, MI.
122. ROSSER, S. V. 1986. Teaching Science and Health from a Feminist Perspective: A Practical Guide. Pergamon Press. New York.
123. ROSSER, S. V. 1990. Female-Friendly Science: Applying Women's Studies Methods and Theories to Attract Students. Pergamon Press. New York.
124. ROSSER, S. V., Ed. 1995. Teaching the Majority: Breaking the Gender Barrier in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering. Teachers College Press. New York.
125. ROSSER, S. V. 1997. Re-Engineering Female Friendly Science. Teachers College Press. New York.
126. Rossi, A. S. 1964. Equality between the sexes: An immodest proposal. Daedalus 93(Spring): 607-652.
127. ROSSITER, M. W. 1982. Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, MD.
128. ROSSITER, M. W. 1995. Women Scientists in America: Before Affirmative Action, 1940-1972. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, MD.
129. RUSKAI, M. B. 1994. Time for advancement. Focus (December): 25-28.
130. SAX, L. J. 1994. Mathematical self-concept: How college reinforces the gender gap. Res. Higher Educ. 35: 141-166.
131. SCHIEBINGER, L. L. 1984. Women and the Origins of Modern Science. Doctoral thesis. Department of History, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA.
132. SCHIEBINGER, L. 1989. The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA.
133. SELBY, C. C. 1997. Equity for good science and good citizens. In Thoughts and Deeds: Equity in Mathematics and Science Education. N. Kreinberg & E. Wahl, Eds.: 17-20. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Washington, DC.
134. SEYMOUR, E. 1995. The loss of women from science, mathematics, and engineering undergraduate majors: An explanatory account. Sci. Educ. 79: 437-473.
135. SEYMOUR, E. 1995. Why undergraduates leave the sciences. Am. J. Phys. 63: 199-202.
136. SEYMOUR, E. & N. HEWITT. 1997. Talking About Leaving: Why Undergraduates Leave the Sciences. Westview Press. Boulder, CO.
137. SMITH, W. S. & T. O. ERB. 1986. Effect of women science career role models on early adolescents' attitudes toward scientists and women in science. J. Res. Sci. Teaching 23: 667-676.
138. SONNERT, G. 1995. What makes a good scientist? Determinants of peer evaluation among biologists. Soc. Stud. Sci. 25: 35-55.
139. SONNERT, G. 1995/96. Gender equity in science: Still an elusive goal. Issues Sci. Technol. 12(2): 53-58.
140. SONNERT, G., with the assistance of G. HOLTON 1995. Gender Differences in Science Careers: The Project Access Study. Foreword by Robert K. Merton. Rose Book Series of the American Sociological Association. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick, NJ.
141. SONNERT, G., with the assistance of G. HOLTON. 1995. Who Succeeds in Science?The Gender Dimension. Foreword by Linda Wilson. Rutgers University Press. New Brunswick, NJ.
142. SONNERT, G. & G. HOLTON. 1996. Career patterns of women and men in the sciences. Am. Sci. 84: 63-71.
143. SUBOTNIK, R. F. & K. D. ARNOLD. 1996. Science and sacrifice: The costs of talent fulfillment for women in science. In Remarkable Women: Perspectives on Female Talent Development. K. D. Arnold, K. D. Noble & R. F. Subotnik, Eds.: 263-280. Hampton Press. Cresskill, NJ.
144. TIDBALL, M. E. 1986. Baccalaureate origins of recent natural science doctorates. J. Higher Educ. 57: 606-620.
145. TIDBALL, M. E. 1989. Women's colleges: Exceptional conditions, not exceptional talent, produce high achievers. In Educating the Majority: Women Challenge Tradition in Higher Education. C. S. Pearson, D. L. Shavlik & J. G. Touchton, Eds.: 157-172. American Council on Education and MacMillan. New York.
146. TIDBALL, M. E. & V. KISTIAKOWSKY. 1976. Baccalaureate origins of American scientists and scholars. Science 193(August 20): 646-652.
147. TOBIAS, S. 1990. They're Not Dumb, They're Different: Stalking the Second Tier. Research Corporation. Tucson, AZ.
148. TOBIAS, S. 1992. Revitalizing Undergraduate Science: Why Some Things Work and Most Don't. Research Corporation. Tucson, AZ.
149. TOBIAS, S. 1992. Women in science-Women and science. JCST: 276-278.
150. TOBIAS, S. 1993. The "problem" of women in science: Why is it so difficult to convince people there is one? In A Hand Up: Women Mentoring Women in Science. D. Fort, S. J. Bird & C. J. Didion, Eds.: 150-159. Association for Women in Science. Washington, DC.
151. TOBIAS, S. 1996. "Science-trained professionals"-A new breed for the new century. J. Sci. Educ. Technol. 5: 167-169.
152. TOBIAS, S., D. E. CHUBIN & K. AYLESWORTH. 1995. Rethinking Science as a Career: Perceptions and Realities in the Physical Sciences. Research Corporation. Tucson, AZ.
153. VALIAN, V. 1998. Running in place. The Sciences 38(1): 18-23.
154. VAN AKEN, C. G. 1965. Foreword. In Women and the Scientific Professions: The M.I.T. Symposium on American Women in Science and Engineering. J. A. Mattfeld & C. G. Van Aken, Eds.: v-vii. M.I.T. Press. Cambridge, MA.
155. VETTER, B. M. 1981. Women scientists and engineers: Trends in participation. Science 214: 1313-1321.
156. VETTER, B. M. 1987. Women's progress. Mosaic 18(1): 2-9.
157. VETTER, B. M. 1994. Professional Women and Minorities: A Total Human Resource Data Compendium, 11th edit. Commission on Professionals in Science and Technology. Washington, DC.
158. VETTER, B. M. 1996. Myths and realities of women's progress in the sciences, mathematics, and engineering. In The Equity Equation: Fostering the Advancement of Women in the Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering. C.-S. Davis et al., Eds.: 29-56. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco.
159. WEITZMAN, L. J. 1984. Sex-role socialization. A focus on women. In Women: A Feminist Perspective. 3rd edit. J. Freeman, Ed.: 157-237. Mayfield Publishing Company. Palo Alto, CA.
160. WIDNALL, S. E. 1988. Voices from the Pipeline (AAAS Presidential Lecture). Science 241: 1740-1745.
161. WILSON, L. S. 1992. The benefits of diversity in the science and engineering work force. In Science and Engineering Programs. On Target for Women? M. L. Matyas & L. S. Dix, Eds.: 1-14. National Academy Press. Washington, DC.
162. YARRISON-RICE, J. 1995. On the problem of making science attractive for women and minorities: An annotated bibliography. Am. J. Phys. 63: 203-211.
163. ZUCKERMAN, H. 1987. Persistence and change in the careers of men and women scientists and engineers: A review of current research. In Women: Their Underrepresentation and Career Differentials in Science and Engineering. L. S. Dix, Ed.: 123-156. National Academy Press. Washington, DC.
164. ZUCKERMAN, H. 1991. The careers of men and women scientists: A review of current research. In The Outer Circle. Women in the Scientific Community. H. Zuckerman, J. R. Cole & J. T. Bruer, Eds.: 27-56. Norton. New York.
165. ZUCKERMAN, H. 1989. Accumulation of advantage and disadvantage. The theory and its intellectual biography. In L'Opera di R. K. Merton e la Sociologia Contemporeana. C. Mongardini & S. Tabboni, Eds.: 153-176. Edizioni culturali internationali Genova. Genova, Italy.
166. ZUCKERMAN, H., J. R. COLE & J. T. BRUER, Eds. 1991. The Outer Circle: Women in the Scientific Community. Norton. New York.