Land reform, growth and equity: Emerging evidence from Zimbabwe's resettlement programme

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 173-196

  Kinsey, Bill H ^a,b  

^a VU UNIVERSITY AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE   (Zimbabwe)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

LAND REFORM; POVERTY ALLEVIATION; RESETTLEMENT POLICY;

ZIMBABWE;

EID: 0032870653     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/030570799108650     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. S. Moyo, The Land Question in Zimbabwe (Harare, SAPES Books, 1995), p. 3.
2. This evidence is summarised in Carl K. Eicher, 'Zimbabwe's Green Revolution: Preconditions For Replication in Africa' (Department of Agricultural Economics Staff Paper No. 94-1, East Lansing, Michigan, Michigan State University, 1994).
3. Beneficiaries of land reform in Zimbabwe do not receive land outright but rather occupy and utilise it on the basis of a series of permits.
4. Robin Palmer, 'Mugabe's Land Grab in Regional Perspective' (paper presented at the Conference on 'Land Reform in Zimbabwe - The Way Forward', Centre of African Studies, University of London at School of Oriental and African Studies, 11 March 1998), p. 1.
5. It is in many ways curious that in Zimbabwe land reform is still perceived narrowly as resettlement, even after widespread discussion of the recommendations of the 1994 Land Tenure Commission. Sec Zimbabwe, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Appropriate Agricultural Land Tenure Systems: Vol. 1: Main Report: Vol. 2: Technical Reports; Vol. 3: Methods, Procedures, Itinerary and Appendices (Harare, 1994). Arguably a more genuinely reformist approach could embrace land redistribution as one among many economic and social objectives and achieve it without the negative externalities generated by the focus on resettlement.
6. See E. Colson, The Social Consequences of Resettlement (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1971); M. Nelson, The Development of Tropical Lands: Policy Issues in Latin America (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); T. Scudder, 'The Human Ecology of Big Projects: River Basin Development and Resettlement', in B. Siegel (ed), Annual Review of Anthropology (Palo Alto, Annual Reviews Inc. 1973.), pp. 45-55.; T. Scudder, 'Resettlement', in N. F. Stanley and M. P. Alpers (eds), Man-made Lakes and Human Health (London, Academic Press, 1975); B.H Kinsey and H. P. Binswanger, 'Characteristics and Performance of Agricultural Resettlement Programmes', in J. van Zyl, J. Kirsten and H. Binswangcr (eds), Policies, Markets and Mechanisms for Land Reform in South Africa (Cape Town, Oxford University Press, 1996).
7. See E. Colson, The Social Consequences of Resettlement (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1971); M. Nelson, The Development of Tropical Lands: Policy Issues in Latin America (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); T. Scudder, 'The Human Ecology of Big Projects: River Basin Development and Resettlement', in B. Siegel (ed), Annual Review of Anthropology (Palo Alto, Annual Reviews Inc. 1973.), pp. 45-55.; T. Scudder, 'Resettlement', in N. F. Stanley and M. P. Alpers (eds), Man-made Lakes and Human Health (London, Academic Press, 1975); B.H Kinsey and H. P. Binswanger, 'Characteristics and Performance of Agricultural Resettlement Programmes', in J. van Zyl, J. Kirsten and H. Binswangcr (eds), Policies, Markets and Mechanisms for Land Reform in South Africa (Cape Town, Oxford University Press, 1996).
8. See E. Colson, The Social Consequences of Resettlement (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1971); M. Nelson, The Development of Tropical Lands: Policy Issues in Latin America (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); T. Scudder, 'The Human Ecology of Big Projects: River Basin Development and Resettlement', in B. Siegel (ed), Annual Review of Anthropology (Palo Alto, Annual Reviews Inc. 1973.), pp. 45-55.; T. Scudder, 'Resettlement', in N. F. Stanley and M. P. Alpers (eds), Man-made Lakes and Human Health (London, Academic Press, 1975); B.H Kinsey and H. P. Binswanger, 'Characteristics and Performance of Agricultural Resettlement Programmes', in J. van Zyl, J. Kirsten and H. Binswangcr (eds), Policies, Markets and Mechanisms for Land Reform in South Africa (Cape Town, Oxford University Press, 1996).
9. See E. Colson, The Social Consequences of Resettlement (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1971); M. Nelson, The Development of Tropical Lands: Policy Issues in Latin America (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); T. Scudder, 'The Human Ecology of Big Projects: River Basin Development and Resettlement', in B. Siegel (ed), Annual Review of Anthropology (Palo Alto, Annual Reviews Inc. 1973.), pp. 45-55.; T. Scudder, 'Resettlement', in N. F. Stanley and M. P. Alpers (eds), Man-made Lakes and Human Health (London, Academic Press, 1975); B.H Kinsey and H. P. Binswanger, 'Characteristics and Performance of Agricultural Resettlement Programmes', in J. van Zyl, J. Kirsten and H. Binswangcr (eds), Policies, Markets and Mechanisms for Land Reform in South Africa (Cape Town, Oxford University Press, 1996).
10. See E. Colson, The Social Consequences of Resettlement (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1971); M. Nelson, The Development of Tropical Lands: Policy Issues in Latin America (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973); T. Scudder, 'The Human Ecology of Big Projects: River Basin Development and Resettlement', in B. Siegel (ed), Annual Review of Anthropology (Palo Alto, Annual Reviews Inc. 1973.), pp. 45-55.; T. Scudder, 'Resettlement', in N. F. Stanley and M. P. Alpers (eds), Man-made Lakes and Human Health (London, Academic Press, 1975); B.H Kinsey and H. P. Binswanger, 'Characteristics and Performance of Agricultural Resettlement Programmes', in J. van Zyl, J. Kirsten and H. Binswangcr (eds), Policies, Markets and Mechanisms for Land Reform in South Africa (Cape Town, Oxford University Press, 1996).
11. Another obvious example is Britain's long involvement with the land transfer programme in Kenya. Sec Gerald Holtham and Arthur Hazlewood, Aid and Inequality in Kenya (London, Croom Helm, in association with the Overseas Development Institute, 1976).
12. This long period to maturity notwithstanding, the 1988 evaluation carried out by the then Overseas Development Administration reported that the programme had made impressive strides towards achieving its short-term objectives of contributing to post-war reconstruction and stability and calculated that, even at that time, the programme had an economic rate of return of some 21 per cent. Sec John Cusworth and Judy Walker, 'Land Resettlement in Zimbabwe' (London,Overseas Development Administration, ODA Evaluation Report EV 434, 1988).
13. Zimbabwe, Policy Paper on Land Redistribution and Resettlement in Zimbabwe (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1996).
14. See, for example, Kofi Akwabi-Ameyaw, 'The Political Economy of Agricultural Resettlement and Rural Development in Zimbabwe: the Performance of Family Farms and Producer Cooperatives', Human Organization, 49, 4 (1990), pp. 320-338, and 'Producer Cooperative Resettlement Projects in Zimbabwe: Lessons From a Failed Agricultural Development Strategy', World Development, 25, 3 (1997), pp. 437-56; C. Mumbengegwi, 'Agricultural Producer Cooperatives and Agrarian Transformation in Zimbabwe: Policy, Strategy and Implementation', Zimbabwe Journal of Economics, 1 (1984), pp. 47-75; Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project (Special Report) of the Comptroller and Auditor-General on the Land Acquisition and Resettlement Programme (Harare, Office of the Comptroller and Auditor-General, 1993).
15. See, for example, Kofi Akwabi-Ameyaw, 'The Political Economy of Agricultural Resettlement and Rural Development in Zimbabwe: the Performance of Family Farms and Producer Cooperatives', Human Organization, 49, 4 (1990), pp. 320-338, and 'Producer Cooperative Resettlement Projects in Zimbabwe: Lessons From a Failed Agricultural Development Strategy', World Development, 25, 3 (1997), pp. 437-56; C. Mumbengegwi, 'Agricultural Producer Cooperatives and Agrarian Transformation in Zimbabwe: Policy, Strategy and Implementation', Zimbabwe Journal of Economics, 1 (1984), pp. 47-75; Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project (Special Report) of the Comptroller and Auditor-General on the Land Acquisition and Resettlement Programme (Harare, Office of the Comptroller and Auditor-General, 1993).
16. See, for example, Kofi Akwabi-Ameyaw, 'The Political Economy of Agricultural Resettlement and Rural Development in Zimbabwe: the Performance of Family Farms and Producer Cooperatives', Human Organization, 49, 4 (1990), pp. 320-338, and 'Producer Cooperative Resettlement Projects in Zimbabwe: Lessons From a Failed Agricultural Development Strategy', World Development, 25, 3 (1997), pp. 437-56; C. Mumbengegwi, 'Agricultural Producer Cooperatives and Agrarian Transformation in Zimbabwe: Policy, Strategy and Implementation', Zimbabwe Journal of Economics, 1 (1984), pp. 47-75; Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project (Special Report) of the Comptroller and Auditor-General on the Land Acquisition and Resettlement Programme (Harare, Office of the Comptroller and Auditor-General, 1993).
17. See, for example, Kofi Akwabi-Ameyaw, 'The Political Economy of Agricultural Resettlement and Rural Development in Zimbabwe: the Performance of Family Farms and Producer Cooperatives', Human Organization, 49, 4 (1990), pp. 320-338, and 'Producer Cooperative Resettlement Projects in Zimbabwe: Lessons From a Failed Agricultural Development Strategy', World Development, 25, 3 (1997), pp. 437-56; C. Mumbengegwi, 'Agricultural Producer Cooperatives and Agrarian Transformation in Zimbabwe: Policy, Strategy and Implementation', Zimbabwe Journal of Economics, 1 (1984), pp. 47-75; Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project (Special Report) of the Comptroller and Auditor-General on the Land Acquisition and Resettlement Programme (Harare, Office of the Comptroller and Auditor-General, 1993).
18. Jocelyn Alexander, 'The Unsettled Land: the Politics of Land Redistribution in Matabeleland, 1980-1990', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 4 (1991), pp. 581-610; S. Robins, 'Contesting the Social Geometry of State Power: a Case Study of Land-Use Planning in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe', Social Dynamics, XX, ii (1994).
19. Jocelyn Alexander, 'The Unsettled Land: the Politics of Land Redistribution in Matabeleland, 1980-1990', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17, 4 (1991), pp. 581-610; S. Robins, 'Contesting the Social Geometry of State Power: a Case Study of Land-Use Planning in Matabeleland, Zimbabwe', Social Dynamics, XX, ii (1994).
20. Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project.
21. The exception is the important report commissioned by British ODA in the 1980s which presents a more balanced overview by combining micro-level data with programmatic information. See Cusworth and Walker, 'Land Resettlement in Zimbabwe'. The more typical evaluations are illustrated by Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project', Zimbabwe, Review of the Land Resettlement Programme, 1980-1995 (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, District Development Fund, 1995); and Zimbabwe, Memorandum to Cabinet on Resettlement (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1996).
22. The exception is the important report commissioned by British ODA in the 1980s which presents a more balanced overview by combining micro-level data with programmatic information. See Cusworth and Walker, 'Land Resettlement in Zimbabwe'. The more typical evaluations are illustrated by Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project', Zimbabwe, Review of the Land Resettlement Programme, 1980-1995 (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, District Development Fund, 1995); and Zimbabwe, Memorandum to Cabinet on Resettlement (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1996).
23. The exception is the important report commissioned by British ODA in the 1980s which presents a more balanced overview by combining micro-level data with programmatic information. See Cusworth and Walker, 'Land Resettlement in Zimbabwe'. The more typical evaluations are illustrated by Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project', Zimbabwe, Review of the Land Resettlement Programme, 1980-1995 (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, District Development Fund, 1995); and Zimbabwe, Memorandum to Cabinet on Resettlement (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1996).
24. The evaluations which come closest to deserving to be called comprehensive are those by Cusworth and Walker, 'Land Resettlement in Zimbabwe' and the much less well-known ones by K. Nyamapfene, A. Chinhori and J.C. Murombcdzi, Socio-Economic Evaluation of The Resettlement Programme (Harare, Food and Agriculture Organization for the Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1990) and S.G. Mhishi, 'A Critical Analysis of the Resettlement Programme', in Resettlement Programme in Zimbabwe: Options for the Future (Harare, Zimbabwe Farmers' Union and Friedrich Ebert Foundation, 1995), pp. 4-13.
25. The evaluations which come closest to deserving to be called comprehensive are those by Cusworth and Walker, 'Land Resettlement in Zimbabwe' and the much less well-known ones by K. Nyamapfene, A. Chinhori and J.C. Murombcdzi, Socio-Economic Evaluation of The Resettlement Programme (Harare, Food and Agriculture Organization for the Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1990) and S.G. Mhishi, 'A Critical Analysis of the Resettlement Programme', in Resettlement Programme in Zimbabwe: Options for the Future (Harare, Zimbabwe Farmers' Union and Friedrich Ebert Foundation, 1995), pp. 4-13.
26. The evaluations which come closest to deserving to be called comprehensive are those by Cusworth and Walker, 'Land Resettlement in Zimbabwe' and the much less well-known ones by K. Nyamapfene, A. Chinhori and J.C. Murombcdzi, Socio-Economic Evaluation of The Resettlement Programme (Harare, Food and Agriculture Organization for the Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1990) and S.G. Mhishi, 'A Critical Analysis of the Resettlement Programme', in Resettlement Programme in Zimbabwe: Options for the Future (Harare, Zimbabwe Farmers' Union and Friedrich Ebert Foundation, 1995), pp. 4-13.
27. Zimbabwe, Resettlement Policies and Procedures (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Resettlement and Rural Development, 1980).
28. Other areas which analysis has addressed or is addressing include: productivity, asset accumulation, diversification, consumption smoothing, welfare indicators (chiefly health and child nutrition), the relative effectiveness of relief and development assistance, evidence of structural adjustment impacts, gender dimensions, role of government services, and access to and use of resources.
29. G.S.T. Magadzire, 'Future expectations of the resettlement programme', in Resettlement Programme in Zimbabwe: Options for the Future, pp. 15-17.
30. Malawi, Namibia and Zambia have also had resettlement programmes, but they have been relatively small and for none of them are national-level data available. For a comparison with Kenya's post-independence resettlement programme see B. II. Kinscy, 'Emerging Policy Issues in Zimbabwe's Land Resettlement Programmes', Development Policy Review, 1, 2 (1983).
31. Zimbabwe, Policy Paper on Land Redistribution and Resettlement in Zimbabwe (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1996).
32. Ibid., This target was revised around the mid-1990s.
33. The Herald, 12 October 1997; 20 September 1997.
34. Zimbabwe Standard, 13-19 July 1997.
35. International Herald Tribune, 25-26 October 1997.
36. Hevina S. Dashwood, 'The Relevance of Class to the Evolution of Zimbabwe's Development Strategy, 1980-1991', Journal of Southern African Studies, 22, 1 (1996), p. 47,
37. D. Weiner, S. Moyo, B. Munslow and P. O'Keefe, 'Land Use and Agricultural Productivity in Zimbabwe', in N.D. Mutizwa-Mangiza and A.H.J. Helmsing (eds), Rural Development and Planning in Zimbabwe (Aldershot, Avebury/Gower, 1991), p. 174.
38. The recent government policy paper characterises the 'large-scale commercial farm resettlement programme' in terms of six specific objectives, only one of which - 'to improve the racial balance in ... commercial farming' - differentiates white- from black-operated farms. See Zimbabwe, Policy Paper on Land Redistribution and Resettlement in Zimbabwe (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1996), p. 30.
39. Cusworth and Walker, 'Land Resettlement in Zimbabwe'.
40. The Commission of Inquiry into the Agricultural Industry noted that, given Zimbabwe's demographics, resettlement would make no impact on population pressures on land in communal areas. Sec Zimbabwe, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Agricultural Industry [The Chavunduka Commission] (Harare, Government Printer, 1982). The Riddell Commission, although not charged with examining the resettlement programme, had a profound influence on it because its report provided the crude estimates upon which the ninefold expansion of resettlement targets was based. Sec Zimbabwe, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Incomes, Prices and Conditions of Service [The Riddell Commission] (Harare, Government Printer, 1981). Subsequently, efforts were also introduced to address patterns of land use through 'agrarian reform' and 'reorganisation' in communal areas.
41. The Commission of Inquiry into the Agricultural Industry noted that, given Zimbabwe's demographics, resettlement would make no impact on population pressures on land in communal areas. Sec Zimbabwe, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Agricultural Industry [The Chavunduka Commission] (Harare, Government Printer, 1982). The Riddell Commission, although not charged with examining the resettlement programme, had a profound influence on it because its report provided the crude estimates upon which the ninefold expansion of resettlement targets was based. Sec Zimbabwe, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Incomes, Prices and Conditions of Service [The Riddell Commission] (Harare, Government Printer, 1981). Subsequently, efforts were also introduced to address patterns of land use through 'agrarian reform' and 'reorganisation' in communal areas.
42. This figure was revised to 8.3 million hectares in the 1990 land policy document. See Zimbabwe, The National Land Policy (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement, 1990).
43. Zimbabwe, Transitional National Development Plan, 1982/83 - 1984/85 (Harare, Government Printer, 1982).
44. Zimbabwe, Policy Paper on Land Redistribution and Resettlement in Zimbabwe, p. 3.
45. The evidence for this assertion is that in April 1996 some 67,000 families had already been resettled while another 79,000 had registered to be resettled. See Zimbabwe, Memorandum to Cabinet on Resettlement (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1996). The number wishing to be resettled undoubtedly exceeds the number who have registered.
46. Allison Goebel, 'Process, Participation and Power: Notes from "Participatory" Research in a Zimbabwean Resettlement Area', Development and Change (1998).
47. Zimbabwe, Review of the Land Resettlement Programme. 1980-1995 (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, District Development Fund, 1995), p. 2.
48. Zimbabwe, First Five-year National Development Plan, 1986-1990 (Harare, Government Printer 1986b, and Zimbabwe, Second Five-year National Development Plan, 1991-1995 (Harare, Government Printer, 1991).
49. Zimbabwe, First Five-year National Development Plan, 1986-1990 (Harare, Government Printer 1986b, and Zimbabwe, Second Five-year National Development Plan, 1991-1995 (Harare, Government Printer, 1991).
50. Zimbabwe, The National Land Policy.
51. Zimbabwe, Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Appropriate Agricultural Land Tenure Systems.
52. Zimbabwe, Policy Paper on Land Redistribution and Resettlement in Zimbabwe.
53. Zimbabwe, Policies and Procedures: Resettlement and the Organisation of Communal Land (Harare, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development, 1992).
54. The first such survey appeared four years after implementation began. See Zimbabwe, Report on Results of the First National Survey of the Normal Intensive Resettlement Programmes (Harare, Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Development, 1984). The first 'annual' survey of resettled households appeared in 1986; see Zimbabwe, First Annual Survey of Settler Households in Normal Intensive Model A Resettlement Schemes (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement, 1986). The second 'annual' survey only became available six years later; see Zimbabwe, Second Report of Settler Households in Normal Intensive Model A Resettlement Schemes (Socio-Economic Survey 1988/89 and 1989/90): Main Report (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement. 1992). The first broad-brush evaluation of the less numerous Model B schemes appeared only twelve years after they were first launched; see Zimbabwe, Evaluation of the Model B Resettlement Schemes (Harare, Ministry of Community and Cooperative Development, 1992).
55. The first such survey appeared four years after implementation began. See Zimbabwe, Report on Results of the First National Survey of the Normal Intensive Resettlement Programmes (Harare, Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Development, 1984). The first 'annual' survey of resettled households appeared in 1986; see Zimbabwe, First Annual Survey of Settler Households in Normal Intensive Model A Resettlement Schemes (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement, 1986). The second 'annual' survey only became available six years later; see Zimbabwe, Second Report of Settler Households in Normal Intensive Model A Resettlement Schemes (Socio-Economic Survey 1988/89 and 1989/90): Main Report (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement. 1992). The first broad-brush evaluation of the less numerous Model B schemes appeared only twelve years after they were first launched; see Zimbabwe, Evaluation of the Model B Resettlement Schemes (Harare, Ministry of Community and Cooperative Development, 1992).
56. The first such survey appeared four years after implementation began. See Zimbabwe, Report on Results of the First National Survey of the Normal Intensive Resettlement Programmes (Harare, Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Development, 1984). The first 'annual' survey of resettled households appeared in 1986; see Zimbabwe, First Annual Survey of Settler Households in Normal Intensive Model A Resettlement Schemes (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement, 1986). The second 'annual' survey only became available six years later; see Zimbabwe, Second Report of Settler Households in Normal Intensive Model A Resettlement Schemes (Socio-Economic Survey 1988/89 and 1989/90): Main Report (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement. 1992). The first broad-brush evaluation of the less numerous Model B schemes appeared only twelve years after they were first launched; see Zimbabwe, Evaluation of the Model B Resettlement Schemes (Harare, Ministry of Community and Cooperative Development, 1992).
57. The first such survey appeared four years after implementation began. See Zimbabwe, Report on Results of the First National Survey of the Normal Intensive Resettlement Programmes (Harare, Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Development, 1984). The first 'annual' survey of resettled households appeared in 1986; see Zimbabwe, First Annual Survey of Settler Households in Normal Intensive Model A Resettlement Schemes (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement, 1986). The second 'annual' survey only became available six years later; see Zimbabwe, Second Report of Settler Households in Normal Intensive Model A Resettlement Schemes (Socio-Economic Survey 1988/89 and 1989/90): Main Report (Harare, Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement. 1992). The first broad-brush evaluation of the less numerous Model B schemes appeared only twelve years after they were first launched; see Zimbabwe, Evaluation of the Model B Resettlement Schemes (Harare, Ministry of Community and Cooperative Development, 1992).
58. The villages cannot be described as nucleated since most planned village layouts provide no central place or public space, and residential plots arc commonly laid out along ridge lines or access roads and tracks. The physical layouts devised by the planning teams in the different provinces do however often differ dramatically from one another.
59. Zimbabwe, Review of the Land Resettlement Programme, 1980-1995.
60. The severe contraction of the labour market that has accompanied structural adjustment means attractive jobs outside agriculture are now much harder to find and this may have contributed to this low take-up of the migrancy option.
61. The official government critique of the programme is best spelled out in Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project, while S. Moyo, The Land Question in Zimbabwe and C. Masilela and D. Weiner, 'Resettlement Planning in Zimbabwe and South Africa's Rural Land Reform Discourse', Third World Planning Review, 18, 1 (1996), pp. 23-43, provide useful overall commentaries on the various perspectives that have labelled the programme a failure.
62. The official government critique of the programme is best spelled out in Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project, while S. Moyo, The Land Question in Zimbabwe and C. Masilela and D. Weiner, 'Resettlement Planning in Zimbabwe and South Africa's Rural Land Reform Discourse', Third World Planning Review, 18, 1 (1996), pp. 23-43, provide useful overall commentaries on the various perspectives that have labelled the programme a failure.
63. The official government critique of the programme is best spelled out in Zimbabwe, Value for Money Project, while S. Moyo, The Land Question in Zimbabwe and C. Masilela and D. Weiner, 'Resettlement Planning in Zimbabwe and South Africa's Rural Land Reform Discourse', Third World Planning Review, 18, 1 (1996), pp. 23-43, provide useful overall commentaries on the various perspectives that have labelled the programme a failure.
64. D.H. Kinsey, K. Burger and J.W. Gunning, 'Coping with Drought in Zimbabwe: Survey Evidence on Responses of Rural Households to Risk', World Development, 26, 1 (1998).
65. The research design called for inclusion of a scheme in NRV as well, but one of the many 'security incidents' in Matabeleland in 1983 resulted in the destruction of the institution with which the research was going to collaborate.
66. The actual number of households surveyed in any given year ranges from about 385 to 430, depending upon resources available and the research theme for a particular year. Just over half the panel households reside in Mupfurudzi, about a quarter in Sengezi and a fifth in Mutanda.
67. It is not known to what extent the stated criteria were applied, although, as noted earlier, according to the government's Review of the Land Resettlement Programme, 1980-1995, over 80 per cent of settlers in the initial phase could be considered needy people. There was queue-jumping by squatters in some cases, but there is no indication that squatters were more wealthy than others. It is known that restrictions on off-farm employment were enforced in at least some instances, and a few evictions took place for violations of the regulations. Although resettled families were meant to relinquish land in the communal areas from which they came, many retained a claim to former plots by leaving behind a relative to cultivate them. In 1998, the sons of many resettled families were returning to the communal areas in search of land of their own.
68. The 1995/1996 season experienced, on a national basis, rainfall 40 mm above the long-term average of 660 mm, thus making it one of the few seasons with average or above rainfall in the seventeen years since independence.
69. This statistical measure of variation within a data set is calculated by the standard deviation divided by the mean and expressed in percentage terms.
70. In comparison, Hicks, using data from the 1995 World Development Report, calculates a Gini coefficient for income distribution for Zimbabwe as a whole of 0.54. Hicks also calculates a distributive inequality measure for education in Zimbabwe of 0.32. See Douglas A. Hicks, 'The Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index: a Constructive Proposal', World Development, 25, 8 (1997), pp. 1283-1298.
71. The panel data have also shown clearly that livestock sales are very much more important in a drought year than in a more normal year; see Kinsey, Burger and Gunning, 'Coping with Drought in Zimbabwe'. After the good rains of 1996, farmers were rebuilding their herds again in 1997, and this is the main reason why the sales of cattle, shown in Table 3, were so low.
72. Paul Glewwe, 'The Distribution of Welfare in the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire in 1985' (Washington, World Bank, LSMS Working Paper 29, 1987).
73. Ibid.
74. Table 8 reports on all children aged under seven who were at home on the day of the visit. Most anthropometric work uses a cut-off point of five years for ages, although, in contrast with the 1988 DHS, the 1994 Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey used three years. In the panel study, the research team attempts to track children as long as possible up to the age of seven.
75. B.H. Kinsey, 'Dancing with E1 Nin̄o: Drought, the State and the Nutritional Welfare of Rural Children in Zimbabwe', in Helen O'Neill and John Toye (eds), A World without Famine? New Approaches to Aid and Development (London, Macmillan, 1997).
76. Ibid.
77. Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey 1988 (Harare, Central Statistical Office, 1989) and Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey 1994 (Harare, Central Statistical Office, 1995).
78. Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey 1988 (Harare, Central Statistical Office, 1989) and Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey 1994 (Harare, Central Statistical Office, 1995).
79. Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey 1988, p. 96.
80. Kinscy, 'Dancing with E1 Nin̄o'.
81. BMI is defined as weight divided by the square of height.
82. P. S. Shctty and W. P. T. James, Body Mass Index: a Measure of Chronic Energy Deficiency in Adults (Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization, FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 56, 1994).
83. As part of the continuing analysis of the data, a set of growth models is being employed to investigate the economic trajectories of the resettled households over time. In many respects, these models are analogous to the model economists commonly apply to countries. Each household starts from an initial state with an identified endowment of labour and physical and human capital and achieves a quantified income in the terminal state. Performance is being assessed for the full period of time covered by the panel data as well as two distinct sub-periods: (i) the early 1980s to the early 1990s, pre-dating structural adjustment and a period when off-farm employment was formally prohibited, and (ii) the period since 1992. Analysis is also concentrating on the consequences of drought on income growth.
84. Kinsey, Burger and Gunning, 'Coping with Drought in Zimbabwe'.