Liberia: Roots and fruits of the emergency

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 163-173

  Outram, Quentin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT; POLITICAL CONFLICT; SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS; STATE ROLE;

LIBERIA;

EID: 0032939572     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599913974     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Q Outram, 'Lessons', pp 52-62; all these estimates are speculative to a greater or lesser degree.
2. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
3. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
4. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
5. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
6. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
7. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
8. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
9. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
10. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
11. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
12. W L d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction to nationalism' (Parts 1-4), Liberian Studies Journal, 1(2), 1969, pp 1-21; 2(l), 1969, pp 43-63; 2(2), 1970, pp 99-115; 3(1), 1970-71. pp 1-19; M B Akpan. 'Black imperialism: Amcrico-Liberian rule over the African peoples of Liberia, 18-11-1964'. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 7, 1973, pp 217-36; C Clapham, Liberia and Sierra Leone: An Essay in Comparative Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976; S S Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics in Liberia: A Class Analysis of Power Struggles in the Tolbert Administrations from 1944-1975. Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1979, Y Gershoni, Black Colonialism: The Americo-Liberian Scramble for the Hinterland, Boulder. CO: Westview Press, 1985; J G Liebenow, Liberia: the Quest for Democracy, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987; C Clapham, "Liberia', in D B Cruise O'Brien et al (eds), Contemporary West African SWAM, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp 99-111; and Q Outram ' "It's terminal either way": an analysis of armed armed in Liberia. 1989-96', Review of African Political Economy, 1997, pp 355-72.
13. M Lowenkopf, 'Liberia: putting the state back together', in 1 W Zartman (ed). Collapsed States: The Disintegration of Legitimate Authority, Boulder, CO: Lynne Reimer, 1995, pp 91-108, at pp 99-101.
14. M Boøås, 'Liberia - the bellbound heart? Regime breakdown and the of society', Alternatives, 22(3), 1977, pp 353-79.
15. S Ellis, 'Liberia's warlord insurgency', in C Clapham (ed), African Guerrillas London: James Currey, 1998.
16. D E Dunn, "Liberia's internal responses to ECOMOG's interventionist efforts', in Peacekeeping in Africa: ECOMOG in Liberia, K P Magyar & E Conteh-Morgan (eds), Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998, pp 76-105, at p 76.
17. See, for example, R Hyman, Strikes, Glasgow: Fontana, 1972; Hyman, Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction, London: Macmillan, 1975; R Church, Q Outram & D N Smith, 'Theoretical orientations 10 miners' strikes", in K Tenfelde (ed), Towards a Social History of Mining in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Munich: C H Beck, 1992, pp 565-581; and R Church & Q Outram, Strikes and Solidarity: Coalfield Conflict in Britain 1889-1966, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 5-8.
18. See, for example, R Hyman, Strikes, Glasgow: Fontana, 1972; Hyman, Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction, London: Macmillan, 1975; R Church, Q Outram & D N Smith, 'Theoretical orientations 10 miners' strikes", in K Tenfelde (ed), Towards a Social History of Mining in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Munich: C H Beck, 1992, pp 565-581; and R Church & Q Outram, Strikes and Solidarity: Coalfield Conflict in Britain 1889-1966, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 5-8.
19. See, for example, R Hyman, Strikes, Glasgow: Fontana, 1972; Hyman, Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction, London: Macmillan, 1975; R Church, Q Outram & D N Smith, 'Theoretical orientations 10 miners' strikes", in K Tenfelde (ed), Towards a Social History of Mining in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Munich: C H Beck, 1992, pp 565-581; and R Church & Q Outram, Strikes and Solidarity: Coalfield Conflict in Britain 1889-1966, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 5-8.
20. See, for example, R Hyman, Strikes, Glasgow: Fontana, 1972; Hyman, Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction, London: Macmillan, 1975; R Church, Q Outram & D N Smith, 'Theoretical orientations 10 miners' strikes", in K Tenfelde (ed), Towards a Social History of Mining in the 19th and 20th Centuries, Munich: C H Beck, 1992, pp 565-581; and R Church & Q Outram, Strikes and Solidarity: Coalfield Conflict in Britain 1889-1966, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 5-8.
21. L Cliffe & R Luckham, 'Complex, political emergencies and the state: towards an approach and a research agenda', paper presented at the March 1998 International Review and Planning Workshop of the Research Programme on Complex Political Emergencies, Leeds, March 1998, p 6 presents similar ideas. See also their article in this issue.
22. S Ellis, 'Liberia 1989-1994: a study of ethnic and spiritual violence', African Affairs, 94,1995, pp 165-197; and C H Bledsoe, Women and Marriage in Kpelle Society, Stanford, CT: Stanford University Press, 1980.
23. S Ellis, 'Liberia 1989-1994: a study of ethnic and spiritual violence', African Affairs, 94,1995, pp 165-197; and C H Bledsoe, Women and Marriage in Kpelle Society, Stanford, CT: Stanford University Press, 1980.
24. The development failure was first identified: by R W Clower, G Dalton, M Harwitz & A A Walters, Growth without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia, Evanston, MI: Northwestern University Press, 1966, A more radical perspective is offered by E Hinzen & R Kappel (eds). Dependence, Underdevelopment and Persistent Conflict: On the Political Economy of Liberia, Bremen: Übersee-Museum, 1980, The mechanics of surplus appropriation through the state are illuminatingly discussed by W P Handwerker, 'Fiscal corruption and the moral economy of resource acquisition', Research in Economic Anthropology, 9, 1987; pp 307-353. Membership of the Americo elite was not simply a matter of descent, biologically understood. Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics, pp 163-172, has documented UK ability of indigenous Liberians to obtain positions in at least the outer circles of the elite through the sponsorship and wardship of Americo families, a point also noticed by M Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia, pp 111-112 and discussed by Liebenow,Quest for Democracy, pp 110- 114. Bledsoe, Women and Marriage, pp 57-61, supports these points and more generally emphasises the widespread 'fictionalisation' of kinship relations in Liberia as stratagems in the manipulation of social identity and in the pursuit of livelihoods.
25. The development failure was first identified: by R W Clower, G Dalton, M Harwitz & A A Walters, Growth without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia, Evanston, MI: Northwestern University Press, 1966, A more radical perspective is offered by E Hinzen & R Kappel (eds). Dependence, Underdevelopment and Persistent Conflict: On the Political Economy of Liberia, Bremen: Übersee-Museum, 1980, The mechanics of surplus appropriation through the state are illuminatingly discussed by W P Handwerker, 'Fiscal corruption and the moral economy of resource acquisition', Research in Economic Anthropology, 9, 1987; pp 307-353. Membership of the Americo elite was not simply a matter of descent, biologically understood. Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics, pp 163-172, has documented UK ability of indigenous Liberians to obtain positions in at least the outer circles of the elite through the sponsorship and wardship of Americo families, a point also noticed by M Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia, pp 111-112 and discussed by Liebenow,Quest for Democracy, pp 110- 114. Bledsoe, Women and Marriage, pp 57-61, supports these points and more generally emphasises the widespread 'fictionalisation' of kinship relations in Liberia as stratagems in the manipulation of social identity and in the pursuit of livelihoods.
26. The development failure was first identified: by R W Clower, G Dalton, M Harwitz & A A Walters, Growth without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia, Evanston, MI: Northwestern University Press, 1966, A more radical perspective is offered by E Hinzen & R Kappel (eds). Dependence, Underdevelopment and Persistent Conflict: On the Political Economy of Liberia, Bremen: Übersee-Museum, 1980, The mechanics of surplus appropriation through the state are illuminatingly discussed by W P Handwerker, 'Fiscal corruption and the moral economy of resource acquisition', Research in Economic Anthropology, 9, 1987; pp 307-353. Membership of the Americo elite was not simply a matter of descent, biologically understood. Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics, pp 163-172, has documented UK ability of indigenous Liberians to obtain positions in at least the outer circles of the elite through the sponsorship and wardship of Americo families, a point also noticed by M Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia, pp 111-112 and discussed by Liebenow,Quest for Democracy, pp 110- 114. Bledsoe, Women and Marriage, pp 57-61, supports these points and more generally emphasises the widespread 'fictionalisation' of kinship relations in Liberia as stratagems in the manipulation of social identity and in the pursuit of livelihoods.
27. The development failure was first identified: by R W Clower, G Dalton, M Harwitz & A A Walters, Growth without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia, Evanston, MI: Northwestern University Press, 1966, A more radical perspective is offered by E Hinzen & R Kappel (eds). Dependence, Underdevelopment and Persistent Conflict: On the Political Economy of Liberia, Bremen: Übersee-Museum, 1980, The mechanics of surplus appropriation through the state are illuminatingly discussed by W P Handwerker, 'Fiscal corruption and the moral economy of resource acquisition', Research in Economic Anthropology, 9, 1987; pp 307-353. Membership of the Americo elite was not simply a matter of descent, biologically understood. Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics, pp 163-172, has documented UK ability of indigenous Liberians to obtain positions in at least the outer circles of the elite through the sponsorship and wardship of Americo families, a point also noticed by M Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia, pp 111-112 and discussed by Liebenow,Quest for Democracy, pp 110- 114. Bledsoe, Women and Marriage, pp 57-61, supports these points and more generally emphasises the widespread 'fictionalisation' of kinship relations in Liberia as stratagems in the manipulation of social identity and in the pursuit of livelihoods.
28. The development failure was first identified: by R W Clower, G Dalton, M Harwitz & A A Walters, Growth without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia, Evanston, MI: Northwestern University Press, 1966, A more radical perspective is offered by E Hinzen & R Kappel (eds). Dependence, Underdevelopment and Persistent Conflict: On the Political Economy of Liberia, Bremen: Übersee-Museum, 1980, The mechanics of surplus appropriation through the state are illuminatingly discussed by W P Handwerker, 'Fiscal corruption and the moral economy of resource acquisition', Research in Economic Anthropology, 9, 1987; pp 307-353. Membership of the Americo elite was not simply a matter of descent, biologically understood. Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics, pp 163-172, has documented UK ability of indigenous Liberians to obtain positions in at least the outer circles of the elite through the sponsorship and wardship of Americo families, a point also noticed by M Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia, pp 111-112 and discussed by Liebenow,Quest for Democracy, pp 110- 114. Bledsoe, Women and Marriage, pp 57-61, supports these points and more generally emphasises the widespread 'fictionalisation' of kinship relations in Liberia as stratagems in the manipulation of social identity and in the pursuit of livelihoods.
29. The development failure was first identified: by R W Clower, G Dalton, M Harwitz & A A Walters, Growth without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia, Evanston, MI: Northwestern University Press, 1966, A more radical perspective is offered by E Hinzen & R Kappel (eds). Dependence, Underdevelopment and Persistent Conflict: On the Political Economy of Liberia, Bremen: Übersee-Museum, 1980, The mechanics of surplus appropriation through the state are illuminatingly discussed by W P Handwerker, 'Fiscal corruption and the moral economy of resource acquisition', Research in Economic Anthropology, 9, 1987; pp 307-353. Membership of the Americo elite was not simply a matter of descent, biologically understood. Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics, pp 163-172, has documented UK ability of indigenous Liberians to obtain positions in at least the outer circles of the elite through the sponsorship and wardship of Americo families, a point also noticed by M Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia, pp 111-112 and discussed by Liebenow,Quest for Democracy, pp 110- 114. Bledsoe, Women and Marriage, pp 57-61, supports these points and more generally emphasises the widespread 'fictionalisation' of kinship relations in Liberia as stratagems in the manipulation of social identity and in the pursuit of livelihoods.
30. The development failure was first identified: by R W Clower, G Dalton, M Harwitz & A A Walters, Growth without Development: An Economic Survey of Liberia, Evanston, MI: Northwestern University Press, 1966, A more radical perspective is offered by E Hinzen & R Kappel (eds). Dependence, Underdevelopment and Persistent Conflict: On the Political Economy of Liberia, Bremen: Übersee-Museum, 1980, The mechanics of surplus appropriation through the state are illuminatingly discussed by W P Handwerker, 'Fiscal corruption and the moral economy of resource acquisition', Research in Economic Anthropology, 9, 1987; pp 307-353. Membership of the Americo elite was not simply a matter of descent, biologically understood. Hlophe, Class, Ethnicity and Politics, pp 163-172, has documented UK ability of indigenous Liberians to obtain positions in at least the outer circles of the elite through the sponsorship and wardship of Americo families, a point also noticed by M Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia, pp 111-112 and discussed by Liebenow,Quest for Democracy, pp 110- 114. Bledsoe, Women and Marriage, pp 57-61, supports these points and more generally emphasises the widespread 'fictionalisation' of kinship relations in Liberia as stratagems in the manipulation of social identity and in the pursuit of livelihoods.
31. d'Azevedo, 'A tribal reaction'.
32. L Cliffe & R Luckham, 'Complex political emergencies and the state', p 8, Compare the account of the abuses of the Liberian army in the suppression of the Kru uprising in the early 1930s ('Report of Vice-Consul Rydings to Mr Graham, April 15 1932' in Papers Concerning Affairs in Liberia December 1930-May 1934 (Cmd 4614), British Parliamentary Papers, Session 1933-34, pp 14-31) and Ellis'n account, 'Study of ethnic and spiritual violence', pp 185-186, of raids on villages during the 1990s' CPE.
33. L Cliffe & R Luckham, 'Complex political emergencies and the state', p 8, Compare the account of the abuses of the Liberian army in the suppression of the Kru uprising in the early 1930s ('Report of Vice-Consul Rydings to Mr Graham, April 15 1932' in Papers Concerning Affairs in Liberia December 1930-May 1934 (Cmd 4614), British Parliamentary Papers, Session 1933-34, pp 14-31) and Ellis'n account, 'Study of ethnic and spiritual violence', pp 185-186, of raids on villages during the 1990s' CPE.
34. L Cliffe & R Luckham, 'Complex political emergencies and the state', p 8, Compare the account of the abuses of the Liberian army in the suppression of the Kru uprising in the early 1930s ('Report of Vice-Consul Rydings to Mr Graham, April 15 1932' in Papers Concerning Affairs in Liberia December 1930-May 1934 (Cmd 4614), British Parliamentary Papers, Session 1933-34, pp 14-31) and Ellis'n account, 'Study of ethnic and spiritual violence', pp 185-186, of raids on villages during the 1990s' CPE.
35. I owe this point to Cliffe & Luckham, 'Complex political emergencies and the state', p 7.
36. M Fraenkel, Tribe and Class in Monrovia, London; Oxford University Press for the International African Institute, 1964, pp 67-69; D Brown, 'On the category "civilized" in Liberia and elsewhere', Journal of Modern African Studies, 20(2), 1982, pp 287-303; and M Moron, Civilized Women: Gender and Prestige in Southeastern Liberia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990, pp 41-72.
37. M Fraenkel, Tribe and Class in Monrovia, London; Oxford University Press for the International African Institute, 1964, pp 67-69; D Brown, 'On the category "civilized" in Liberia and elsewhere', Journal of Modern African Studies, 20(2), 1982, pp 287-303; and M Moron, Civilized Women: Gender and Prestige in Southeastern Liberia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990, pp 41-72.
38. M Fraenkel, Tribe and Class in Monrovia, London; Oxford University Press for the International African Institute, 1964, pp 67-69; D Brown, 'On the category "civilized" in Liberia and elsewhere', Journal of Modern African Studies, 20(2), 1982, pp 287-303; and M Moron, Civilized Women: Gender and Prestige in Southeastern Liberia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990, pp 41-72.
39. Liebenow, Quest for Democracy, pp 63-67.
40. Eg Lowenkopf, Politics in Liberia.
41. Ibid, p 120; F Ehrenreich, 'National security' in H D Nelson (ed), Liberia: A Country Study. US Department of the Army, Washington, 1985, pp 247-287 at pp 260-262; and J D Kanden, 'What does the "militariat" do when it rules? Military regimes: the Gambia, Sierra Leone and Liberia', Review of African Political Economy, 69, 1996, pp 387-404.
42. Ibid, p 120; F Ehrenreich, 'National security' in H D Nelson (ed), Liberia: A Country Study. US Department of the Army, Washington, 1985, pp 247-287 at pp 260-262; and J D Kanden, 'What does the "militariat" do when it rules? Military regimes: the Gambia, Sierra Leone and Liberia', Review of African Political Economy, 69, 1996, pp 387-404.
43. Ibid, p 120; F Ehrenreich, 'National security' in H D Nelson (ed), Liberia: A Country Study. US Department of the Army, Washington, 1985, pp 247-287 at pp 260-262; and J D Kanden, 'What does the "militariat" do when it rules? Military regimes: the Gambia, Sierra Leone and Liberia', Review of African Political Economy, 69, 1996, pp 387-404.
44. Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Liberia: A Promise Betrayed: A Report on Human Rights, New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 1986, pp 21-25; Liebenow, Quest for Democracy, pp 263, 267-268; Africa Watch, Liberia: the Cycle of Abuse: Human Rights Violations since the November Cease-Fire, (October 1991), reprinted in Liberian Studies Journal, 17, 1992, pp 128-164 at note 7; Ellis, 'Study of ethnic and spiritual violence", p 179; and Kandeh. 'What does the "militariat" do?', p 394.
45. Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Liberia: A Promise Betrayed: A Report on Human Rights, New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 1986, pp 21-25; Liebenow, Quest for Democracy, pp 263, 267-268; Africa Watch, Liberia: the Cycle of Abuse: Human Rights Violations since the November Cease-Fire, (October 1991), reprinted in Liberian Studies Journal, 17, 1992, pp 128-164 at note 7; Ellis, 'Study of ethnic and spiritual violence", p 179; and Kandeh. 'What does the "militariat" do?', p 394.
46. Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Liberia: A Promise Betrayed: A Report on Human Rights, New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 1986, pp 21-25; Liebenow, Quest for Democracy, pp 263, 267-268; Africa Watch, Liberia: the Cycle of Abuse: Human Rights Violations since the November Cease-Fire, (October 1991), reprinted in Liberian Studies Journal, 17, 1992, pp 128-164 at note 7; Ellis, 'Study of ethnic and spiritual violence", p 179; and Kandeh. 'What does the "militariat" do?', p 394.
47. Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Liberia: A Promise Betrayed: A Report on Human Rights, New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 1986, pp 21-25; Liebenow, Quest for Democracy, pp 263, 267-268; Africa Watch, Liberia: the Cycle of Abuse: Human Rights Violations since the November Cease-Fire, (October 1991), reprinted in Liberian Studies Journal, 17, 1992, pp 128-164 at note 7; Ellis, 'Study of ethnic and spiritual violence", p 179; and Kandeh. 'What does the "militariat" do?', p 394.
48. Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Liberia: A Promise Betrayed: A Report on Human Rights, New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, 1986, pp 21-25; Liebenow, Quest for Democracy, pp 263, 267-268; Africa Watch, Liberia: the Cycle of Abuse: Human Rights Violations since the November Cease-Fire, (October 1991), reprinted in Liberian Studies Journal, 17, 1992, pp 128-164 at note 7; Ellis, 'Study of ethnic and spiritual violence", p 179; and Kandeh. 'What does the "militariat" do?', p 394.
49. Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, A Promise Betrayed, pp 22-25; and P Gifford, Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp 33-34.
50. Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, A Promise Betrayed, pp 22-25; and P Gifford, Christianity and Politics in Doe's Liberia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp 33-34.
51. Dunn, 'Liberia's Internal responses', pp 93-94.
52. The military and economic dynamics are discussed in Outram '"It's terminal" '; diplomatic aspects are considered in Outram, 'Lessons', pp 37-51.
53. I W Zartman, 'Introduction: posing the problem of state collapse' in Zartman, Collapsed States, p 8.
54. R H Jackson & C G Rosberg, 'Why Africa's weak states persist: the empirical and the juridical in statehood', World Politics, 35(1), 1982, pp 1-24.
55. US Department of State, 1990 Human Rights Reports, Washington, DC: Department of State, 1990, Extracts reprinted in Liberian Studies Journal, 16, 1991, pp 116-125; US Department of State, Liberia: Human Rights Practices, Washington, DC: Department of State. 1996 (online), available: gopher,//dos-fan.lib.uic.edu:70/... (28 September 1996); and UNICEF, The Situation Analysis of Children and Women in Liberia, Monrovia: United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, 1995.
56. US Department of State, 1990 Human Rights Reports, Washington, DC: Department of State, 1990, Extracts reprinted in Liberian Studies Journal, 16, 1991, pp 116-125; US Department of State, Liberia: Human Rights Practices, Washington, DC: Department of State. 1996 (online), available: gopher,//dos-fan.lib.uic.edu:70/... (28 September 1996); and UNICEF, The Situation Analysis of Children and Women in Liberia, Monrovia: United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, 1995.
57. US Department of State, 1990 Human Rights Reports, Washington, DC: Department of State, 1990, Extracts reprinted in Liberian Studies Journal, 16, 1991, pp 116-125; US Department of State, Liberia: Human Rights Practices, Washington, DC: Department of State. 1996 (online), available: gopher,//dos-fan.lib.uic.edu:70/... (28 September 1996); and UNICEF, The Situation Analysis of Children and Women in Liberia, Monrovia: United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, 1995.
58. W Reno, 'Reinvention of an African patrimonial state; Charles Taylor's Liberia', Third World Quarterly, 16(1), 1995, pp 109-120.
59. Abuja-II is detailed and discussed in Outram, "Lessons'; the electoral process is described in UN Secretary-General, Twenty-Fourth Progress Report by the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia, (S/1997/643), New York: United Nations, 1997 (online) available: http:// wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998); lull election results are provided by New African (London), Special Report, December 1997; Jimmy Carter's evaluation is in Jimmy Carter, Liberia Trip Report, Jul 16-21, 1997, Carter Center, 4 August 1997 (online), available: http://vwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998). For the NPFI. 'S human rights record, see Africa Watch, Liberia; A Human Rights Disaster.
60. Abuja-II is detailed and discussed in Outram, "Lessons'; the electoral process is described in UN Secretary-General, Twenty-Fourth Progress Report by the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia, (S/1997/643), New York: United Nations, 1997 (online) available: http:// wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998); lull election results are provided by New African (London), Special Report, December 1997; Jimmy Carter's evaluation is in Jimmy Carter, Liberia Trip Report, Jul 16-21, 1997, Carter Center, 4 August 1997 (online), available: http://vwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998). For the NPFI. 'S human rights record, see Africa Watch, Liberia; A Human Rights Disaster.
61. Abuja-II is detailed and discussed in Outram, "Lessons'; the electoral process is described in UN Secretary-General, Twenty-Fourth Progress Report by the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia, (S/1997/643), New York: United Nations, 1997 (online) available: http:// wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998); lull election results are provided by New African (London), Special Report, December 1997; Jimmy Carter's evaluation is in Jimmy Carter, Liberia Trip Report, Jul 16-21, 1997, Carter Center, 4 August 1997 (online), available: http://vwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998). For the NPFI. 'S human rights record, see Africa Watch, Liberia; A Human Rights Disaster.
62. Abuja-II is detailed and discussed in Outram, "Lessons'; the electoral process is described in UN Secretary-General, Twenty-Fourth Progress Report by the Secretary-General on the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia, (S/1997/643), New York: United Nations, 1997 (online) available: http:// wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998); lull election results are provided by New African (London), Special Report, December 1997; Jimmy Carter's evaluation is in Jimmy Carter, Liberia Trip Report, Jul 16-21, 1997, Carter Center, 4 August 1997 (online), available: http://vwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998). For the NPFI. 'S human rights record, see Africa Watch, Liberia; A Human Rights Disaster.
63. B Ankomah, ' "He killed my Ma, he killed my Pa, but I will vote for him..." ', New African, Special Report, December 1997, pp 10-11.
64. UN Secretary-General, Twenty-Fourth Progress Report; J Bully, 'Taylor's first 100 days', West Africa, (London), 24-30 November 1997, pp 1838-1839; J Butty, The task of economic rebuilding', West Africa, 24-30 November 1997, p 1839; B Ankomah, 'A tale of three currencies', New African, Special Report, December 1997, pp 15-17; and B Ankomah, 'Charles Taylor: "Liberians always knew who they wanted" ', New African, Special Report, 'December 1997, pp 6-9.
65. UN Secretary-General, Twenty-Fourth Progress Report; J Bully, 'Taylor's first 100 days', West Africa, (London), 24-30 November 1997, pp 1838-1839; J Butty, The task of economic rebuilding', West Africa, 24-30 November 1997, p 1839; B Ankomah, 'A tale of three currencies', New African, Special Report, December 1997, pp 15-17; and B Ankomah, 'Charles Taylor: "Liberians always knew who they wanted" ', New African, Special Report, 'December 1997, pp 6-9.
66. UN Secretary-General, Twenty-Fourth Progress Report; J Bully, 'Taylor's first 100 days', West Africa, (London), 24-30 November 1997, pp 1838-1839; J Butty, The task of economic rebuilding', West Africa, 24-30 November 1997, p 1839; B Ankomah, 'A tale of three currencies', New African, Special Report, December 1997, pp 15-17; and B Ankomah, 'Charles Taylor: "Liberians always knew who they wanted" ', New African, Special Report, 'December 1997, pp 6-9.
67. UN Secretary-General, Twenty-Fourth Progress Report; J Bully, 'Taylor's first 100 days', West Africa, (London), 24-30 November 1997, pp 1838-1839; J Butty, The task of economic rebuilding', West Africa, 24-30 November 1997, p 1839; B Ankomah, 'A tale of three currencies', New African, Special Report, December 1997, pp 15-17; and B Ankomah, 'Charles Taylor: "Liberians always knew who they wanted" ', New African, Special Report, 'December 1997, pp 6-9.
68. UN Secretary-General, Twenty-Fourth Progress Report; J Bully, 'Taylor's first 100 days', West Africa, (London), 24-30 November 1997, pp 1838-1839; J Butty, The task of economic rebuilding', West Africa, 24-30 November 1997, p 1839; B Ankomah, 'A tale of three currencies', New African, Special Report, December 1997, pp 15-17; and B Ankomah, 'Charles Taylor: "Liberians always knew who they wanted" ', New African, Special Report, 'December 1997, pp 6-9.
69. US Department of State, Liberia; Country Report on Human Rights Practices; for 1997, Washington, DC: Department of State, 30 January 1998 (online), available: http://www.state.gov/... (10 June 1998); and UNOCHA IRIN-WA, IRIN-WA Weekly Roundup of Main Events 45 in West Africa, Abidjan: UN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs Integrated Regional Information Network for West Africa, 24 April 1998 (online), available: http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (10 June 1998).
70. US Department of State, Liberia; Country Report on Human Rights Practices; for 1997, Washington, DC: Department of State, 30 January 1998 (online), available: http://www.state.gov/... (10 June 1998); and UNOCHA IRIN-WA, IRIN-WA Weekly Roundup of Main Events 45 in West Africa, Abidjan: UN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs Integrated Regional Information Network for West Africa, 24 April 1998 (online), available: http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (10 June 1998).
71. P Atkinson, 'Liberia', Relief and Rehabilitation Network Newsletter, 9, 1997, pp 27-28; and B Ankomah, 'Minerals: the gateway to prosperity', New African, Special Report. December 1997, p 21.
72. P Atkinson, 'Liberia', Relief and Rehabilitation Network Newsletter, 9, 1997, pp 27-28; and B Ankomah, 'Minerals: the gateway to prosperity', New African, Special Report. December 1997, p 21.
73. US Department of State, Liberia: Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1997.
74. Ibid.
75. IRIN-WA Weekly Roundup of Main Events 36, 41, 42 in West Africa, Abidjan: UNOCHA, 20 February, 27 March, 3 April 1908 (online), available: http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (10 June 1998).
76. Cliffe & Luckham, 'Complex political emergencies and the state', p 13; R Luckham, 'Democracy and the military: an epitaph for Frankenstein's monster?, Democratization, 3(2), 1996, pp 1-16, at p 11.
77. Cliffe & Luckham, 'Complex political emergencies and the state', p 13; R Luckham, 'Democracy and the military: an epitaph for Frankenstein's monster?, Democratization, 3(2), 1996, pp 1-16, at p 11.
78. UNDHA, United Nations Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal for Liberia: I January-31 December 1998, Geneva: United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs, 20 January 1998 (online), available: hup:// www.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998).
79. IRIN-WA Weekly Roundup, of Main Events 43 in West Africa, Abidjan: UNOCHA, 10 April 1998 (online), available: http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (10 June 1998); Atkinson, 'Liberia'; Human Rights Watch/ Africa, Liberia: Emerging from the Destruction, New York: Human Rights Watch/Africa, 1997, p 26; UNDHA, Liberia Humanitarian Situation Report No US, Monrovia: United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affaire, 17 September 1997 (online), available: http://www.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998); and US Department of State, Liberia Country Report on Human Right Practices for 1996, Washington, DC: Department of State, 1997 (online), available: http://www.usis.usemb.se/human/liberia.html (14 April 1998).
80. IRIN-WA Weekly Roundup, of Main Events 43 in West Africa, Abidjan: UNOCHA, 10 April 1998 (online), available: http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (10 June 1998); Atkinson, 'Liberia'; Human Rights Watch/ Africa, Liberia: Emerging from the Destruction, New York: Human Rights Watch/Africa, 1997, p 26; UNDHA, Liberia Humanitarian Situation Report No US, Monrovia: United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affaire, 17 September 1997 (online), available: http://www.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998); and US Department of State, Liberia Country Report on Human Right Practices for 1996, Washington, DC: Department of State, 1997 (online), available: http://www.usis.usemb.se/human/liberia.html (14 April 1998).
81. IRIN-WA Weekly Roundup, of Main Events 43 in West Africa, Abidjan: UNOCHA, 10 April 1998 (online), available: http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (10 June 1998); Atkinson, 'Liberia'; Human Rights Watch/ Africa, Liberia: Emerging from the Destruction, New York: Human Rights Watch/Africa, 1997, p 26; UNDHA, Liberia Humanitarian Situation Report No US, Monrovia: United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affaire, 17 September 1997 (online), available: http://www.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998); and US Department of State, Liberia Country Report on Human Right Practices for 1996, Washington, DC: Department of State, 1997 (online), available: http://www.usis.usemb.se/human/liberia.html (14 April 1998).
82. IRIN-WA Weekly Roundup, of Main Events 43 in West Africa, Abidjan: UNOCHA, 10 April 1998 (online), available: http://wwwnotes.reliefweb.int/... (10 June 1998); Atkinson, 'Liberia'; Human Rights Watch/ Africa, Liberia: Emerging from the Destruction, New York: Human Rights Watch/Africa, 1997, p 26; UNDHA, Liberia Humanitarian Situation Report No US, Monrovia: United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affaire, 17 September 1997 (online), available: http://www.reliefweb.int/... (22 January 1998); and US Department of State, Liberia Country Report on Human Right Practices for 1996, Washington, DC: Department of State, 1997 (online), available: http://www.usis.usemb.se/human/liberia.html (14 April 1998).