Conservation, subsistence, and class at the birth of superior national forest

Environmental History

Volumn 4, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 80-99

  Johnson, Benjamin Heber ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTALISM; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; NATURE CONSERVATION; POPULAR PROTEST; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

MINNESOTA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033000409     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3985329     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. See Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash: Global Subversion of the Environmental Movement (New York: Routledge, 1997), and Jacqueline Vaughn Switzer, Green Backlash: The History and Politics of Environmental Opposition in the United States (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1997).
2. See Andrew Rowell, Green Backlash: Global Subversion of the Environmental Movement (New York: Routledge, 1997), and Jacqueline Vaughn Switzer, Green Backlash: The History and Politics of Environmental Opposition in the United States (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 1997).
3. See the American Historical Review's forum on American conservatism. American Historical Review 99 (1994): 409-52; Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3d ed. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982), esp. 208, 241-42.
4. See the American Historical Review's forum on American conservatism. American Historical Review 99 (1994): 409-52; Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3d ed. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982), esp. 208, 241-42.
5. These statements apply to virtually all of the literature on parks and protected areas. See R. Newall Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior: A Land Set Apart (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1977); David Backes, Canoe Country: An Embattled Wilderness (Minocqua, Wis.: North Word Press, 1991); and Kevin Proescholdt, Rip Rapson, and Miron Heinselman, Troubled Waters: The Fight for the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (St. Cloud, Minn.: North Star Press, 1995). See also Backes's excellent new biography of Sigurd Olson, A Wilderness Within: The Life of Sigurd F. Olson (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997).
6. These statements apply to virtually all of the literature on parks and protected areas. See R. Newall Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior: A Land Set Apart (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1977); David Backes, Canoe Country: An Embattled Wilderness (Minocqua, Wis.: North Word Press, 1991); and Kevin Proescholdt, Rip Rapson, and Miron Heinselman, Troubled Waters: The Fight for the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (St. Cloud, Minn.: North Star Press, 1995). See also Backes's excellent new biography of Sigurd Olson, A Wilderness Within: The Life of Sigurd F. Olson (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997).
7. These statements apply to virtually all of the literature on parks and protected areas. See R. Newall Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior: A Land Set Apart (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1977); David Backes, Canoe Country: An Embattled Wilderness (Minocqua, Wis.: North Word Press, 1991); and Kevin Proescholdt, Rip Rapson, and Miron Heinselman, Troubled Waters: The Fight for the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (St. Cloud, Minn.: North Star Press, 1995). See also Backes's excellent new biography of Sigurd Olson, A Wilderness Within: The Life of Sigurd F. Olson (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997).
8. These statements apply to virtually all of the literature on parks and protected areas. See R. Newall Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior: A Land Set Apart (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1977); David Backes, Canoe Country: An Embattled Wilderness (Minocqua, Wis.: North Word Press, 1991); and Kevin Proescholdt, Rip Rapson, and Miron Heinselman, Troubled Waters: The Fight for the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (St. Cloud, Minn.: North Star Press, 1995). See also Backes's excellent new biography of Sigurd Olson, A Wilderness Within: The Life of Sigurd F. Olson (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997).
9. William Cronon, "The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature," in Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, ed. William Cronon (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), 80-81; Mark David Spence, "Crown of the Continent, Backbone of the World: The American Wilderness Ideal and Blackfeet Exclusion from Glacier National Park," Environmental History 1 (1996): 29-49.
10. William Cronon, "The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature," in Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, ed. William Cronon (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), 80-81; Mark David Spence, "Crown of the Continent, Backbone of the World: The American Wilderness Ideal and Blackfeet Exclusion from Glacier National Park," Environmental History 1 (1996): 29-49.
11. Louis Warren, The Hunter's Game: Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 12, 17; Daniel Schneider, "Enclosing the Floodplain: Resource Conflict on the Illinois River, 1880-1920," Environmental History 1 (1996): 70-96; Karl Jacoby, "Class and Environmental History: Lessons from 'The War in the Adirondacks,'" Environmental History 2 (1997), 336. See also Karl Jacoby, "The Recreation of Nature: A Social and Environmental History of American Conservation, 1872-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1997).
12. Louis Warren, The Hunter's Game: Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 12, 17; Daniel Schneider, "Enclosing the Floodplain: Resource Conflict on the Illinois River, 1880-1920," Environmental History 1 (1996): 70-96; Karl Jacoby, "Class and Environmental History: Lessons from 'The War in the Adirondacks,'" Environmental History 2 (1997), 336. See also Karl Jacoby, "The Recreation of Nature: A Social and Environmental History of American Conservation, 1872-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1997).
13. Louis Warren, The Hunter's Game: Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 12, 17; Daniel Schneider, "Enclosing the Floodplain: Resource Conflict on the Illinois River, 1880-1920," Environmental History 1 (1996): 70-96; Karl Jacoby, "Class and Environmental History: Lessons from 'The War in the Adirondacks,'" Environmental History 2 (1997), 336. See also Karl Jacoby, "The Recreation of Nature: A Social and Environmental History of American Conservation, 1872-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1997).
14. Louis Warren, The Hunter's Game: Poachers and Conservationists in Twentieth-Century America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997), 12, 17; Daniel Schneider, "Enclosing the Floodplain: Resource Conflict on the Illinois River, 1880-1920," Environmental History 1 (1996): 70-96; Karl Jacoby, "Class and Environmental History: Lessons from 'The War in the Adirondacks,'" Environmental History 2 (1997), 336. See also Karl Jacoby, "The Recreation of Nature: A Social and Environmental History of American Conservation, 1872-1919" (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1997).
15. Throughout this article, the term "state conservation" is used in the general sense of government bureaucracies' regulation of natural resource use; thus, the term applies equally to Minnesota and federal bureaucracies.
16. David A. Walker, Iron Frontier: The Discovery and Early Development of Minnesota's Three Ranges (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1979), 69, 70; Walter Van Brunt, Duluth and St. Louis County Minnesota. Their Story and People. An Authentic Narrative of the Past, with Particular Attention to the Modern Era in the Commercial, Industrial, Educational, Civic and Social Development, vol. 1 (Chicago: American Historical Society, 1921), 381.
17. David A. Walker, Iron Frontier: The Discovery and Early Development of Minnesota's Three Ranges (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1979), 69, 70; Walter Van Brunt, Duluth and St. Louis County Minnesota. Their Story and People. An Authentic Narrative of the Past, with Particular Attention to the Modern Era in the Commercial, Industrial, Educational, Civic and Social Development, vol. 1 (Chicago: American Historical Society, 1921), 381.
18. Van Brunt, Duluth and St. Louis County, 390; John W. Somrock, A History of Incredible Ely (Ely, Minn.: Cyko Art Print-Craft, 1976), 6, 17.
19. Van Brunt, Duluth and St. Louis County, 390; John W. Somrock, A History of Incredible Ely (Ely, Minn.: Cyko Art Print-Craft, 1976), 6, 17.
20. Joseph Pryatel, interview by Lynn Laitala, 21 November 1976, transcript, Minnesota Historical Society [hereafter MHS], 27; Hannah and Andy Johnson, interview by Irene Paull, September 1968, transcript, MHS, 35.
21. Joseph Pryatel, interview by Lynn Laitala, 21 November 1976, transcript, Minnesota Historical Society [hereafter MHS], 27; Hannah and Andy Johnson, interview by Irene Paull, September 1968, transcript, MHS, 35.
22. Pryatel, interview, 7.
23. Charles Cecil to Family, 28 March 1915, Letter 198, Box 2, Charles Cecil Papers, MHS.
24. Charles Cecil to Family, n.d. [August 1913?], Letter 133, Box 1, Charles Cecil Papers, MHS.
25. Charles Cecil Papers, MHS, passim; the quote is found in Somrock, History of Incredible Ely, 29.
26. Ely Miner, 15 February 1907, 1; Somrock, History of Incredible Ely, 10, 14.
27. Ely Miner, 15 February 1907, 1; Somrock, History of Incredible Ely, 10, 14.
28. Andy Johnson, "Reminiscences," n.d., Andy and Hannah Johnson Papers, MHS.
29. Pryatel, interview, 4.
30. Michael G. Karni, "The Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation and the Minnesota Strike of 1907," in For the Common Good: Finnish Immigrants and the Radical Response to Industrial America (Superior, Wis.: Tyomies Society, 1977), 74; Neil Betten, "The Origins of Ethnic Radicalism in Northern Minnesota, 1900-1920," International Migration Review 4 (1970): 49-50.
31. Michael G. Karni, "The Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation and the Minnesota Strike of 1907," in For the Common Good: Finnish Immigrants and the Radical Response to Industrial America (Superior, Wis.: Tyomies Society, 1977), 74; Neil Betten, "The Origins of Ethnic Radicalism in Northern Minnesota, 1900-1920," International Migration Review 4 (1970): 49-50.
32. Neil Berten, "Strike on the Mesabi - 1907," Minnesota History 40 (1967): 342; Karni, "Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation," 75; Neil Betten, "Riot, Revolution, Repression in the Iron Range Strike of 1916," Minnesota History 41 (1968): 83.
33. Neil Berten, "Strike on the Mesabi - 1907," Minnesota History 40 (1967): 342; Karni, "Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation," 75; Neil Betten, "Riot, Revolution, Repression in the Iron Range Strike of 1916," Minnesota History 41 (1968): 83.
34. Neil Berten, "Strike on the Mesabi - 1907," Minnesota History 40 (1967): 342; Karni, "Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation," 75; Neil Betten, "Riot, Revolution, Repression in the Iron Range Strike of 1916," Minnesota History 41 (1968): 83.
35. Charles Trezona, correspondence, 18 July 1907, "Labor: Organizations and Disputes, 1892-1919 (no.1)" Folder, Papers Relating to Oliver Iron Mining Company, MHS.
36. Karni, "Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation," 76; Clayton Videen Research Files, "The Finn-Liberal or Radical Extract" Folder, MHS, 141; Robert M. Eleff, "The 1916 Minnesota Miners' Strike Against U.S. Steel," Minnesota History 51 (1988): 70.
37. Karni, "Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation," 76; Clayton Videen Research Files, "The Finn-Liberal or Radical Extract" Folder, MHS, 141; Robert M. Eleff, "The 1916 Minnesota Miners' Strike Against U.S. Steel," Minnesota History 51 (1988): 70.
38. Karni, "Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation," 76; Clayton Videen Research Files, "The Finn-Liberal or Radical Extract" Folder, MHS, 141; Robert M. Eleff, "The 1916 Minnesota Miners' Strike Against U.S. Steel," Minnesota History 51 (1988): 70.
39. Clayton Videen Research Files, "The Finn-Liberal or Radical Extract" Folder, MHS, 142.
40. Karni, "Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation," 78, 82; Eleff, "The 1916 Minnesota Miners' Strike," 63.
41. Karni, "Founding of the Finnish Socialist Federation," 78, 82; Eleff, "The 1916 Minnesota Miners' Strike," 63.
42. Nick Kuitunen, interview by Lynn Laitala, 12 November 1975, transcript, MHS, 12.
43. Pryatel, interview, 18.
44. Ida Portham Erickson, interview by Lynn Laitala, 26 February 1976, transcript, MHS, 7.
45. Ely Miner, 26 June 1908, 1.
46. Andy Johnson, "Autobiography of a Finnish Immigrant Boy," 1967, unpublished manuscript, Andy and Hannah Johnson Papers, MHS, 15-16.
47. Pryatel, interview, 18.
48. Erickson, interview, 7.
49. Pryatel, interview, 21.
50. Eleff, "The 1916 Minnesota Miners' Strike," 66; Betten, "Origins of Ethnic Radicalism," 52.
51. Eleff, "The 1916 Minnesota Miners' Strike," 66; Betten, "Origins of Ethnic Radicalism," 52.
52. Ely Miner, 21 February 1908, 1; Adolph Wilmunen, Random Recollections of the Settling and Settlers of the Birch Lake Community (Ely, Minn.: Ely-Winton Historical Society, 1983), 22; Glenda Daniel and Jerry Sullivan, A Sierra Club Naturalist's Guide: The North Woods of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Southern Ontario (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1981), 105-6.
53. Ely Miner, 21 February 1908, 1; Adolph Wilmunen, Random Recollections of the Settling and Settlers of the Birch Lake Community (Ely, Minn.: Ely-Winton Historical Society, 1983), 22; Glenda Daniel and Jerry Sullivan, A Sierra Club Naturalist's Guide: The North Woods of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Southern Ontario (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1981), 105-6.
54. Ely Miner, 21 February 1908, 1; Adolph Wilmunen, Random Recollections of the Settling and Settlers of the Birch Lake Community (Ely, Minn.: Ely-Winton Historical Society, 1983), 22; Glenda Daniel and Jerry Sullivan, A Sierra Club Naturalist's Guide: The North Woods of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Southern Ontario (San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1981), 105-6.
55. Ely Miner, 15 February 1907, 1; Emily Maki, interview by Lynn Laitala, n.d., transcript, MHS, 2.
56. Ely Miner, 15 February 1907, 1; Emily Maki, interview by Lynn Laitala, n.d., transcript, MHS, 2.
57. Maki, interview, 3, 7; Hannah and Andy Johnson, interview, 6; Ely Miner, 21 February 1908, 1.
58. Maki, interview, 3, 7; Hannah and Andy Johnson, interview, 6; Ely Miner, 21 February 1908, 1.
59. Somrock, History of Incredible Ely, 27.
60. Ely Miner, 18 December 1908, 1; the quote is found in Somrock, History of Incredible Ely, 27.
61. Ely Miner, 18 December 1908, 1; the quote is found in Somrock, History of Incredible Ely, 27.
62. August Stromberg, quoted in Hannah and Andy Johnson interview, 67.
63. Ely Miner, 4 May 1906, 1.
64. August Stromberg, quoted in Hannah and Andy Johnson interview, 68.
65. Ely Miner, 30 April 1909, 1.
66. Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior, 10-13; Backes, Canoe Country, 18-21.
67. Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior, 10-13; Backes, Canoe Country, 18-21.
68. Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior, 15; Backes, Canoe Country, 21.
69. Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior, 15; Backes, Canoe Country, 21.
70. Ely Miner, 17 November 1905, 1.
71. See, for example, Searle's discussion of local interest in massive road-building, and later support for resorts whose activities conflicted with the efforts of outside groups to preserve the area as a "wilderness." Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior, 20, 170.
72. Ely Miner, 4 February 1910, 1.
73. Ely Miner, 19 August 1910, 1, 4; 9 June 1911, 1; Charles Cecil to Family, 29 July 1911, Letter 61, Box 1, Charles Cecil Papers, MHS.
74. "The Gate of the Nation's Playground: Ely, Minnesota Makes a Bid for the Real Sportsman," Western Magazine 7 (1915): 284-91.
75. Milt Stenlund, Burntside Lake: The Early Days, 1880-1920 (Ely, Minn.: The Ely-Winton Historical Society, 1986), 17.
76. Walter Van Brunt, Duluth and St. Louis County Minnesota. Their Story and People. An Authentic Narrative of the Past, with Particular Attention to the Modern Era in the Commercial, Industrial, Educational, Civic and Social Development, vol. 3 (Chicago: American Historical Society, 1921), 947-48.
77. See Fish and Game Seizure Records, MHS.
78. Ibid. The Fish and Game Seizure Records note the final disposition of seized materials.
79. Charles Cecil to Family, 7 September 1911, Letter 66, Box 1, Charles Cecil Papers, MHS.
80. Charles Cecil to family, 23 August 1911, Letter 64, Box 1, Charles Cecil Papers, MHS.
81. Minnesota Forestry Board, Second Annual Report of the State Forester (St Paul, Minn.: n.p., 1912), 14.
82. Helmi Gawboy, interview by Lynn Laitala, 6 December 1975, transcript, MHS, 38. Gawboy was a Finnish woman married to an Ojibway man.
83. Ely Miner, 15 May 1908, 4.
84. Ely Miner, 3 September 1909, 4; 28 May 1909, 1.
85. Thomas McBuckley to Samuel Fullerton, 25 September 1903, Box 3 (1903-4), Game and Fish Warden Correspondence, MHS.
86. M. J. Woodard to Sam Fullerton, 10 October 1903, Box 3 (1903-4), Game and Fish Warden Correspondence, MHS; B. C. Everett to Sam Fullerton, 13 January 1904, Box 3 (1903-4), Game and Fish Warden Correspondence, MHS. In Northern Minnesota, almost all "squawmen" - men of European ancestry married to Indian women - were Finns.
87. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959), esp. 265; Minnesota Forestry Board, First Annual Report of the State Forester (St. Paul, Minn.: n.p., 1911), 86.
88. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959), esp. 265; Minnesota Forestry Board, First Annual Report of the State Forester (St. Paul, Minn.: n.p., 1911), 86.
89. Minnesota Forestry Board, First Annual Report, 90.
90. Ibid., 91.
91. "Gate of the Nation's Playground," 289.
92. U.S. Forest Service, A Vacation Land of Lakes and Woods: The Superior National Forest (n.p., 1919), 3.
93. Carlos Avery to Field and Stream, 10 March 1909, State Game Commission Correspondence Files, MHS.
94. For the ways in which locals oriented themselves, see, for example, Kuitunen, interview, 13; Maki, interview, 3; Andy Johnson, "Our Friend John Spring," n.d., unpublished manuscript, Andy and Hannah Johnson Papers, MHS, 2, 3; Johnson, "Autobiography of a Finnish Boy," 18-20. Jim Scott argues that this way of "mapping" is one example of local, communal knowledge that differs from formal, state-sponsored mapping in that it reflects direct personal knowledge and experience and does not lend itself to use by government or corporate "simplification" projects. Seeing Like a State (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), esp. 37-52.
95. For the ways in which locals oriented themselves, see, for example, Kuitunen, interview, 13; Maki, interview, 3; Andy Johnson, "Our Friend John Spring," n.d., unpublished manuscript, Andy and Hannah Johnson Papers, MHS, 2, 3; Johnson, "Autobiography of a Finnish Boy," 18-20. Jim Scott argues that this way of "mapping" is one example of local, communal knowledge that differs from formal, state-sponsored mapping in that it reflects direct personal knowledge and experience and does not lend itself to use by government or corporate "simplification" projects. Seeing Like a State (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), esp. 37-52.
96. For the ways in which locals oriented themselves, see, for example, Kuitunen, interview, 13; Maki, interview, 3; Andy Johnson, "Our Friend John Spring," n.d., unpublished manuscript, Andy and Hannah Johnson Papers, MHS, 2, 3; Johnson, "Autobiography of a Finnish Boy," 18-20. Jim Scott argues that this way of "mapping" is one example of local, communal knowledge that differs from formal, state-sponsored mapping in that it reflects direct personal knowledge and experience and does not lend itself to use by government or corporate "simplification" projects. Seeing Like a State (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), esp. 37-52.
97. For the ways in which locals oriented themselves, see, for example, Kuitunen, interview, 13; Maki, interview, 3; Andy Johnson, "Our Friend John Spring," n.d., unpublished manuscript, Andy and Hannah Johnson Papers, MHS, 2, 3; Johnson, "Autobiography of a Finnish Boy," 18-20. Jim Scott argues that this way of "mapping" is one example of local, communal knowledge that differs from formal, state-sponsored mapping in that it reflects direct personal knowledge and experience and does not lend itself to use by government or corporate "simplification" projects. Seeing Like a State (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), esp. 37-52.
98. For the ways in which locals oriented themselves, see, for example, Kuitunen, interview, 13; Maki, interview, 3; Andy Johnson, "Our Friend John Spring," n.d., unpublished manuscript, Andy and Hannah Johnson Papers, MHS, 2, 3; Johnson, "Autobiography of a Finnish Boy," 18-20. Jim Scott argues that this way of "mapping" is one example of local, communal knowledge that differs from formal, state-sponsored mapping in that it reflects direct personal knowledge and experience and does not lend itself to use by government or corporate "simplification" projects. Seeing Like a State (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), esp. 37-52.
99. Hannah and Andy Johnson, interview, 47, 67.
100. Ely Miner, 27 April 1917, 1; 5 May 1917, 1; Johnson, interview, 81; Johnson, "Reminiscences." For an account of the anti-IWW rhetoric used by Minnesota's elite in the 1910s and its similarity to images of Indian savagery, see Gerald Roning, "Liquor, Wobblies, and Native Americans," paper presented at the 1997 Western History Association Conference, St. Paul, Minnesota.
101. Ely Miner, 27 April 1917, 1; 5 May 1917, 1; Johnson, interview, 81; Johnson, "Reminiscences." For an account of the anti-IWW rhetoric used by Minnesota's elite in the 1910s and its similarity to images of Indian savagery, see Gerald Roning, "Liquor, Wobblies, and Native Americans," paper presented at the 1997 Western History Association Conference, St. Paul, Minnesota.
102. Ely Miner, 27 April 1917, 1; 5 May 1917, 1; Johnson, interview, 81; Johnson, "Reminiscences." For an account of the anti-IWW rhetoric used by Minnesota's elite in the 1910s and its similarity to images of Indian savagery, see Gerald Roning, "Liquor, Wobblies, and Native Americans," paper presented at the 1997 Western History Association Conference, St. Paul, Minnesota.
103. Ely Miner, 27 April 1917, 1; 5 May 1917, 1; Johnson, interview, 81; Johnson, "Reminiscences." For an account of the anti-IWW rhetoric used by Minnesota's elite in the 1910s and its similarity to images of Indian savagery, see Gerald Roning, "Liquor, Wobblies, and Native Americans," paper presented at the 1997 Western History Association Conference, St. Paul, Minnesota.
104. Andy Johnson, unpublished manuscript, 1976, Andy and Hannah Johnson Papers, MHS.
105. Johnson, "Reminiscences."
106. Ely Miner, 8 April 1910, 1, 4.
107. Ibid.
108. Ibid.
109. Ibid.
110. George A. Bradley to Samuel Fullerton, 9 April 1910, Fish and Game Commission Correspondence, MHS.
111. State v. Fred James, case file, St. Louis County Court House, Virginia, Minnesota.
112. See, for example, the description of a jury acquittal of a notorious local poacher in the early 19305 in Proescholdt et al., Troubled Waters, 118; Eleff, "The 1916 Minnesota Miners' Strike," 71.
113. See, for example, the description of a jury acquittal of a notorious local poacher in the early 19305 in Proescholdt et al., Troubled Waters, 118; Eleff, "The 1916 Minnesota Miners' Strike," 71.
114. Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior, passim; Backes, Canoe Country; passim; various Ely residents, personal communications with the author; Proescholdt et al., Troubled Waters, 28.
115. Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior, passim; Backes, Canoe Country; passim; various Ely residents, personal communications with the author; Proescholdt et al., Troubled Waters, 28.
116. Searle, Saving Quetico-Superior, passim; Backes, Canoe Country; passim; various Ely residents, personal communications with the author; Proescholdt et al., Troubled Waters, 28.
117. Consider as an example the keynote address to the local wise-use convention in 1997, where Lynn Laitala began her speech on what sounded like an environmentalist note: [O]n a bend of the Shagawa River, there used to be a row of boathouses standing on pilings. They had been built by the Finns to house the boats, which they had also built . . . Our boathouse was the one closest to the rapids . . . and long after we got an aluminum boat and the three-horse Johnson motor, I would still row the length of the river to listen to the red-winged blackbirds sing from their cattail perches, creep up on turtles sunning themselves on rocks, and watch the great blue heron stepping high in the shallows . . . my brother Gene and I would close the boathouse door behind us and sit in the dark, peering down into the river flowing gently under the slip. The water carried its own light which flickered and danced on the boathouse walls . . . Minnows darted, big fish swam through more lazily. Frogs pumped along, waterbugs skated on the surface, and a couple of times, we saw a muskrat glide by. Rather than protecting this lifestyle from destruction by rapacious corporations, for Laitala environmentalism had turned this community into a playground for wealthy outsiders. Her speech abruptly shifted to a terse description of how a local canoe-outfitting business (owned by the Rom family) betrayed the history behind her family's boathouse: Then one day when I drove by, our boathouse was gone. One of the Rom kids had torn it down because he wanted the weathered boards to line his new business in Ely. He thought the rustic look would appeal to the tourists. All he had seen was a ramshackle building. He couldn't see the history it represented, or the visions it offered . . . In their never-ending publicity campaign for the Boundary Waters, wilderness promoters depict their cause as saving the land. To me, it's been just another kind of development that wipes out a community for other types of use, in this case, up-scale tourism. We were assured . . . that the wilderness legislation would be good for Ely's economy. Well, it was good for some. Now there are four or five shops in town where you can buy $350 anoraks, but there isn't a store where you can buy school clothes. Lynn Laitala, "CWCS Keynote," 18 May 1997, copy of transcript in possession of the author.