The institutionalization of contract labour in Namibia

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 121-138

  Cooper, Allan D ^a  

^a OTTERBEIN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK; LABOR RELATIONS; LABOR SUPPLY;

NAMIBIA;

EID: 0032967348     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/030570799108786     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. Sec, for example, P. Banghart, 'Migrant Labour in South West Africa and Its Effects on Ovambo Tribal Life' (MA Thesis, University of Stcllenbosch, 1969); G. Cronje and S. Cronje, The Workers of Namibia (London, 1963); R.J. Gordon, Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound (Johannesburg, 1977); K. Gottschalk, 'South African Labour Policy in Namibia 1915-1975', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); J. Kane-Berman, Contract Labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, 1973); V. Ndadi, Breaking Contract: the Story of Vinnia Ndadi (Richmond, 1974). See also J. Diescho, Born of the Sun (New York, 1988).
2. Sec, for example, P. Banghart, 'Migrant Labour in South West Africa and Its Effects on Ovambo Tribal Life' (MA Thesis, University of Stcllenbosch, 1969); G. Cronje and S. Cronje, The Workers of Namibia (London, 1963); R.J. Gordon, Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound (Johannesburg, 1977); K. Gottschalk, 'South African Labour Policy in Namibia 1915-1975', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); J. Kane-Berman, Contract Labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, 1973); V. Ndadi, Breaking Contract: the Story of Vinnia Ndadi (Richmond, 1974). See also J. Diescho, Born of the Sun (New York, 1988).
3. Sec, for example, P. Banghart, 'Migrant Labour in South West Africa and Its Effects on Ovambo Tribal Life' (MA Thesis, University of Stcllenbosch, 1969); G. Cronje and S. Cronje, The Workers of Namibia (London, 1963); R.J. Gordon, Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound (Johannesburg, 1977); K. Gottschalk, 'South African Labour Policy in Namibia 1915-1975', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); J. Kane-Berman, Contract Labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, 1973); V. Ndadi, Breaking Contract: the Story of Vinnia Ndadi (Richmond, 1974). See also J. Diescho, Born of the Sun (New York, 1988).
4. Sec, for example, P. Banghart, 'Migrant Labour in South West Africa and Its Effects on Ovambo Tribal Life' (MA Thesis, University of Stcllenbosch, 1969); G. Cronje and S. Cronje, The Workers of Namibia (London, 1963); R.J. Gordon, Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound (Johannesburg, 1977); K. Gottschalk, 'South African Labour Policy in Namibia 1915-1975', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); J. Kane-Berman, Contract Labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, 1973); V. Ndadi, Breaking Contract: the Story of Vinnia Ndadi (Richmond, 1974). See also J. Diescho, Born of the Sun (New York, 1988).
5. Sec, for example, P. Banghart, 'Migrant Labour in South West Africa and Its Effects on Ovambo Tribal Life' (MA Thesis, University of Stcllenbosch, 1969); G. Cronje and S. Cronje, The Workers of Namibia (London, 1963); R.J. Gordon, Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound (Johannesburg, 1977); K. Gottschalk, 'South African Labour Policy in Namibia 1915-1975', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); J. Kane-Berman, Contract Labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, 1973); V. Ndadi, Breaking Contract: the Story of Vinnia Ndadi (Richmond, 1974). See also J. Diescho, Born of the Sun (New York, 1988).
6. Sec, for example, P. Banghart, 'Migrant Labour in South West Africa and Its Effects on Ovambo Tribal Life' (MA Thesis, University of Stcllenbosch, 1969); G. Cronje and S. Cronje, The Workers of Namibia (London, 1963); R.J. Gordon, Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound (Johannesburg, 1977); K. Gottschalk, 'South African Labour Policy in Namibia 1915-1975', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); J. Kane-Berman, Contract Labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, 1973); V. Ndadi, Breaking Contract: the Story of Vinnia Ndadi (Richmond, 1974). See also J. Diescho, Born of the Sun (New York, 1988).
7. Sec, for example, P. Banghart, 'Migrant Labour in South West Africa and Its Effects on Ovambo Tribal Life' (MA Thesis, University of Stcllenbosch, 1969); G. Cronje and S. Cronje, The Workers of Namibia (London, 1963); R.J. Gordon, Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound (Johannesburg, 1977); K. Gottschalk, 'South African Labour Policy in Namibia 1915-1975', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); J. Kane-Berman, Contract Labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, 1973); V. Ndadi, Breaking Contract: the Story of Vinnia Ndadi (Richmond, 1974). See also J. Diescho, Born of the Sun (New York, 1988).
8. Sec 'The Story of the Consolidated Diamond Mines of S.W.A. Limited', South West Africa Annual (1953), p. 47; also, O. Levinson, Diamonds in the Desert: the Story of August Stauch and His Times (Cape Town, 1983); 'Diamonds in the Desert: the Story of CDM', Optima, 37, 2 (June 1989), pp. 85-91.
9. Sec 'The Story of the Consolidated Diamond Mines of S.W.A. Limited', South West Africa Annual (1953), p. 47; also, O. Levinson, Diamonds in the Desert: the Story of August Stauch and His Times (Cape Town, 1983); 'Diamonds in the Desert: the Story of CDM', Optima, 37, 2 (June 1989), pp. 85-91.
10. Sec 'The Story of the Consolidated Diamond Mines of S.W.A. Limited', South West Africa Annual (1953), p. 47; also, O. Levinson, Diamonds in the Desert: the Story of August Stauch and His Times (Cape Town, 1983); 'Diamonds in the Desert: the Story of CDM', Optima, 37, 2 (June 1989), pp. 85-91.
11. Quoted in SWAPO of Namibia, To be Born a Nation: the Liberation Struggle for Namibia (London, 1981), p. 82.
12. Ibid., p. 83.
13. See Windhoek Advertiser, 31 October 1958, p. 4.
14. Ibid. In the early days of the contract labour system, mortality rates were quite high. Lead poisoning, influenza and respiratory diseases and hook-worms were among the most common causes of death. See Union of South Africa, Report of the Administrator for the Year 1929 (Pretoria, 1930), pp. 81-86.
15. Ibid. In the early days of the contract labour system, mortality rates were quite high. Lead poisoning, influenza and respiratory diseases and hook-worms were among the most common causes of death. See Union of South Africa, Report of the Administrator for the Year 1929 (Pretoria, 1930), pp. 81-86.
16. R. Moorsom, 'Underdevelopment, Contract Labour and Worker Consciousness in Namibia, 1915-1972', Journal of Southern African Studies, 4, 1 (October 1977); R. Moorsom, 'Migrant Workers and the formation of SWANLA, 1900-1926', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); R. Moorsom, 'Undrrdevelopment and Class Formation: the Birth of the Contract Labour System in Namibia, 1900-26', University of York, Centre for Southern African Studies, Collected Papers, 5.
17. R. Moorsom, 'Underdevelopment, Contract Labour and Worker Consciousness in Namibia, 1915-1972', Journal of Southern African Studies, 4, 1 (October 1977); R. Moorsom, 'Migrant Workers and the formation of SWANLA, 1900-1926', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); R. Moorsom, 'Undrrdevelopment and Class Formation: the Birth of the Contract Labour System in Namibia, 1900-26', University of York, Centre for Southern African Studies, Collected Papers, 5.
18. R. Moorsom, 'Underdevelopment, Contract Labour and Worker Consciousness in Namibia, 1915-1972', Journal of Southern African Studies, 4, 1 (October 1977); R. Moorsom, 'Migrant Workers and the formation of SWANLA, 1900-1926', South African Labour Bulletin, 4, 1-2 (January-February 1978); R. Moorsom, 'Undrrdevelopment and Class Formation: the Birth of the Contract Labour System in Namibia, 1900-26', University of York, Centre for Southern African Studies, Collected Papers, 5.
19. P. Peltola, The Lost May Day: Namibian Workers Struggle for independence (Jyvaskyla, 1995); N. Hishongwa, The Contract Labour System and its Effects on Family and Social Life in Namibia: a Historical Perspective (Windhoek, 1992).
20. P. Peltola, The Lost May Day: Namibian Workers Struggle for independence (Jyvaskyla, 1995); N. Hishongwa, The Contract Labour System and its Effects on Family and Social Life in Namibia: a Historical Perspective (Windhoek, 1992).
21. P. Katjavivi, A History of Resistance in Namibia (London, 1988); G. Totemeyer, South West Africal Namibia (Randburg, 1977); R. First, South West Africa (Baltimore, 1963); SWAPO, To be Born a Nation.
22. P. Katjavivi, A History of Resistance in Namibia (London, 1988); G. Totemeyer, South West Africal Namibia (Randburg, 1977); R. First, South West Africa (Baltimore, 1963); SWAPO, To be Born a Nation.
23. P. Katjavivi, A History of Resistance in Namibia (London, 1988); G. Totemeyer, South West Africal Namibia (Randburg, 1977); R. First, South West Africa (Baltimore, 1963); SWAPO, To be Born a Nation.
24. P. Katjavivi, A History of Resistance in Namibia (London, 1988); G. Totemeyer, South West Africal Namibia (Randburg, 1977); R. First, South West Africa (Baltimore, 1963); SWAPO, To be Born a Nation.
25. K. Mbuende, Namibia - The Broken Shield: Anatomy of Imperialism and Revolution (Lund, 1986), pp. 83-84.
26. A. Moleah, Namibia: the Struggle for Liberation (Wilmington, 1983), p. 61.
27. R.J. Gordon, 'Variations in Migration Rates: the Ovambo Case', Journal of Southern African Affairs (July 1978). See J. Sylvester in P. Hayes et al., Namibia Under South African Rule: Mobility and Containment, 1915-46 (Cape Town, 1998). For a descriptive study of the contract labour system during the interwar years that is written within the colonial framework see F. E. Radel, 'Die Wirtschaft Und Die Arbeiterfrage Sukdwestafrica' (PhD thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 1947), pp. 282-321.
28. R.J. Gordon, 'Variations in Migration Rates: the Ovambo Case', Journal of Southern African Affairs (July 1978). See J. Sylvester in P. Hayes et al., Namibia Under South African Rule: Mobility and Containment, 1915-46 (Cape Town, 1998). For a descriptive study of the contract labour system during the interwar years that is written within the colonial framework see F. E. Radel, 'Die Wirtschaft Und Die Arbeiterfrage Sukdwestafrica' (PhD thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 1947), pp. 282-321.
29. R.J. Gordon, 'Variations in Migration Rates: the Ovambo Case', Journal of Southern African Affairs (July 1978). See J. Sylvester in P. Hayes et al., Namibia Under South African Rule: Mobility and Containment, 1915-46 (Cape Town, 1998). For a descriptive study of the contract labour system during the interwar years that is written within the colonial framework see F. E. Radel, 'Die Wirtschaft Und Die Arbeiterfrage Sukdwestafrica' (PhD thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 1947), pp. 282-321.
30. See P. Hayes, 'The Failure to Realise "Human Capital": Ovambo Migrant Labour and the Early South African State, 1915-1930', Paper presented to Societies of Southern Africa Seminar, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London, 5 June 1992. Also in Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, 1 (1993).
31. See P. Hayes, 'The Failure to Realise "Human Capital": Ovambo Migrant Labour and the Early South African State, 1915-1930', Paper presented to Societies of Southern Africa Seminar, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London, 5 June 1992. Also in Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, 1 (1993).
32. Union of South Africa, Report of Administrator for the Year 1921 (Pretoria, 1922), p. 12. Also see P. Hayes, 'A History of the Ovambo of Namibia' (PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1992).
33. Union of South Africa, Report of Administrator for the Year 1921 (Pretoria, 1922), p. 12. Also see P. Hayes, 'A History of the Ovambo of Namibia' (PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, 1992).
34. Union of South Africa, Report of Administrator for the Year 1924 (Pretoria, 1925), p. 67.
35. A contributing factor to the labour shortage at this time was a Spanish influenza epidemic. See P. Hayes, 'The Failure to Realise "Human Capital"', p. 4.
36. Union of South Africa, Report of the Administrator of South-West Africa for the Year 1924 (Cape Town, 1925), pp. 23-24.
37. Ibid.
38. For data concerning labour recruitment in the Police Zone south of Ovamboland, see B. Fuller Jr., 'Institutional Appropriation and Social Change among Agropastoralists in Central Namibia, 1916-1988' (PhD Dissertation, Boston University, 1992).
39. National Archives of Namibia [hereafter NAN], NAO, Box 4, File No. 2/1, Part III.
40. Sec A. Cooper, The Occupation of Namibia: Afrikanerdom's Attack on the British Empire (Lanham, 1991).
41. Ibid., p. 49.
42. D. Simon and R. Moorsom, 'Namibia's Political Economy: a Contemporary Perspective', in G. Totemeyer, V. Kandetu and W. Wemer (eds), Namibia in Perspective (Windhoek, 1987), p. 87; W. Wolfgang, 'A Brief History of Land Dispossession in Namibia', Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, 1 (March 1993), p. 143; B. Fuller, 'Institutional Appropriation', pp. 48, 151.
43. D. Simon and R. Moorsom, 'Namibia's Political Economy: a Contemporary Perspective', in G. Totemeyer, V. Kandetu and W. Wemer (eds), Namibia in Perspective (Windhoek, 1987), p. 87; W. Wolfgang, 'A Brief History of Land Dispossession in Namibia', Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, 1 (March 1993), p. 143; B. Fuller, 'Institutional Appropriation', pp. 48, 151.
44. D. Simon and R. Moorsom, 'Namibia's Political Economy: a Contemporary Perspective', in G. Totemeyer, V. Kandetu and W. Wemer (eds), Namibia in Perspective (Windhoek, 1987), p. 87; W. Wolfgang, 'A Brief History of Land Dispossession in Namibia', Journal of Southern African Studies, 19, 1 (March 1993), p. 143; B. Fuller, 'Institutional Appropriation', pp. 48, 151.
45. Union of South Africa, Report of Administrator for the Year 1925 (Cape Town, 1926), p. 8.
46. South West Africa Administration, Wembley Exhibition. South West Africa: its Possibilities (Windhock, 1925), p. 11; also sec NAN, SWAA/72/1188.
47. Union of South Africa, Report of Administrator for the Year 1926 (Cape Town, 1927), p. 65.
48. Union of South Africa, Report of Administrator for the Year 1927 (Cape Town, 1928), p. 81.
49. Sec H. Adam and II. Giliomee, The Rise and Crisis of Afrikaner Power (New Haven, 1979).
50. Union of South Africa, Report of Administrator for the Year 1927 (Cape Town, 1928), pp. 8-9.
51. See Union of South Africa, Report Presented by the Government of the Union of South Africa to the Council of the League of Nations Concerning the Administration of South West Africa for the Year 1928 (Pretoria, 1929), pp. 85-86.
52. Ibid, p. 86.
53. NAN, A521/26, 'Analysis of Natives Distributed by the Northern Labour Organization During 1927', dated 22 February 1923.
54. NAN, NAO/6/2/1, 'Memorandum on the Proposed Amendment to, or Cancellation of, the 1925 Agreement Between the Two Labour Organizations', p. 2.
55. Ibid, pp. 3-4.
56. Prior to the establishment of the contract labour system inside Namibia, the diamond mines had recruited workers from the Cape province in South Africa. See W. Beinart, '"Jamam": Cape Workers in German South-West-Africa, 1904-12', in W. Beinart and C. Bundy, Hidden Struggles in Rural South Africa (London, 1987), pp. 166-190.
57. Union of South Africa, Report of Administrator for the Year 1922 (Cape Town, 1923), p. 21.
58. Union of South Africa, Report of Administrator for the Year 1929 (Cape Town, 1930), pp. 81-84.
59. Alternative spellings in the literature for Ondongua include Ondongwa, Ondangwa, etc.
60. In 1937, following a number of disputes by Ovambos over their contracts with the SWA Railway Administration (which also obtained recruits from the SLO), the Administrator of SWA required all labourers to be contracted at their place of recruitment.
61. Union of South Africa, Report of the Government of the Union of South Africa on South-West Africa for the Year 1927 (Cape Town, 1928), p. 17.
62. NAN, NAO, Box 4, File 2/1. Part II. Letter from Native Commissioner to Courtney Clark, 25 July 1934.
63. NAN, A44/35.
64. While there is no evidence that any Ovambo died from exposure to these X-rays, it may be worth noting that this medical technology was still quite primitive in the 1930s and was potentially lethal if used regularly and without care.
65. NAN, NAO, Box 4, File No. 2/1. Part III, Letter to Sefele Nepembe or Jonas Nepembe from Chief Martin Elifas Kathikua, undated, from Ondonga.
66. NAN, NAO, Box 4, File No. 2/1. Part III, C.H. Hahn, letter to Mr Leppan, 21 March 1938.
67. E. Kreike, 'Recreating Eden: Agro-Ecological Change, Food Security, and Environmental Diversity in Southern Angola and Northern Namibia, 1890-1960' (PhD Dissertation, Yale University, 1996), pp. 162-163; Fuller, 'Institutional Appropriation', pp.47, 79. Depressed economic conditions caused authorities to delay some collection of these taxes.
68. E. Kreike, 'Recreating Eden: Agro-Ecological Change, Food Security, and Environmental Diversity in Southern Angola and Northern Namibia, 1890-1960' (PhD Dissertation, Yale University, 1996), pp. 162-163; Fuller, 'Institutional Appropriation', pp.47, 79. Depressed economic conditions caused authorities to delay some collection of these taxes.
69. NAN, A450, 13f, 3/21/8. Also see Kreike, 'Recreating Eden', p. 223.
70. Hayes, 'The Failure to Realise "Human Capital"', p. 4.
71. Gordon, 'Variations in Migration Rates', p. 274.
72. NAN, NAO, Box 4, File 2/1. Letter to Clarke from Eedes, 22 August 1937.
73. NAN, A. 521/22, document P.E. 8/1937, Letter from Magistrate of Grootfontein to the Chief Native Commissioner in Windhoek, dated 1 June 1938, titled Rex vs Bruhn: Conduct of Mr E.B. Schoenfelder.
74. In the late 1930s, Halm reported six incidents to the SWA Administrator that demonstrated Cope's lack of 'loyal support' to Hahn. The SWA Administrator admonished Cope, who had served in the region from the beginning of the SLO. Also see Hayes, 'A History of the Ovambo of Namibia'.
75. For example, see First, South West Africa , pp. 155-156; SWAPO, To Be Born A Nation, pp. 43-56; Catholic Institute for International Relations, Mines and Independence (London, 1983), pp. 33-36; Hishongwa, The Contract Labour System, pp. 19-21.
76. For example, see First, South West Africa , pp. 155-156; SWAPO, To Be Born A Nation, pp. 43-56; Catholic Institute for International Relations, Mines and Independence (London, 1983), pp. 33-36; Hishongwa, The Contract Labour System, pp. 19-21.
77. For example, see First, South West Africa , pp. 155-156; SWAPO, To Be Born A Nation, pp. 43-56; Catholic Institute for International Relations, Mines and Independence (London, 1983), pp. 33-36; Hishongwa, The Contract Labour System, pp. 19-21.
78. For example, see First, South West Africa , pp. 155-156; SWAPO, To Be Born A Nation, pp. 43-56; Catholic Institute for International Relations, Mines and Independence (London, 1983), pp. 33-36; Hishongwa, The Contract Labour System, pp. 19-21.
79. See the Halbschied Agreement, listed as Annexure 81C in W.P. de Kock, Diamonds in South West Africa (Windhoek, Department of Mines, 1935); see also P.W. Thirion, Commission of Inquiry into Alleged Irregularities and Misapplication of Property in Representative Authorities and the Central Authority of South West Africa, Eighth Interim Report (Windhoek, 1985), p. 54.
80. See the Halbschied Agreement, listed as Annexure 81C in W.P. de Kock, Diamonds in South West Africa (Windhoek, Department of Mines, 1935); see also P.W. Thirion, Commission of Inquiry into Alleged Irregularities and Misapplication of Property in Representative Authorities and the Central Authority of South West Africa, Eighth Interim Report (Windhoek, 1985), p. 54.
81. NAN, ADM, Box 251, T. 1/20.
82. These powers were inherited from a German Imperial Decree of 1909.
83. NAN, IMW, Box 37, File 44/18, 'Notes on Conference between His Honour the Administrator of South West Africa and representatives of the Diamond Producers of South West Africa', 5 February 1924, p. 6.
84. Ibid, p. 9.
85. NAN, IMW, Box 38, File 44/21/1. 'Note of Proceedings at a Conference of Diamond Producers Convened by the Minister of Mines and Industries' at Cape Town in April 1924, Adjourned, and Now Resumed at Union Buildings, Pretoria, on Monday, 3 November 1924, at 10 am.
86. NAN, IMW, Box 30, A44/9, Letter from Diamond Board for South West Africa to Secretary for South West Africa, Windhoek, 30 April 1931.
87. NAN, IMW, Box 30, A 44/9, 'Notes of Interview His Honour the Administrator Had With Representatives of CDM, Ltd.', dated 21 February 1934.
88. NAN, A.450,2/31, Box4, 'Indirect Rule of South-West African Natives', The Star (Johannesburg), 18 June 1945.
89. See Kreike, 'Recreating Eden', p. 217.
90. NAN, NAO, 5, 2/1, Memorandum on Recruitment of Native Labour for South West Africa, p. 5.
91. Kreike, 'Recreating Eden', p. 226.
92. For more on SWAPO's efforts to organize contract workers into a national liberation movement see M. Kooy, 'The Contract Labour System and the Ovambo Crisis of 1971 in South West Africa', African Studies Review, 16, 1 (April 1973), pp. 83-105.
93. Sec D.R. Kempton and R.L. DuPrecz, 'Namibian-De Beers State-Firm Relations: Cooperation and Conflict', Journal of Southern African Studies, 23, 4 (December 1997), pp. 585-613; 'Half-Stake for Namibia in CDM', South Africa Mining World (December 1994-January 1995), p. 4; A. McNulty, 'CDM Fades Out in Namibia', Financial Mail (January 1995), p. 15.
94. Sec D.R. Kempton and R.L. DuPrecz, 'Namibian-De Beers State-Firm Relations: Cooperation and Conflict', Journal of Southern African Studies, 23, 4 (December 1997), pp. 585-613; 'Half-Stake for Namibia in CDM', South Africa Mining World (December 1994-January 1995), p. 4; A. McNulty, 'CDM Fades Out in Namibia', Financial Mail (January 1995), p. 15.
95. Sec D.R. Kempton and R.L. DuPrecz, 'Namibian-De Beers State-Firm Relations: Cooperation and Conflict', Journal of Southern African Studies, 23, 4 (December 1997), pp. 585-613; 'Half-Stake for Namibia in CDM', South Africa Mining World (December 1994-January 1995), p. 4; A. McNulty, 'CDM Fades Out in Namibia', Financial Mail (January 1995), p. 15.